r 



MANUAL 



OF 



CLASSICAL LITERATURE. 



MANUAL 



OF 



CLASSICAL LITERATURE. 



FROM THE GERMAN OF 

j. j/eschejvburg, 

PROFESSOR IN THE CAROLINUM, AT BRUNSWICK: 



WITH ADDITIONS. 



BY 



N. W. FISKE, 



Professor of the Latin and Greek Languages in Amherst College. 



PHILADELPHIA : 
KEY AND BIDDLE, 23, MINOR STREET. 
1836. 



s o°' 



^ $>, 



\<*° 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight hundred 
and thirty-six, by Key & Biddle, in the Clerk's office of the District Court 
for the Eastern district of Pennsylvania. 



z?#9 



Amherst, 

J. S.andC. ADAM9, 

Printers. 






PREFACE BY THE TRANSLATOR. 

1. It will be natural to ask, why this book is offered lo the public. The 
translator knows not how to introduce the reasons, in a better way, than by 
first allowing the author himself to explain the design and character of the orig- 
inal work. For this purpose, the reader is requested to peruse the following ex- 
tracts from the Prefaces of Eschenburg. 

From the Preface to the Fifth Edition. — Twenty-seven years ago I was induc- 
ed to commence a revision and enlargement of that portion of Hederick's Intro- 
duction to the Historical Sciences, which treats of Classical Literature, Mytholo- 
gy and Roman Antiquities. In doing this I expected to aid an esteemed friend, 
who had been requested by the booksellers to prepare an improved edition of the 
whole work. But what determined me to the attempt was a conviction, that it 
was undertaking a work of very useful tendency, and a hope, that by it a want, 
long felt in elementary instruction, might be supplied. Other duties hindered the 
seasonable accomplishment of this purpose; and I was led to enlarge the original 

Elan, so as to include the Grecian Antiquities, and what is embraced under the 
ead of Archaeology of Literature and Art. Thus is formed a complete Manual, 
furnishing the most essential aids in reading the classical authors, and with suffi- 
cient fullness for all elementary purposes. My work so designed has, therefore, 
now scarcely a trace in it of the treatise of Hederick. 

My aim, in this work, was to furnish both Learners and Teachers with a book, 
which might at the same time serve as a general introduction to the reading of 
Classical authors, and likewise afford further and constant help in understanding 
and explaining them. It surely is unnecessary to prove, that a knowledge of 
Greek and Roman Mythology and Antiquities, and some acquaintance with the 
Archaeology of Literature and Art, and also with the general History and Criti- 
■cism of the Ancient Authors, are not only useful, but absolutely indispensable, in 
the pursuit of Classical study. And it appears to me, that it must greatly facili- 
tate the acquisition of this knowledge, to have the whole range of it brought into 
one collected system, as it is in this work, and all digested with one common end 
in view, and reduced as far as possible to one uniform method, with a careful se- 
lection of what is most essential, and omission of what is comparatively unim- 
portant, and a constant reference to its appropriate use. The Teacher will find 
presented to him throughout the work occasions and hints for further illustrati- 
ons and additions ; while the Learner has in the book itself what is of indispensa- 
ble importance, and in such a form, that he may easily re-peruse and review it. 

The Archaology of Literature and Art had never, previously to the attempt in 
this work, been exhibited in a form adapted for general instruction. Yet some 
such acquaintance with the subject as this work may furnish, is of the highest 
importance to the scholar. It may be expected, that the glance, which he will 
here obtain of the rich monuments of antiquity, will lead him to seek the plea- 
sure of a more complete and full knowledge, especially of Grecian art. And 
certainly the Classical teacher needs to be in some degree familiar with the ob- 
jects presented in this field of study, in order to do justice to his pupils. — The 
View of the Classical Authors was necessarily confined within brief limits. I pre- 
ferred to arrange them in Departments, instead of following purely chronologi- 
cal order, because I could thereby more conveniently introduce the brief remarks 
I wished to offer respecting the form, which each Department of writing assum- 
ed among the Greeks and Romans. In giving the editions of the classics, and the 
works helping to illustrate them, I confined myself chiefly to such as are most 
suitable for scholars, and best calculated in my view for their advancement. In 
describing the authors, only a short and condensed summary could be given, not 



F 



IV PREFACE. 

including a complete enumeration of their works, but merely naming the most 
impoi tant. — The sketch of Greek and Roman Mythology is that, which I first drew 
up for list- in my own lectures, and which has been separately printed. Here I 
have endeavored to separate the circumstances most important for the scholar's 
notice from those of minor consequence; introducing the historical or tradition- 
ary pari of the fables, without saying much of the theories and. speculations em- 
ployed in solving them; yet presenting hints at explanations, which may be wor- 
thy of the S( holar's notice. The references to the Metamorphoses of Ovid are 
added, because I deem it highly useful to connect a reading of these with the 
study of mythology. — A new system of Greek and Roman Antiquities might seem, 
at first view, less needed than the other parts of this work, since there are other 
systems and compends easily accessible, especially of Roman Antiquities. But 
it was necessary to the completeness of the Manual to include these branches. 
Nor was this all : I hoped here, as in the rest of my work, to furnish something 
especially valuable on account of its embracing all that is most essential to the 
subject, with the exclusion of extraneous and unimportant matter. 

Since the last edition of this Manual, there have appeared some performances 
of a similar kind, in which I thankfully find evidence of the utility of my own 
work, and am ready to acknowledge their excellence in some particulars. These 
works might perhaps render a new impression of mine superfluous; but the very 
frequent call for the Manual, the urgent request of the book-sellers, and the ap- 
prehension now awakened of a second counterfeit emission of the work, have 
ersuaded me to prepare this fifth edition. In the emendations and improvements 

have been guided by the same considerations, which controlled me in the pre- 
ceding editions. In the additions in the part treating of the classic authors I have 
received very friendly assistance from Professor Scheppler, of this place. 

Brunswick, Dec. 7, 1807. 

From the Preface to the 6lh Edition. — In a former preface, the occasion, design 
and plan of this Manual have been stated. In each successive edition I have en- 
deavored to make useful improvements ; but have throughout adhered to the 
original design, and confined myself, of course, to substantially the same limits. 
Although much progress has been made in classical studies in Germany during 
the last thirty years, and there are now several books of great merit, which may 
serve as guides and introductions to such studies, yet the demand for another 
impression of this Manual has compelled me again to take it in hand and to 
perform the renewed labor of revision. In this labor I must again gratefully 
mention the assistance kindly rendered me by Professor Scheppler. 

Brunswick, May, 1816. 

The 6th edition was the last published during the life of the author. But the 
work has been printed once or twice since his death. The following is taken 
from the Remarks prefixed to the seventh edition. — The continued acknowledge- 
ment of the great excellence of this Manual of Classical Literature, which is 
proved by the constant demand for the book, renders it unnecessary to say much 
by way of preface to a new edition. After the death of Eschenburg, the society 
of book-sellers employed a well qualified editor, who has revised the work and 
superintended it with greatcare and fidelity. An examination will show, that 
in doing this, advantage has been taken of the important results of modern clas- 
sical researches. It is therefore confidently believed, that this work will still' be 
found one of the most useful of the kind ; perhaps the very best Manual, both 
for the Gymnasia and other Seminaries, and also for private use. 

Berlin, Nov. I, 1824. 

2. In view of this account of the character, design, and reputation of the origi- 
nal work, it is easy to see the reasons why it should be presented to the scholars 
of our country. Many instructors have felt the want of a Comprehensive Text- 
book in the department of Classical Literature and Antiquities. After much in- 
quiry, the translator has been able to find no work, which, on the whole, seem 
so well adapted for the object, as Eschenburg's Manual. 

It will be seen, by a mere glance, that the general design and plan of the work, 
in its present form, is to exhibit, in a condensed but comprehensive summary, 
what is most essential on all the prominent topics belonging to the department of 



PREFACE. V 

Classical Literature and Antiquities, and at the same time give references to va- 
rious sources of information, to which the scholar may go, when he wishes to 
pursue any of the subjects by further investigations. I cannot doubt, that a 
Manual on this plan, thoroughly executed, would prove one of the greastest aids 
to the classical student, which it is possible to put into his hands ; and I cherish 
thehope that, in the entire want of a book of this sort not only in our country 
but also in the English language hitherto, the present attempt to introduce one 
from abroad will meet with a candid reception ; especially as it is one, whose 
value has been so fully attested in the land most of all celebrated for classical at- 
tainments. 

Here it may be proper to mention, that some years since this work was trans- 
lated into the French. The translator, after some preliminary remarks, says, 
' from such considerations, I supposed I should render the public a service, by 
making known in France a series of elementary works universally esteemed and 
circulated in Germany. I begin with the Manual of Classical Literature by 
Eschenburg. This author is Councillor in the Court of the Duke of Brunswick, 
andProfessor in the public Seminary called the Carolinum. As estimable for 
his moral character as for the variety of his attainments, known as editor of the 
posthumous writings of Lessing, and dear to all the celebrated men of the coun- 
try; living also in the vicinity of one of the richest libraries ; he united, along 
with these advantages, all the light and experience derived from a long series of 
years devoted to instruction, and that good judgment, admirable but rare, which 
knows how to avoid the superfluous without omitting the necessary and the useful. 
I shall not attempt an encomium on thebook, of which I here offer a translation ; 
it is sufficient to refer to the public suffrage and decision, by which this Manual 
has been adopted as the basis of public and private instruction in a major part of 
the Universities and Colleges in Germany.' — Subsequently to the time of this 
translation, in a Report made to the French Institute respecting the literary la- 
bors of the Germans, by Charles Villers, the distinguished author of the Essay 
on the Reformation of Luther, the Manual of Eschenburg was noticed as a valu- 
able gift to the world. 

I feel at liberty also to state, as evincing the value of this work, in the 
estimation of competent judges, that the present translation was commenced 
with the warm approbation and encouragement of Prof. Stdart of Andover, and 
Prof. Robinson, now of Boston. In fact, under the advice of these eminent 
scholars, Mr. Isaac Stuart, Professor of Languages in the University of S. Caro- 
lina, had made preparations for translating the same work, and wholly without 
my knowledge, but had been compelled to renounce the design, just before I con- 
sulted their views of the utility and expediency of my attempt. It is likewise 
worthy of notice here, that from a conviction of the great value of the Manual 
and of its adaptedness to be useful in our country, it had actually been translated, 
before I entered upon the work, by Mr. Cruse, whose translation of the part per- 
taining to Roman Authors is introduced into the present publication ; for further 
explanation of which the reader is referred to the Advertisement on page 290. 

3. No more needs to be said respecting the design and merits of the original work 
and its claims to be introduced to the knowledge of American scholars. But 
something more may be desired respecting the author himself. This desire I am 
able to gratify, through the friendship of Prof. Robinson, whose repeated advice 
and assistance in the present work I here gratefully acknowledge, and who has 
furnished the following brief notice of Eschenburg. 

1 The name of Eschenburg stands high in Germany, as one of their best wri- 
ters on taste and the theory of the fine arts, including fine writing. The article 
[below] is condensed in the Encyclopaedia Americana; bat I have preferred to 
translate the original [from the Conversations Lexicon"] as being more full. 

John Joachim Eschenburg, Professor in the Carolinum at Brunswick, was born 
1743 at Hamburg, and died at Brunswick, 1820. This distinguished scholar and 
writer received his earliest education in the Johanneum at Hamburg ; after- 
wards in Leipzig, where Ernesti, Gellert, Morus, and Clodius, were his instruc- 



VI PREFACE. 

tors; then under Heyne and Michoelis in Gottingen. He then came, through 
the agency of Jerusalem, as a private tutor, to Brunswick; where he afterwards 
received the Professorship in the Carolinum, vacated by the death of the poet 
Zacharia. This post he held during his life. To him Germany is indebted for 
a nearer acquaintance with many good English writers in the department of JEs- 
thetics; e. g. Brown, Webb, Burney, and Hurd, whom he translated and in part 
accompanied with notes and additions. He published, moreover, at different 
times in Journals and Magazines, accounts of the most remarkable appearances 
in English Literature, by means of which a love and taste for the literary treas- 
ures of that island and people were greatly promoted among the Germans. His 
greatest desert, however, lies in his translation of Shakspeare (Zurich, 1775-87, 
14 vols. 1798-1806, 12 vols.). Although not the first in this great undertaking, 
since Wieland had already begun a similar, yet he has long had the merit of 
being the most complete ; even though so many excellent translations of the great 
tragic writer have been since begun. Indeed his version of the collected works 
of this poet is to this moment sought after, although not possessing the charm of 
metre nor the literal fidelity, which others exhibit. In making his translation, 
moreover, by means of his literary and social connections, he enjoyed many ad- 
vantages, which another would with difficulty possess in an equal degree; and 
his own private library contained, so long ago as 1807, more than 400 volumes 
in reference to Shakspeare, exclusive of engravings, &c. Another great bene- 
fit, conferred on the public by Eschenburg, was the publication of his Lectures in 
the Carolinum, his Theorie und Literaiur der schOnen Wissenschaften, his Lehr- 
buch der Wissenschaftskundc, and his Handbuch der Classischen Literatur ; of the 
last work a seventh edition was published in 1825. — In social intercourse Eschen- 
burg was exceedingly amiable, and notwithstanding his occasional satirical re- 
marks, generally beloved. Three years before his death he celebrated his offi- 
cial jubilee or 50th anniversary. He was also Senior of the Cyriacus-founda- 
tion, and a knight of the Guelphic order. — In the 6th Supplementary Volume of 
JSrden's Lexicon deutscher Dicliter und Prosaisten, there is a minute catalogue of 
his works, both original and translated, and also of his editions of other authors 
of former or recent times.' 

4. It remains for the translator to speak briefly of the principles and method, 
by which he has attempted to execute his task, in preparing the work in its pre- 
sent form ; and the following remarks contain all, that it seems important for him 
to say on this point. For the rest, he who may use the book, must judge. 

As to the translation itself, my aim has been throughout to express the author's 
meaning with strict fidelity ; but in doing this I have endeavored to avoid the 
long periods and involved arrangement of words and clauses, for which the 
German language is of known celebrity; I have almost uniformly employed 
shorter sentences, and have sometimes departed very much from the phraseology 
of the original. — The alterations are not many; in some instances I have omitted 
a clause or sentence, and in a few a whole section or paragraph, without any 
notice to the reader ; in a few cases also I have altered the arrangement of the 
sections. Otherwise, wherever I have not presented the author entire and unal- 
tered, a distinct intimation of some change by the translator is given to the reader, 
by one of the marks which will be explained below.-i-The additions are very 
considerable; and whatever maybe their pertinency W their value, they cer- 
tainly have cost some labor. In making them, I have endeavored to keep con- 
stantly in mind the grand design of the work, and to render it more complete in 
the respects, which, as has been before remarked, constitute its peculiarity, dis- 
tinguishing it from every other work on these subjects in our language. The ad- 
ditions may generally be distinguished from the original, either by the size of the 
type, or by particular marks ; as will be described under the Explanations below. 
It will be seen, that large additions have been made in the portion relating to the 
Greek Literature and Authors; it was my intention to make similar additions to 
the View of the Roman Authors ; but the design was renounced for the reasons 
stated in the Advertisement on page 290. I regretted, on receiving Mr. Cruse' s 
Translation, to find that it did not include the notices of editions and illustrative 
works mentioned by Eschenburg ; and should the present effort meet with ap- 
probation, it is my purpose to prepare for separate publication something more 
complete on the Roman Literature. I flatter myself, that the condensed view of 



PREFACE. VU 

the Sacred writings and the writings of the early Christians, as found in the 
Greek language, will be considered a useful addition. — The whole of Part V. 
is also added by the translator, as explained on page 572; only it ought to be fur- 
ther remarked, that a few paragraphs pertaining to the remains of Athens and 
Rome, placed under Antiquities by Eschenburg and omitted in the translation, 
are introduced, with alterations, in this part under the Topography of those cities. 

The work is now offered as a humble contribution to the service of the public, 
and commended to the candid examination of the scholar; in the hope, that un- 
der the blessing of Him, in whom is the fountain of all wisdom and knowledge, 
it may prove an auxiliary of some value in the cause of liberal and good edu- 
cation. 

Amherst College, April 12, 1836. 



EXPLANATIONS. 

The following statement will enable the reader to know in general what is from the authorand what 
from the translator. All in the largest type is translated directly from the original, excepting such sec- 
tions as have a star or the letter t annexed to their number (as, e. g. 5 80' on page 48, and § 761 
on page 46); the star indicates thatthe section is wholly added by the translator; the t indicates that 
the section is altered by him so as to differ more or less from the original. All in the smaller type is ad- 
ded by the translator excepting such sections or paragraphs as have the letter u annexed to their num- 
ber, and excepting also most of the mere references to books and authors. The u indicates that the sec- 
tion or paragraph, although in the smaller type, is taken directly from the original. A s to the references, 
which are usually in the smaller type, it did not seem of much consequence to discriminate carefully 
between what was put in by the author and what by me; if any one should find some of them irrele- 
vant or unimportant, he may safely charge such upon me rather than Eschenburg ; if any inquire why 
the numerous references to German works are retained, I only remark, that it is becoming more and 
more common to import such works into this country', and more and more important for our scholars to 
be acquainted with the German language ; and if any deem it superfluous to have given so many refe- 
rences, let such consider, that the same books are not accessible to all students, and an increased num- 
ber of references increases the probability of presenting seme to becks within the reach of every 
reader; and it should be borne in mind also, that some references are given chiefly as bibliographical 
statistics, which Is the case especially with respect to some of the editions of Greek classics. 



In correctlngthe press, the translatorhas enjoyd no a<*hrance; a circumstance, which he much 
regrets. Some sheets, It ought also to be remarked, were impressed, when he was unable to give them 
the usual attention. Although a number of typographical errors will be found in the following pages, 
it Is believed that the reader will ackowledge, that the general appearance of the work is highly credit- 
able to the office of the Messrs. Adams. For any degree of nea'ness and accuracy, which the work may 
possess, the publishers and the writerare much indebted to the patience, c.irc, and skill of Mr. J. A. 
Tenney, who has superintended the whole mechanical execution.— Most of the errors, which have been 
observed, are such as to occasion the reader no difficulty, either not affecting the sense, or suggesting 
at once their own correction. The following ERRATA are of a more important character. 
On page 59, lath line from bottom, 
91, § 143 (a) «h line, 

" lb. 5th line, 

" 95, 12th line from top, 

" 166, §2S, 7th line, & ss. 

" 182, §51, 4th line, 

" 195, 7th line from top, 

" 242, § 154,3. 6th line, 

" 248, 17th line from top, 

" 348, 19th line from top, 

" 361,178, 6th line, 

" 569,§341.3. 3d line, 

" 560, § 30, 5th line, 
lb. 

B 



for 


mituus 


read 


lituvs. 


" 


Evangcliacum 


" 


Evangcliarum. 


" 


quartcrnion? 


" 


quaternions. 


II 


a tOijOii 


ii 


uiat!);o"ic\ 


" 


'sXiyog 


ii 


t/.tyo;. 


" 


moral 


" 


rural. 


" 


eloquence 


" 


elegance. 


before 


Fables 


Insert 


these. 


for 


§243 


read 


§ 248. 


" 


P. II. 


" 


P.I. 


" 


Zephyr 


" 


Zephyrus. 


" 


last 


" 


least. 


" 


Gaudalquiver 


" 


Guadalqulvtr. 


" 


GauJtana 


" 


Ouadiana. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PART I.— Archaeology of Lit- 
erature and Art. 

Introduction, p. 1 — 21. 

§§ 1—32. 1 The original capacity 
and knowledge of men. 2 Develope- 
mentof thesame. 3 Aided by language. 
4 Origin of arts and sciences. 5 First 
character of the same. 6 Attainments 
made before the Deluge. 7 Effects of 
the dispersion of the human family, by 
the confusion of tongues at Babel. 
8 Earliest employments; food. 9 Ef- 
fect of climate and other causes ; influ- 
ence of agriculture on arts. 10 Rise of 
architecture and use of metals. Tools 
of stone. 11 Imitative arts. 12 Origin 
of Language. 13 Origin of Writing. 
14 Previous methods of communicat- 
ing thought. 15 Picture-writing; by 
Mexicans ; N. Am. Indians. 16 Hiero- 
glyphics. 17 Abbreviated pictures. 18 
Syllable-writing; Chinese; Cherokee. 
19 Alphabetic writing, 20 Materials 
and implements. 21 Contents of earli- 
est writings; writings of Moses and 
Job the most ancient; claims of the 
oriental records. 22 The earliest sci- 
ences. 23 Origin of medicine. 24 Of 
arithmetic. 25 Of Astronomy. 26 Of 
Geometry. 27 Of Geography. 28 Egypt 
and Asia the cradle of the sciences. 

29 High culture of the Greeks and Ro- 
mans. Importance of classical studies. 

30 Object of the present treatise. 

31 Utility of thesame. 32 References 
to works illustrating the subjects in- 
cluded. 

Archeology of Greek Lite- 
rature. 

/. _ Of the origin and first steps of 
Grecian culture, p. 23 — 30. 

§§ 33—44. 33 First population of 
Greece. The Pelasgi. 34 Early state 
of society. Colonies from the east. 
35 Origin of Greek language. 36 Lan- 
guage of Noah ; nature of the Confu- 



sion of tongues. Languages of west- 
ern Asia. 37 Japheth and descendants. 
38 One of the Shemitish dialects prob- 
ably the foundation of the Greek. Va- 
rious theorieson the subject. 39 Causes 
of the great perfection of the Greek. 
40 First impulse to civilization. 41 In- 
fluence of eastern nations on the reli- 
gion of the early Greeks. 42 On their 
arts. 43 Influence of the Greek bards. 
44 Of the Greek games. 

II. Of the Alphabet, Method of Writ- 
ing and Boohs, p. 31 — 38. 

§§ 45 — 60. 45 Letters introduced by 
Cadmus. Resemblance of Grecian and 
Phoenician Alphabets. 46 Number of 
letters in the Alphabet of Cadmus. 

47 Changes in form of Greek letters. 

48 Direction of letters and lines in wri- 
ting. 49 Uncial and Cursive charac- 
ters. Abbreviations. 50 Breathings. 
51 Accents, 52 Punctuation. 53 Ma- 
terials used in Greece for writing. 
54 Instruments. 55 Material used for 
ink. 56, 57 Form of books. 58 Copy- 
ists. 59 Infrequent use of writing in 
early times, Whether Homer com- 
mitted his poems to writing (cf. p. 183). 
60 Instruction given orally. 

III. Of the most flourishing period 
of Greek Literature, p. 38 — 47. 

§§ 61 — 77. 61 Circumstances favor- 
able to progress in letters. 62 Actual 
studies and attainments. 63 Design of 
the author under the present head of 
the subject. 64 The Grecian system of 
education. Gymnasia, Music. 65, 66 
The Musical and Dramatical contests. 
67 Rehearsals public and private. 68 
Professed Readers. 69 The 'Symposia 
or literary feasts. 70 No learned pro- 
fessions among the Greeks, 71 Gram- 
mar as a part of education. 72 Philos- 
ophy ; Esoteric and Exoteric. 73 Meth- 
ods of teaching ; Socratic. 74 The 
great public schools; Academy, Lyce- 
um, Porch, Cynosarges, Garden. 75 
Regulations and discipline of the Gym- 



CONTENTS. 



IX 



nasia and schools. 76 Greek libraries. 
77 Travels of learned men. 

IV. Of the decline of Greek Litera- 
ture, p. 47 — 51. 

§§78—85. 78 Causes of its decline. 
79 Greek language still extensively 
used. 80 Greek letters cultivated at 
some places ; Rhodes, Pergamus, Al- 
exandria &c. 81 Greek letters patron- 
ised by some of the Emperors. 82 
Schools of Athens suppressed. 83 Op- 
position between Christianity and pagan 
literature; influence of Christianity. 
84 Loss of classical manuscripts, in va- 
rious ways. 85 Political condition of 
the Greeks after the Christian era. 

V. Of the Remains and Monuments 
of Grecian Literature, p. 51 — C8. 

§5 86—108. 86 Division of these in- 
to three classes. — I. Inscriptions. 
87 References to works on Greek in- 
scriptions. 88 General design and char- 
acter of inscriptions. 89 Qualifications 
requisite for interpreting inscriptions. 
90 Notice of some of the most impor- 
tant inscriptions of a date prior to Al- 
exander. 91 Of those of a date be- 
tween Alexander and the Christian 
Era. 92 Of a period subsequent to the 
Christian Era.— II. Coins. 93 Util- 
ity of an acquaintance with coins. 91 
Uncoined metal first used. 95 Earliest 
Greek coins ; Chronological classifica- 
tion of Greek coins. 96 The coins in 
most common use among the Greeks. 
Number of ancient coins preserved. 
97,98 Forms of letters on Greek coins. 
99 References to works on Numismat- 
ics.— HI. Man u scripts. 100 Util- 
ity of them. 101 Their antiquity. Pa- 
limpsesti. 102 How made and preserv- 
ed. 103, 104 Marks by which the age 
of a Ms. is known ; or criteria of Palae- 
ography. 105, 106 Importance and ad- 
vantages of collating manuscripts, 107 
Notice of some of the oldest and most 
curious manuscripts extant ; Hercula- 
nean Rolls; Egyptian Papyri. 108 Li- 
braries containing Greek manuscripts. 



Archaeology of Roman Lite- 
rature. 

J. Of Ike sources of Roman culture. 
p. 69—74. 

§§ 109—118. 109 Origin of the Ro- 
mans. Two different theories respect- 



ing the inhabitants of Italy. Five early- 
tribes. Uncertainty of the early history 
of Rome. 110 Origin of Latin written 
characters. Ill Intercourse of the Ro- 
mans with the Greeks. 112, 113 State 
of culture before the Punic wars. 114 
Origin and progress of the Latin Lan- 
guage. Monuments of its early char- 
acter. 

II. Of the Alphabet, Writing and 
Books, p. 74 — 76. 

§ 115 Number of original letters. 

116 The early and later orthography. 

117 Forms of letters. Abbreviations; 
Notre Tironiancs. 118 Form of Books. 
Materials and instruments for writing. 
List of names and terms used in rela- 
tion to writing &c. 

III. Of the most flourishing period of 
Roman Literature, p. 76—82. 

§§ 119—127. 119 Influence of the 
Greek colonies in Magna Grascia. 120 
Introduction of the Greek philosophy. 
121 Most brilliant age in Roman let- 
ters. Causes. 122 Branches cultivat- 
ed. 123 Change in the system of edu- 
cation. 124 Instructions of the Gram- 
marians and Rhetoricians. 125 Public 
schools. Athenaeum. Literary exerci- 
ses specially practiced by the youth in 
the course of education, &c. 126 Li- 
braries at Rome. 127 Customof finish- 
ing study abroad. Places visited for 
the purpose. 

IV. Of the decline of Roman Lite- 
rature, p. 82, 83. 

§ 128 Causes of the decline. Com- 
mencement of it. Exertions and influ- 
ence of some of the Emperors. Effect 
of intercourse with provincials; of the 
removal of the seat of government to 
Constantinople. Schools of learningin 
the empire ; Byzantium, Berytus, Mas- 
silia, Auguslodunum. 

V. Remains and Monuments of Ro- 
man Literature, p. 84 — 91. 

§§ 129—143. 129, 130 Roman In- 
scriptions; References to works on 
the subject. 131 Abbreviations and in- 
itial letters on Roman coins. 132 Pe- 
culiar advantages of study of Roman 
inscriptions. 133 JN'otice of some of 
the most important inscriptions that are 
preserved. 134 Roman C oin s; when 
first struck. Division into Consular 
and Imperial. 135 Legend on coins. 



CONTENTS. 



136 False coins. 137 Peculiar forms 
of writing on earl)' coins. 138 Refe- 
rences to works on Roman coins. 139 
The most valuable collections of an- 
cient coins. 140 Roman Manu- 
scripts; few existing of a very early- 
date. 141 Successive changes in the 
manner of writing. 142 Zealous search 
for manuscripts on the revival of let- 
ters, Petrarch, Poggio and others in- 
terested in it. Depositories of Latin 
manuscripts. 143 Some of the most 
ancient Latin manuscripts known. 



Archaeology of Art. 
Preliminary Remarks, p. 92 — 95. 

§§ 144—153. 144 Meanings of the 
word Art. 145 Division of the arts 
into the Mechanical, and the Fine. 146 
The plastic arts. 147 Objects repre- 
sented by them. Allegorical images. 
148, 149 Requisites in the artist, con- 
noisseur, and amateur, severally. 150 
Utility of some knowledge of the his- 
tory of art. 151 Antiques and the 
study of them. 152 Original design of 
the monuments of ancient art. Science 
of ^Esthetics ; references on the same. 
153 Object of the present treatise. Four 
branches of art particularly included. 

/. Sculpture, p. 95 — 116. 

§5 154—191. 154 Comprehensive 
meaning of the term. 155, 156 Origin 
of Sculpture. 157 Character of the 
first specimens. Image of Cybele. 158- 

162 The materials used ; first soft; va- 
rious kinds of wood; Ivory also; Mar- 
ble and stone of different kinds ; Bronze. 

163 Classes of statues; costume; atti- 
tudes. 164 Busts. 165 The kind of 
figure called Hermes. 166 Bas-reliefs, 
167 Mosaic. 168 Inscriptions on stat- 
ues. 169, 170 Egyptian sculpture. 171 
Sculpture among the Asiatics. 172, 173 
Character and remains of Etruscan 
Sculpture. 173, 174 Rise of sculpture 
in Greece : circumstances favorable to 
its advancement. Dasdalus. 175 The 
four periods of Grecian sculpture. 176 
Its character in the first period, 177 
Different schools. 178 Frequent de- 
mand for statues in Greece. 179—181 
Grecian sculpture in its subsequent pe- 
riods. 182—185 Sculpture among the 
Romans. 186 The most celebrated re- 
mains of ancient sculpture ; of statues 
187 Of Busts. 188 Of Mosaic. 190 
The most famous collections of such 



remains. 191 References to works on 
this subject, 

//. Lithoglyphy or Gem-Engraving. 
p. 110—127. 

§§ 192—213. 192 Explanation of the 
term. 193 Gems early known. 194 
Respecting the nature and classification 
of gems. 195 Notice of some of the 
principal gems employed in this art. 
196 Manner of forming the figures on 
them ; intaglios ; cameos. 197, 198 Va- 
rious objects represented. 199 Origin 
and earliest instances of the art. 200, 
201 Gem-engraving of the Egyptians. 
Scarabczi ; Abraxas. 202 This art a- 
moiig other nations, especially the Etru- 
rians. 203, 204 Among the Greeks. 
205 Among the Romans. 206 Use 
made of sculptured gems. 207 Me- 
chanical operations in engraving. 203 
Fictitious gems. 208 Advantages of 
some knowledge of ancient gems. 210 
This study facilitated by thl use of paste 
imitations. The impressions of Lip- 
pert; of Wedgewood; of Tassie. 211 
Some of the most remarkable ancient 
gems. 212 The most celebrated collec- 
tions. 213 References to work illustrat- 
ing the subject. 

III. Painting, p. 127—134. 

§§ 214-227. 214 Explanation of this 
art. 215 Date of its origin. 216 Its 
early existence in Chaldasa and Egypt. 

217 Earliest pictures among the Greeks. 

218 The colors employed by Greek 
painters. 219 Materials and instru- 
ments for painting. 220 Encaustic 
painting. Mosaic. 221 Merit of an- 
cientpainting. Perspective. 222 Schools 
in painting among the Greeks. Cele- 
brated masters. Four periods. Com- 
parative number of paintings and stat- 
ues. Portraits. 223 Etruscan paint- 
ings. 224, 225 Painting at Rome. 226 
Monuments of ancient painting. 227 
References to works on the subject. 

IV. Architecture, p. 134 — 144. 

§§ 228—243. 228 Both a mechanic 
and a fine art. 229 Its origin. Leading 
principles, or causes affecting its char- 
acter. 230 Materials in early times. 
231 Egyptian Architecture. Asiatic, as 
exhibited in the Scriptures. The grand 
branches of Architecture, Civil, Milita- 
ry, Naval. 232 Architecture as exhib- 
ited in Homer. 233 Most flourishing 
period of this art in Greece. 234 De- 
scription of ancient temples. 235 Of 



CONTENTS. 



XI 



Theatres and Odea. 236 Of Gymna- 
sia. 237 Of Porticos. 238 Of pillars 
and columns ; and the several orders of 
Architecture. 239 Ornaments of an- 
cient Architecture. Caryatides, Atlan- 
tides &c. 240 Most celebrated Greek 
architects. 241 Tuscan and Roman 
Architecture. 242 Remains of ancient 
Architecture. Works illustrating- the 
subject. 243 Notice of several styles 
of Architecture, more modern; Roman- 
esque, Sararenic, Chinese, Gothic. 

PART II— History of An- 
cient Literature, Greek 
and Roman. 

Greek Literature. 

Introduction, p. 147—160. 

§§ 1 — 10. 1 Circumstances favora- 
ble to literature among the Greeks. 2 
Excellency of Greek classics; impor- 
tance of acquaintance with them. 3 
Beauty and perfection of the Greek lan- 
guage. 4 Its dialects. 5 Pronuncia- 
tion of Greek. 6 Principles and meth- 
ods in studying. Analytical and Syn- 
thetical methods. Interlinear transla- 
tions. Grammatical and logical analy- 
sis. Other exercises. Use of Reading- 
books. System in the London Univer- 
sity. 7 List of various helps in the 
study of Greek. 8 Plan to be pursued 
in the present view of Greek literature. 
9 Six periods in Grecian political his- 
tory, very conveniently applied to the 
history of literature. 10 The several" 
departments or classes of writers to be 
noticed. 

/. Poetry, p. 160—204. 

§§ 11—81. 11 Subjects of earliest 
Greek poetry. 12 Poetry first cultivat- 
ed in the northern provinces of Greece. 
13 Poetry originally connected with 
music among the Greeks. References 
on the origin and progress of Greek 
poetry. 14 Kinds or varieties of Gre- 
cian poetry. 15 Sacred. 16 The Si- 
byls 17-20 Epic. 21 The Cyclic poets. 
The Homeridae. Iliac Table. 22-26 
Lnjric poetry. 27 The Scolion. 28, 29 
Elegiac. 30 Bucolic or pastoral. 31. 32 
Didactic. 33 Erotic. 34 The epigram. 
35 Anthologies. 36 Dramatic poetry, 
including (37-40) Tragedy, (41-43) 
Comedy, and (44) Satyre. 45 Diiferent 
forms of Satire. 46 Farces. Mimes. 
47 References to works treating of the 
Greek poets generally. 48 Orpheus. 

C 



49 M usee us. 50 Homer. 51 Hesiod. 
52 Archilochus. 53 Tyrtaeus. 54 Sap- 
pho. 55 Solon. 56 Theognis. 57 Pho- 
cylides. 58 Pythagoras. 59 Anacre- 
on. 60 Pindar. 61 JEschylus. 62 
Sophocles. 63 Euripides. 64 Empe- 
docles. 65 Aristophanes. 66 Menan- 
der. 67 Lycophron. 68 Theocritus. 
69 Bion; Moschus. 70 Callimachus. 
71 Aratus. 72 Cleanthes. 73 Apol- 
lonius Rhodius. 74 Nicander. 75 Op- 
pian. 76 Nonnus. 77 Coluthus. 78 
Quint us Smijruaus or Calaber. 79 Try- 
phiodorus. 80 Theodoras Prodromus. 
81 Tzetzes. 

II. Orators p. 204—213. 

§§ 82-107. 82 Oratory as an art not 
known in the heroic ages. 83 Elo- 
. quence much practiced after time of So- 
lon. 84 History of Grecian eloquence 
short. 85 Chiefly confined to Athens. 
86 Three aspects in three different eras. 
87, 88 Era of Themistocles. 89—91 
Era of Pericles. 92—94 Era of De- 
mosthenes. 95 — 97 Subsequent decline. 
School of Rhodes. 98 Three branches 
ofancient orator}'. 99 References to 
works illustrating the Greekorators col- 
lectively. 100 Antiphon. 101 Ando- 
cides. "102 Lysias. 103 Isocrates. 104 
Isaeus. 105 Lycurgus. 106 Demosthe- 
nes. 107 iEschines. 

III. Sophists and Rhetoricians. 
p. 213—222. 

§§ 108—128. 108 Description of the 
Sophists. Their performances. 110 
Names of some of the more eminent in 
different periods. Ill Distinction be- 
tween Sophists and Rhetoricians. 112 
Rhetoricians in different periods. 113 
General references. 114 Gorgias. 115 
Aristotle. 116 Demetrius Phalereus. 
117 Dionysius Halicarnasseus. 118 
Dion Chrysostoinus. 119 Herodes At- 
ticus. 120 ./Elius Arisiides. 121 Lu- 
cian. 122 Hermogenes. 123 Athe- 
nseus. 124 Longinus. 125 Themisti- 
U6. 126 Himerius. 127 Julian the 
Apostate. 128 Libanius. 

IV. Grammarians, p. 222 — 227. 

§§ 129—147. 129 Time when writ- 
ers of this class first flourished; place. 
130 Their various performances. 131 
Someof the most distinguished before 
the time of Constantine. 132 Gram- 
marians at Constantinople. 133 Gene- 
ral references. 134 Hephaestion. 135 
Apollonius Dyscolus. 136 ./Elius He- 



xu 



CONTENTS. 



rodianus. 137 Julius Pollux. 138 JB li- 
tis Moris, 139 Harpocration. 110 He- 
j ii mis. Ill Ammonias.. 142 Photius. 
1 13 Suidas. M4 Etymologicum Mag- 
num. 115 Eustaihius. 14G Gregorius 
Paid as, or Corjnthius, 147 Thomas 
Magister. 

V. Writers of Epistles and Roman- 
ces, p. 2-28—233. 

§§ 148— 1G5. 148 Extant letters as- 
cribed to ancients, in part spurious. 
14!) Romances unknown in best periods 
of Greek literature; reason. 150 Ero- 
tic and Milesian tales. Imaginary voy- 
ages. 151 Some of the authors of Ro- 
mances. 152 References on the writers 
of this division. 153 Anacharsis. 154 
Phalaris. 155 Themistocles. 156 So- 
crates. 157 Chion. 158 Aristaenetus. 
159 Alciphron. 160 Heliodorus. 161 
Achilles Tatius. 162 Longus. 163 
Xenophon of Ephesus. 164 Chariton. 
165 Eumathius, 

VI. Philosophers, p. 333—250. 

§§ 166—201. 166 The poets of Greece 
her first philosophers, 167 The next 
her priests and legislators. Subjects of 
speculation in the early religious philos- 
ophy. Political philosophy. Seven Sa- 
ges. 168 Origin of schools in philoso- 
phy. The earliest of celebrity. 169 
The Ionic. 170 The Italic. 171 The 
Socratic. 172 Sects derived from the 
Socratic. Three Minor. Cyrenaic. 
Megaric. Eliac. 173 Four Major. 
Cynic. 174 Stoic. 175 Academic. 
176 Peripatetic. • 177 Sects derived ' 
from the Italic. Elealic ; Heraclitean. 
178 Epicurean. 179 Sceptic. 180 Pe- 
riods of Greek literature in which the 
several sects arose. Grecian philoso- 
phy after the Roman supremacy. 181 
The New Platonists. Eclectics. 182 
Christian philosophy. Peripatetic phi- 
losophy after time of Constantine. Its 
propagation in western Europe. 183 
References to sources of information 
on the Greek philosophy, 184 iEsop. 
185 Ocellus Lucanus. 186^ Xenophon 
the Athenian. 187 iEschines, the phi- 
losopher. 188 Cebes. 189 Plato. 190 
Timaeus of Locri. 191 Aristotle. 192 
Theophrastus. 193 Epictetus. 194Arri- 
an. 195 Plutarch. 196 Marcus Anto- 
ninus. 197 Sectus Empiricus. 198 
Plotinus. 199 Porphyry. 200 Jam- 
blichus, 201 Stobaeus. 

VII. Mathematicians and Geogra- 
phers, p. 251—259. 

§§ 202-220. 202 Mathematics re- 



duced to scientific form by Greeks, but 
derived from other nations. 203 The 
foundation for philosophy. Views of 
Plato. 204, 205 State of Greek mathe- 
matics in different periods. 206,. 207 
Degree of knowledge among the Greeks 
respecting Geography. 203 General 
references. 209 Euclid. 210 Archime- 
des. 211 Apollonius Pergaeus. 212 
Pappus. 213Diophantus. 214 Hanno. 
215 Eratosthenes. 216 Strabo. 217 
Dionysius Periegetes. 218 Claudius 
Ptolemy. 219 Pausanias. 220 Stepha- 
nus of Byzantium. 

VIII. Mijlhographcrs. p. 252—261. 

§§ 221—231. 221 Principal sources 
whence the traditionary fables of the 
Greeks may be learned. 222 Palae- 
phatus. 223 Heraclitus. 224 Apollo- 
dorus. 225 Conon. 226 Parthenius. 
227 Phurnutus or Cornutus. 228 He- 
phaestion. 229 Antoninus Liberalis. 
230 Sallustius, the Platonis£ 

IX. Historians, p. 262—276. 

§§231—290. 231 Earliest history in 
a poetical form. Earliest writers of 
history in prose. 232 The composi- 
tions styled logographies. 233 The dis- 
tinguished historians in the brilliant pe- 
riod of Greek literature. 234 Writers 
on Attic history. 235, 236 Chief histo- 
rians between Alexander and the Ro- 
man supremacy. 237, 238 Principal 
writers during the next period until 
time of Constantine. 239 Historical 
authors after time of Constantine. The 
Byzantine Historians. 240 Herodo- 
tus. 241 Thuevdides. 242 Xenophon. 
243 Ctesias. 244 Polybius. 245 Dio- 
dorus Siculus. 246 Dionysius Haly- 
carnasseus. 247 Flavius Josephus. 
248 Plutarch. 249 Arrian. 250 Ap- 
pian. 252 JElian. 253 Herodian. 
254 Philostratus. Eunapius. Grecian 
biography. 255 Zosimus. 356 Proco- 
pius. 257 Agathias. 258 Zonaras. 
259 Dares Phrygius. Dictys Creten- 
sis. 250 Eichorn's collection from 
Greek Historians. 

X. Writers on Medicine and Natu- 
ral History, p. 276—292. 

§§ 261—277. 261 Greeks less emi- 
nent in these sciences. iEsculapius and 
his descendants. Hippocrates the first 
author. 262 The Dogmatic school. 
263 Dissections. Empiric school. Me- 
dicine first practiced at Rome by Greek 
slaves. 264 The Methodic school. The 
Eclectic school. Character and influ- 



CONTENTS. 



xni 



enee of Galen. 265 State of medicine 
after time of Constantine. 206 Phys- 
ics included under studies of the philos- 
ophers. 2G7 Aristotle founder of Zo- 
ology; Theophrastus, of Mineralogy 
and Botany. Cabinets of the Ptolemies 
at Alexandria. Chief writers before 
the time of Constantine. 268 State of 
natural science under the emperors of 
Constantinople. 209 Collections of 
Greek writers on medicine and physics. 
270 Hippocrates. 271 Dioscorides. 272 
Aretams. 273 Galen. 274 Aristotle. 
275 Theophrastus. 27G Antigonus of 
Carystus. 277 ./Elian. Apollonius 
Dyscolus. 

Notice of the Hebrew-Grecian 

and Christian writings, p. 282 — 289. 

§§ 278—292. 278 The Sepluagint. 
279 The Apocrypha. 280 Works from 
Christian authors. 281, 282 Books of 
the New Testament. Their moral au- 
thority. Their literary influence. 283 
Works of the Apostolical Fathers. 281 
Spurious or Apocryphal writings. 285 
Opinions of early Christians respecting 
human learning. Christian semina- 
ries. Philosophy adopted by the Fa- 
thers. 28G Biblical writings. Versions 
of Bible; Origen's Hexapla. Harmo- 
nies. Commentaries. 287 Controver- 
sial writings. Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, 
Tatian, Athenagoras. 288 Historical 
writings. Eusebius. 289 Doctrinal. 
Origen. Athanasius. 290 Homileti- 
cal. Character of the ancient homily. 
Few remains of early Sacred oratory. 
291 Homilies of Origen. 292 Distin- 
guished Christian orators just after the 
time of Constantine ; Basil, Gregory, 
and Chrysostom. References to works 
giving information respecting the Fa- 
thers, 

Roman Literature. 

(Translated by Rev. C. P. Crus6 ; ex- 
planation given p. 290.) 

Preliminary, p. 291— 29G. 

§§ 593—296. 293 Comparative rank 
of the Greeks and Romans. 291 Utility 
of an acquaintance with the Roman 
language and authors. Distinction be- 
tween Latin and Roman tongues. 295 
The periods in the history of Roman 
literature : four ages. 296 Methods of 
study, and accompanying exercises. 
Pronunciation. Books serving as helps, 
of various classes. 



/. Poets, p. 296—304. 

§§ 297—337. 297 The most flourish- 
ing period of Roman poetry. 298 Li- 
vius Andronicus. 299 Nsevius. 300 
Ennius. 301 Plautus. 302 Pacuvius. 
303 Accius. or Attius. 304 Terence. 
305 Lucilius. 306 Lucretius. 307 Ca- 
tullus. 308 Tibullus. 309 Propertius. 

310 Cornelius Gall us. 311 Virgil. 312 
Horace. 313 Ovid. 314 Cornelius 
Severus. 315 Pedo Albinovanus. 316 
Gratius Faliscus. 317 Publius Syrus. 
318 Manilius. 319 Germanicns. 320 
Phaedrus. 321 Persius. 322 L. An- 
"naeus Seneca. 323 Lucan. 324 Va- 
lerius Flaccus. 325 Silius Italicus. 
326 Statius. 327 Martial. 328 Juve- 
nal. 329 Avienus. 330 Dionysius Cato. 
331 Nemesian. 332 Calpurnius. 333 
Ausonius. 334 Claudian. 335 Pru- 
drntius. 336 Sedulius. 337 Rutilius 
Numantianus. 

II. Orators and, Epistolary writers. 
p. 305—303. 

§§ 338—347. 338 First teachers of 
eloquence at Rome. Distinguished or- 
ators. 339 Cicero. 340 Pliny the se- 
cond. 341 Gluintilian. 342' Of the 
Panegyrists. 343 Cicero's Epistles. 

311 Pliny's Letters. 315 Seneca. 346 
Symmachus. 317 Sidonius Apollina- 
ris. 

III. Grammarians and Rhetoricians. 
p. 303—311. 

§§318-363. 318,319 Their charac- 
ter and method of instruction. 350 
Varro. 351 Cicero's rhetorical works. 
352 Asconius Pedianus. 353 Seneca. 
354 Quintilian. 355 Aulus Gellius. 
356 Censorinus. 357 Nonius. Marcel- 
lus. 358 Festus. Verrius Flaccus. 
Paulus Diaconus. 359 Macrobius. 360 
yElius Donatus. 361 Priscian. 362 
Diomedes. 363 Charisius. 

IV. Philosophers, p. 311-313. 

§§ 3G1— 370. 364 Philosophy intro- 
duced into Rome from Athens. Old Ac- 
ademics and Epicureans the most flour- 
ishing sects. 365 Cicero, as a philoso- 
pher. 366 Seneca. 3G7 Pliny the el- 
der. 368 Lucius Apuleius. 369 T. 
Petronius Arbiter. 370 Marcianus Ca- 
pella. 

V. Mathematicians, Geographers and 
Economists, p. 314 — 316. 

§6 371—383. 371 Mathematics among 



XIV 



CONTENTS. 



the Romans chiefly applied to architec- 
ture and the military art. Attention to 
science'of agriculture. 370 Vitruvius. 
373 Sexuis Julias Frontinus. 374 Ve- 
getius. 375 Julius Firmicus. 376 Pom- 
pouius Mela. 378 Vibius Sequester. 
379 M: Porcius Cato. 380 Varro. 381 
Columella. 382 Palladium 383 Cceli- 
us Apicius. 

VI. Mycologists, p. 316—317. 

§§ 384—388. 384 Correspondence be- 
tween the Greek and Roman mythology. 
385 Hyginus. 386 Fulgentius. 387 
Lactantius. 388 Albrieus. 

VII. Historians, p. 317—331. 

§§389—407. 389 Awnals the first his- 
torical works among the Romans. Lost 
writings. 390 Julius Caesar. 391 Sal- 
lust. 392 Cornelius Nepos. 393 Livy. 
394 Velleius Paterculus. 395 Valeri- 
us Maximus. 390 Tacitus. 397 a. 
Curtius Rufus. 398 Floras. 399 Su- 
etonius. 400 Justin. 401 Sextus Au- 
relius Victor. 402 Flayius Eutropius. 
403 AmmianusMarcellinus. 404 JEAi- 
us Spartianus. 405 Julius Capitolinus. 
406 Trebellius Pollio. 407 Flavius 
Vopiscus. Writers of the imperial His- 
tory. 

VIII. Physicians, p. 321,322. 

§§ 408—412. 408 Medicine general- 
ly practiced by slaves. 409 Aulus Cor- 
nelius Celsus. 410 Sarbonius Largus. 
411 Q,. Serenus Sammonicus. 412 
Marcellus Empiricus, 



Note. p. 322—324. 

The principal editions of the classics 
in sets. 

PART III.— Mythology of 

the Greeks and Romans. 

Introduction, p. 327 — 335. 

§§ 1 — 12. 1 Circumstances calculat- 
ed to give a fabulous character to early 
traditions. 2 Mythology in the Greek, 
and in the modern sense of the term. 
3 Different points of view in contem- 
plating mythological fables. 4 Chan- 
ges and additions in mythological sto- 
ries. 5 Different sources of mytholog- 
ical fabrications. 6 Advantages of an 



acquaintance with mythology. 7 East- 
ern origin of the Grecian deities. 8 
The Roman gods borrowed from the 
Greeks. 9 The Greek and Roman sys- 
tem of classifying their gods. 10 The 
four classes, under which they are ar- 
ranged in this work. 11 The notions 
of deity entertained by the Greeks and 
Romans. 12 References to works treat- 
ing on the subject. 

I. Mythological history of the Supe- 
rior Gods. 

§§ 13—67. 13 Gods included in this 
class. 14-17 Saturn. 18 Janus. 19-21 
Cybele or Rhea. 22-25 Jupiter. 26-28 
Juno. 29-31 Neptune. 32-34 Pluto. 
35-37 Apollo. 38-40 Diana. 41-43 
Minerva. 44-46 Mars. 47-50 Venus. 
51-53 Vulcan. 54-56 Mercury. 57-60 
Bacchus. 61-64 Ceres. 65-67 Vesta. 

II. Mythological History of the Infe- 
rior Gods. 

§§ 68—96. 68 Gods included in this 
class. 69, 70 Coelus. 71, 72 Sol or 
Helius. 73 Luna. 74, 75 Aurora. 76 
Nox. 77 Iris. 78 ,Eolus. 79, 80 Pan. 
81, 82 Latona. 83 Themis. 84 jEscu- 
lapius. 85 Plutus. 86 Fortune. 87 
Fame. 88 Terminus. Priapus. 89 
Vertumnus. 90 Flora. 91 Feronia. 
92 Pales. 93 Gods presiding oyer va- 
rious conditions or pursuits of men. 94 
Deified Roman emperors. 95 Virtues 
and Vices. 96 Egyptian deities wor- 
shiped among the Romans. 

III. Mythical Beings, whose history 
is intimately connected with that of the 
gods. p. 370—379. 

6§ 97—117. 97 Titans. 98 Giants. 
99 Tritons. 100 Sirens. 101 Nymphs. 
102, 103 Muses. 104 Graces. 105 
Hours. 106 Fates. 107 Furies. 108 
Harpies. 109 Daemons. 110 Manes. 
Ill Lares. 112 Penates. 113 Sleep, 
Dreams, and Death. 114 Satyrs and 
Fauns. 115 Gorgons. 116 Amazons. 
117 Minotaur, Chimaera, and various 
other monsters. 

IV. Mythical History of Heroes, p. 
379-386. F 

§§ 118—133. 118 Three periods of 
Grecian story. 119 General cause of 
the deification of heroes. 120 Two 
classes of venerated heroes. 121 Ina- 
chus, Ogyges, Cecrops, and several 
others, honored specially among their 



CONTENTS. 



XV 



own people. 122 Perseus. 123, 124 
Hercules. 125, 126 Theseus. 127, 128 
Jason and the Argonauts. 129 Castor 
and Pollux. 130 Heroes of the Theban 
war. 131 Pelops and his descendants. 
132 Heroes of the Trojan war. 133 
Deified Roman emperors. 

PART IV. — Greek and Roman 
Antiquities. 

Grecian Antiquities. 

Intro Auction, p. 389 — 394. 

§§ 1 — 14. 1 Origin of the name 
Graecia. 2 Countries included under 
it. 3 Most important Grecian cities. 
4 Political changes. 5 First inhabi- 
tants. 6 Their early intercourse. 7 Ear- 
ly forms of government. 8 The Spar- 
tan system. 9 Athens. 10 Causes of 
Grecian improvement. 11 Utility of 
study of antiquities, and of Grecian iu 
particular. 12 Original sources of 
knowledge on the subject. 13 Referen- 
ces to authors. 14 Defects in the com- 
mon treatises on Greek antiquities. 
Early and later ages distinct. 

/. Of the Earlier and less cultivat- 
ed Ages, p. 395--414. 

§ 15 The period included. Subject 
divided into four branches. 

(1) Religious Affairs. 

§§ 1C— 432. 16 First traces of the 
religion of the Greeks. 17 Form and 
mode of religious instruction. 18 In- 
fluence of the poets. 19 Number and 
character of the gods. 20 Temples and 
sacred places. 21 Images and statues. 
22 Priests and Priestesses. 23 Rites; 
ablutions. 24 Prayers. 25 Sacrifices; 
the materials. 26 Altars. 27 Sacrifi- 
ces; the ceremonies. 28 Gifts and of- 
ferings. 29 Worship rendered to he- 
roes. 30 Funeral solemnities. 31 Burn- 
ing of corpse; monuments. 32 Ora- 
cles and divination. 

(2) Civil Affairs. 

§§33-41. 33 Early rudeness. 34 
Power of the kings. 35 Their retinue 
and councillors. 36 Courts of justice. 
37 Laws and punishments. 38 The 
Cretan laws. 39 Successive forms of 
government at Athens. 40 At Sparta. 
41 Commerce and Navigation. 



(3) Military Affairs. 

§§42 — 51. 42 Early Greeks warlike. 
43 Their armies, how composed. 44 
Weapons ; Defensive. 45 Offensive. 
46 The materials of which made. 17 
War-galleys. 48 Camps. 49 Order of 
Battle. 50 Division of spoils. Barba- 
rous stripping of the slain. Combat of 
chiefs. 51 Treaties. 

(4) Domestic Affairs. 

§§ 52—63. 52 Common food. Daily 
meals. 53 Social repasts. 54 Dress. 
55 Practice of bathing. Cultivation of 
the Hair. 56 Houses. 57 Hospital- 
ity. 58 Employments; agriculture; 
hunting. 59 Employments of women. 
60 Amusements. 61 Marriage. 62 Ed- 
ucation of children. 63 Slaves. 

II. Of the Later and more flourishing 
Ages. p. 414—480. 

(1) Religious Affairs. 

§§ 64-90. 64 Number of gods in- 
creased. 65 Temples more splendid. 
66 Sacred groves. Asyla. 67 Classes 
of priests. Purification. 68 Sacrifices 
and attendant ceremonies. 69 Oaths. 
70 Oracles. Imposture at Argos. 71 
Oracles of Jupiter; at Dodona; in Crete; 
African desert. 72, 73 Of Apollo at 
Delphi. 74 Of Trophonius ; and oth- 
ers. 75 Arts and methods of divina- 
tion. 76, 77 Festivals; notice of the 
principal. 78 Games. 79 The race. 
80 Leaping. 81 Wrestling. 82 The 
discus. 83 Boxing. 84 Four sacred 
games. Olympic. 85 Pythian. 86 Ne- 
mean. 87 Isthmian. 88 System of 
athletics. 89 Theatres, and dramatic 
representations. 90 Chorus. Theoric 
money at Athens. 

(2) Civil Affairs. 

§§ 91-131. 91 Athens and Sparta 
distinguished by peculiarities. 92 Dra- 
co and Solon at Athens. 93 The tribes 
and classes at Athens. 91 Pisistratus, 
and his sons. 95 The thirty tyrants. 
Form of government after them until 
death of Alexander. 96 Buildings of 
Athens. 97 The free citizens of 
Athens. 98 The foreign residents. 99 
The slaves. 100 The Archons. 102 
The Eleven. Oiators. Ambassadors. 
Notaries. 103 Athenian revenues. 104 
Officers of the revenue and treasury. 
105 Amphictyonic council. 106 As- 
semblies of the people. 107 Athenian 
senate. 108 Areopagus. 109 Athenian 



XVI 



CONTENTS. 



courts of justice. TheEphette. 110 The 
Helia-a. HI The -10. The Diactetae. 
113 Different kinds of actions. 113 
Punishments. 1 1 1 The Ostracism. 115 
Modes of inflicting death. 110 Public 
rewards ami honors. 117 Attic laws. 
118 Natural situation of Sparta. 119 
Spartan tribes. 120 Treatment of chil- 
dren at Sparta. 121 Spartan slaves. 
1-2-3 The kings of Sparta. 123 The 
senate. Ephori. 121 Nomophulakes 
.mil other magistrates. 125 Assemblies 
of the people. 120 Public repasts. 127 
Judicial affairs. 128 Punishments. 129 
Laws of Sparta. 130 Cretan constitu- 
tion. 131 Cretan laws; public meals; 
slaves. 132 Constitution of Thebes. 
133 Constitutions of Corinth and Syra- 
cuse. 134. Of Argos ; of iEtolia and 
Achaia. 

(3) Military Affairs. 

§§ 135-1G0. 135 The warlike char- 
acter retained; especially by the Spar- 
tans. 130 Persons liable to military 
duty. Their support. 137 Classes of 
troops. The infantry. 138 Cavalry, 
Use of elephants, 139 Armor. 140 
Various officers. 141 The divisions of 
the army. 142 Forms of battle array. 
Manoeuvres. 143 Declaration of war. 
Treaties. 144 Camps. 145 Standards 
and ensigns. Signals for battle. 146 
Art of besieging. 147 Military engines. 
143 Defence of cities. 149 Treatment 
of captured places. 150 Division of 
spoils. 151 Military rewards and pun- 
ishments. 152 Means of conveying in- 
telligence. 153 Crossing of rivers. 154, 
155 Ships, Names of their principal 
parts. Vessels of war. 156 Rowers, 
sailors and marines. 157 Instruments 
employed in naval battle. 158 Naval 
officers. 159 Manner of naval battle. 
160 Naval victories and monuments. 
Naval punishments. 

(4) Affairs of Private Life. 

§§101—187. 161 Food. Use of wines. 
162 The different meals. Manner of 
spending the day at Athens. 163 En- 
tertainments or feasts. 104 Customs at 
table. 165 Substances eaten at the prin- 
cipal meal. 100 Officers and attendants 
at an entertainment. 167 Customs in 
drinking. Amusements accompanying 
a feast. 163 Customs of hospitality. 
Officers called Proxeni. 169 Dress, for 
the body, head, and feet. Use of silk. 
170 Bathing and anointing. 171 Houses. 
172 Commerce. 173- 175 Grecian money 
and coins. 176 Ratio of gold and sil- 
ver. Greek systems of notation. 177 



Grecian weights. 178, 179 Measures. 
180 Social amusements. Music and 
musical instruments. 181 Condition of 
females. 182-184 Laws and customs 
respecting marriage. 185, 186 Funeral 
rites. 187 Monuments to the dead. 
Anniversaries held in their honor with 
orations and games. 



Roman Antiquities. 

Introduction, p. 481 — 486. 

§9 183-198. 188 Origin of Rome. 

189 Principal events which affected the 
appearance of the city. Comparative 
splendor of ancient and modern Rome. 

190 Population of Rome. 191 Extent 
of the Roman empire. 192 Proportion 
of soldiers and othercitizens. 193 The 
time of the regal government. 194 
Most brilliant era of Roman history. 
195 Condition under the emperors. 196 
Utility of studying Roman antiquities. 
197 Original sources of information on 
the subject. References to modern 
works and authors. 198 Division of the 
subject. 

(1) Religious Affairs, p. 487—508. 

§§ 199-240. 199 Use of the term re- 
ligio. 200 Origin of the religion of the 
Romans. 201 Its connection with poli- 
tics. 202 Design of Romulus and Nu- 
ma. Gods of the Romans. 203 Tem- 
ples. 204 Statues and offerings. Groves. 
205 Altars." 206 Vessels employed in 
sacrifices. 207 Several orders of priests. 
203 Pontifices. 209 Augurs. Various 
methods of augury. 210 Haruspices. 
211 Epulones. 212 Feciales. 213 Rex 
sacrorum. 214 Flamines. 215 Salii. 
216 Luperci. 217 Galli and others. 
218 Vestal virgins. 219 Fratres Arva- 
les, Curiones and others. 220 Customs 
in offering prayers. 221, 222 Sacrifices 
and attendant rites. 223 Vows. 224 
Dedication of sacred buildings. Expia- 
tions. The lustrum. Oaths. 226 Or- 
acles. 227 Lots. 228 Divisions of 
time. 229,230 Festivals. 231 Public 
games. 232 Ludi circenses. Nauma- 
chia. 234 Ludi sseculares. 235 Ludi 
gladialorii. 236 Ludi florales, 237 Ludi 
Megalenses, Cereales, and others. 238 
Theatres and amphitheatres. 239 Dra- 
matic entertainments. Tragedy. Co- 
medy. 240 Atellanas and mimes. 

(2) Civil Affairs, p. 509—531. 
§§ 241—274. 241 Regal government. 



CONTENTS. 



XV11 



249 Consuls. 243 Praetors. 24-4 JEdi- 
les. 245 Tribunes. 246 Gluaestors. 247 
Censors. 248 Dictator. 249 Decem- 
viri. Prsefects. Interrex. 250 Procon- 
suls, and other provincial magistrates. 
251 Tribes. 252 Six classes of citizens. 
Centuiies. 253 Patricians and plebei- 
ans. 254 The senate. 255 The equi- 
tes or knights. 256 The populace. 
Patrons and clients. 257 Roman no- 
bility. Right of images. 258, 259 The 
Comitia. 260 Right of citizenship. Gov- 
ernment of conquered cities and na- 
tions. 261 Judicial proceedings. Pub- 
lic actions and trials. 262 Private ac- 
tions. 263 Penal offences. 264 Pun- 
ishments. 265 System of laws. Body 
of Roman civil law. 266 Regulations 
respecting grain. 267 Revenue. 268 
Commerce. Mechanic arts. 269 Agri- 
culture. 270 Money. Coins. 271 Sys- 
tem of reckoning and notation. 272 
Modes of acquiring property. 273 
Auctions. Confiscation. 274 Measures 
of extent and capacity. Modes of de- 
termining the Roman foot. 

(3) Affairs of War. p. 531—550. 

§§ 275-309. 275 Authorities on the 
subject. 276 Military establishment of 
the kings, 277 Persons liable to duly. 
Time of service. 278 Consular arfhv. 
Exempts. 279 System of levy. 280 
Classes qf troops. 281 Subdivision into 
maniples &c. 282 Standards. Music. 
283 Weapons. 284 Wages. Rewards. 
285 Punishments. 286 Order of battle. 
287 Modes of attack. 288 Light troops. 
289, 290 Cavalry. 291 Cohorts. 292 
Auxiliaries. 293 Attendants upon the 
army. 294 Order of march. 295 Forms 
of array. 296, 297 Camps. 298 
Watches. Exercises of soldiers. 299 
Sieges. Engines. 300 Mounds and 
towers. 301 Battering ram and other 
engines. 302 Modes of defence in a 
siege. 303 The fleets. 304 Method of 
naval battle. Construction and parts of 
Roman ships. 305 Rewards of generals. 
306 Laws on the subject. 307 The 
triumph. 308 The ovation. 309 Mili- 
tary system under the emperors. 

(4) Affairs of Private Life. p. 550-570. 

§§ 310-343. 310 The free-bom and 
the free-made discriminated. 311 Sys- 
tem of applying proper names. 312 
Regulations respecting marriage. 313 
Marriage contracts. 315 Nupiial cere- 
monies. 316 Divorces. 317 The right 
and power of the father over his chil- 
dren. 318 Emancipation of sons. 319 
Adoption. 320 Legitimation. 321 Edu- 



cation of youth. 322 Slaves. 323 Slave 
trade. 324 Emancipation of slaves. 
325 Dwellings. Glass making. 326 
Parts of a Roman house. Country seats. 
327 Manner of life. Morals. 328 Daily 
routine of employment. 329 Food and 
meals. Furniture for eating. 330 Dif- 
ferent courses at supper. 331 Drinking 
and games at banquets. Dice. Wines. 
332 Dress. The toga. 333 The tunic. 
Badges. 334 The stola and other gar- 
ments of women. 335 Various outer 
garments. Use of silk. 336 Coverings 
for the head and feet. 337, 338 Dress 
of the hair. Personal ornaments. 339 
Funeral customs. Exposure of the 
corpse. 340 Funeral procession. 341 
Burning. Places of burial. Tombs. 342 
Mourning for the deceased. Games and 
sacrifices. 343 Consecration, or dei- 
fication of deceased emperors. 



PART V. — Classical Geogra- 
phy and Chronology. 

Epitome of Classical Geo- 
graphy. 

Introduction, p. 573, 571. 

§§ 1-5. 1-3 Portion of earth known 
to ancients. 4, 5 Ancient divisions. 

I. Of Europe, p. 574—614. 

§§ 6-148. 6, 7 Extent and boundaries. 
8 General subdivisions. 9-15 Northern 
countries of Europe ; Scandinavia, Sar- 
matia, Germania, &c. 16-26 Middle 
countries of Europe; Gallia, Rhaetia, 
Noricum, Pannonia, Illyricum, Moesia, 
Dacia. 27-129 Southern countries of 
Europe. 27-31 Hispania. 32-50 Ita- 
lia. 51-71 Topography of Rome. 51,52 
Gates and roads. 53 Bridges and hills. 
54 Districts. References to writers on 
the topography of the city. 55 Campi. 
56 Streets. 57 Fora. 58-60 Temples 
and groves. 61-63 Curiae, basilicae, 
circuses, theatres &c. 61 Baths. 65-67 
Schools, porticos, columns, trophies &c. 
68 Aqueducts, sewers. 09 Monuments 
to the dead. 70 Dwellings. 71 Villas. 
Suburbs. 72-75 Thracia. 76 Four 
natural divisions of Graecia. 77-81 
Macedonia. 82-68 Thessalia. Epirus. 
89-103 Hellas. 104-116 Topography of 
Athens. 104, 105 Its situation. 106 The 
Acropolis. 107 Parthenon and other 
buildings of the citadel. 108, 109 The 
lower city and its temples. Ill Porches. 
Odea. Ceramicus. 112, 113 Forums. 
Aqueducts. Stadium. 114 Areopagus. 



xvni 



CONTENTS. 



Pnvx. 115 Theatres. Ohoragic monu- 
raents. 116 Harbors. References to 
writers on the topography of Athens. 
117-136 Peloponnesus. L26-129 Topo- 
graphy of Sparta. 126 Form and situa- 
lion. 107 Forum. 128 Columns and 
statues. 100 Hippodrome. Harbor. 
irences to writers. 130-118 Islands 
belonging to Europe. 130-136 Britannia 
and adjoining islands. 137 Balearicae. 
Corsica and Sardinia. 138-140 Sicilia. 
141-142 Ionian islands. 148 Creta. 

II. Op Asia. p. 614-621. 

§§ 149-172. 149, 150 Extent and 
general division of Asia. 151-155 Coun- 
tries of the Eastern division. Scythia, 
Since, India, Persia, Media, Parthia. 
156-171 Countries of the Western divi- 
sion. 156 Sarmatia, Colchis, Albania, 
Iberia. 157 Armenia. 158-165 A«a 
Minor. 166-169 Syria including Pa- 
lcestina. 170 Mesopotamia, Babylonia 
and Assyria. 171, 172 Arabia. Asiatic 
islands. 

III. Of Africa, p. 621—625. 

§§ 173-183. 173 Extent and divisions 
of Africa. 174-176 Egypt. 177 An- 
cient ruins and remains of Egypt. 
Works on the subject. 178 ^Ethiopia. 
179 Libya. 180 Africa Propria. 181 
Numidia. 182 Mauritania. 183 Africa 
Interior. Atlantis. 



Introduction to Classical 
Chronology. 

Preliminary Remarks. 

§184. Importance of the subject. De- 
sign of the present sketch. Two parts. 



/. Of measuring time and adjusting 
its divisions, p. 626 — 631. 

§§ 185-196. 185 The three natural 
divisions of time ;day, month, and year. 
186, 187 Ancient customs as to begin- 
ning and dividing the day. 188 Devices 
for marking and making known the 
parts of the day. Dial. Clepsydra. 189, 

190 The month. The Grecian system. 

191 Roman method of reckoning the 
months, and the days of the month. The 
week; names of the days. 192 The 
year. The Grecian ; Roman ; Julian. 
The Gregorian Calendar. Old and 
new style. 193 Cycles. 194 The lunar 
cycle. 195 The solar. 196 The cycle 
ofindiction. Julian period. 

//. Of fixing the dates of historical 
events and arranging them in order. 
p. 631—645. 

§§ 197—214. 197 Topics noticed in 
this part. 198-201 Methods of ascer- 
taining dates. 1. Successive genera- 
tions; and successive reigns of kings. 
2. Celestial appearances. 3. Coins, in- 
scriptions &c. 4. Historical testimony. 
202, 203 Epochs and eras. Era of 
Olympiads; of Rome; the Christian; 
the Mahometan. 204-207 Systems and 
tables. 204 Claims of the Egyptians 
and Babylonians. 205 The Hebrew 
and the Septuagint chronology. New- 
ton's. Usher's. 206, 207 Various plans 
for charts. The best. 208-214 Ac- 
tual dates of most prominent events. 208 
Common complaint of students. Reme- 
dy. 209 Brief outline of general Chro- 
nology. 210 Systems of artificial me- 
mory. 211 Chronology of ancient states. 
Of the eight principal states of Asia. 
212 Of the two principal in Africa. 213 
Of Greece. 214 Of Rome. 



PART I. 



ARC H.iE O L O G Y 



OF LITERATURE AND ART 



INTRODUCTION. 



The origin of human knowledge, and its advancement into the form 
of sciences and arts. 

§ 1. Man in his first state had the natural capacity for acquiring a 
great variety of knowledge, by reason of those superior faculties, 
which distinguished him from irrational animals. But he had then no 
actual store of innate knowledge and skill. Much Jess had he any 
comprehension of those rules and precepts, that guide us in the arts 
and sciences, which are the result of long observation and mature re- 
flection. 

All that is known respecting the first state of man is contained in the account 
given by Moses respecting Adam and Eve, the first human pair, and formed by- 
direct creation. This account gives but little information as to the degree or the 
nature of their actual knowledge. But one thing is certain, whatever glosses may 
be forced upon the Mosaic account of the creation in relation to other things ; 
Adam was created a man, and not a child, infant or embryo, left to advance to 
manhood by the gradual steps, which are requisite by what we call the laws of 
nature in the formation of every other man. It can be little else than a dispute 
about words to contend, whether he had or had not innate ideas and actual knowl- 
edge before the first exercises of mind, to which surrounding circumstances gave 
rise. For these exercises of his mental powers, if truly the exercises of a man, 
and not of a child, must have been such as, in all other cases but his own, could 
have arisen only after obtaining previous ideas or actual knowledge to some ex- 
tent. And the first exercises of his mind, as plainly exhibited in the account of 
Moses, were such as, in other cases, presuppose a maturity of intellect. It seems 
an evident conclusion therefore, that Adam either possessed by creation the requi- 
site knowledge and maturity, or was caused to put forth without it the same ex- 
ercises as if he had it. On either supposition (if any can adopt the latter) some 
degree of the knowledge, which is now acquired gradually in the progress from 
infancy to manhood, came at first directly from God. God implanted it in some 
way or other ; man did not acquire it by the gradual process, which we now term 
natural. This knowledge, skill, attainment, intellectual power, or whatever any 
may choose to call it, was the original stock or germ, from which every subse- 
quent acquisition sprang. 

Such a view of the original maturity of the first man by no means supposes 
Adam to have possessed the extensive knowledge imagined in the fabulous tales 
of the Jewish Rabbins, or in the descriptions of some theologians. It only repre- 
sents him as a man literally and truly, instead of a child, a moral and intellectual 
man, created so at once, not formed a sort of animal in human shape and left to 
grow into an intelligent being under accidental influences. — See G. C. Knapp, 
Tr. by L. Woods, N. York, 1831. B. I. P. ii. Art. 6. 



4 ARCHEOLOGY OF I.ITKRATURK AND ART. 

^ '2. There was a gradual developement of his faculties, through the 
impulse of his wants, favoured sometimes by accident, and aided by 
experience and repeated efforts. Thus he acquired a multitude of ideas 
about himself and the objects of nature around him, which were suc- 
cessively enriched, corrected, and engraved upon his memory. By 
degrees meditation led him from the visible to the invisible, and from 
observing actual operations and appearances he proceeded to conjecture 
and contemplate secret causes and powers. 

§ 3. By means of language the communication of knowledge became 
more easy and rapid. Then this knowledge was no longer confined 
to the isolated observations and partial experience of each individual 
observer. The ideas of many were collected and combined. The 
amount of acquisition was increased more and more, as men united 
themselves in social bonds, and as, in the progress of population and 
civilization, there was a tendency to the same common aims, and modes 
of living, and mutual interests. (See remakes under § 12.) 

§ 4. The knowledge of the arts was acquired sooner than that of the 
sciences, because the wants that gave them birth, were more urgent, 
and the difficulty of acquiring them was not so great, since they were 
chiefly the fruit of experience rather than of reflection. And among 
the arts themselves, the mechanical or those of common life, must, for 
the same reasons, have appeared first. It was only at a late period, 
when man began to think on the means of a nobler destiny, and to feel 
a desire and relish for higher pleasures, that the fine arts took their 
rise. Necessitatis inventa antiquiora suntquam voluptatis. (Cic.) 

§ 5. We must not imagine the first notions concerning the arts to have 
constituted any thing like a system reduced to regular form and fixed 
principles. With regard to the theory, there were at first only discon- 
nected observations and isolated maxims, the imperfect results of 
limited experience. As to the practice, there was little but a mechan- 
ical routine, some process marked out by chance or imperious ne- 
cessity. The principal object was, the satisfying of wants, the preser- 
vation of life and the convenience of a social state, which men sought 
to obtain by reciprocal aid, and by communicating to each other their 
experience and acquirements. 

$ 6. Before the great catastrophe of the flood men had already ac- 
quired much practical knowledge ; such as the first elements of a<rri- 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

culture, architecture, and the art of working metals ; these arts were 
practised, although in an imperfect manner. But in that singular re- 
volution of nature, which caused the destruction of nearly the whole 
human family, the greatest part of this knowledge was lost. 

Respecting the number of people existing on the earth before the flood and the 
state of art, science and literature among them, nothing is known beyond mere 
conjecture. The following remarks on the subject are from Shuckford's Sacred 
and Profane History connected. ' The number of persons in this first world 
must have been very great ; if we think it uncertain, from the differences be- 
tween the Hebrew and the Septuagint in this particular, at what time of life they 
might have their first children, let us make the greatest allowance possible, and 
suppose that they had no children until they were a hundred years old, and none 
after five hundred, yet still the increase of this world must have been prodigious. 
There are several authors, who have formed calculations of it, and they suppose 
upon a moderate compulation, that there were in this world at least two millions 
of' millions of souls. It would be very entertaining, if we could have a vie w of 
the religion, politics, arts or sciences of this numerous people. 3 After pursuing 
some hints respecting their religion, he adds, ' we can only guess at the progress 
they might make in literature or any of the arts. The enterprising genius of 
man began to exert itself very early in music, brass-work, iron-work, in every 
artifice and science useful or entertaining ; and the undertakers were not limited 
by a short life, they had time enough before them to carry things to perfection ; 
but whatever their skill, learning, or industry performed, all remains or monu- 
ments of it are long ago perished. We meet in several authors hints of some 
writings of Enoch, and of pillars supposed to have been inscribed by Seth, and 
the epistle of St. Jude seems to cite a passage from Enoch; but the notion of 
Enoch's leaving any work behind him has been so little credited, that some per- 
sons, not considering that there are many things alluded to in the New Testa- 
ment, which were perhaps never recorded in any books, have gone too far, and 
imagined the epistle of St. Jude to be spurious, for its seeming to have a quota- 
tion from this figment. 

There is a piece pretending to be this work of Enoch, and Scaliger, in his an- 
notations upon Eusebius's Chronicon, has given us considerable fragments, if not 
the whole of it. It was vastly admired by Tertullian, and some other fathers : but 
it has since their time been proved to be the product of some impostor, who made 
it, according to Scaliger, Vossius, Gale, and Kircher, sometime between the cap- 
tivity and our Saviour's birth. 

As to Seth's pillars, Josephus gives the following account of them. 'That 
Seth and his descendants were persons of happy tempers and lived in peace, em- 
ploying themselves in the study of astronomy, and in other researches after use- 
ful knowledge ; that in order to preserve the knowledge they had acquired, and 
to convey it to posterity, having heard from Adam of the Flood, and of a de- 
struction of the world by fire, which was to follow it, they made two pillars, the 
one of stone, the other of brick, and inscribed their knowledge upon them, 
supposing that one or the other of them might remain for the use of posterity. 
The stone pillar on which is inscribed, that there was one of brick made also, 
is still remaining in the land of Seriad to this day. Thus far Josephus ; but 
whether his account of this pillar may be admitted, has been variously contro- 
verted ; we are now not only at a loss about the pillar, but we cannot so much as 
find the place where it is said to have stood.' 

Respecting the book of Enoch, see T. H. Home, Introd. to study of Holy 
Scriptures. Phil. 1825. Vol. 1. p. 630. — R.Laurence, Book of Enoch; an Apoc- 
ryphal production supposed to have been lost for ages ; but discovered at the close 
of the last century in Abysinia, now first translated from an Ethiopic Ms. in the 
Bodl. Lib. Oxford, 1821.— Bruce' s travels, (ed. Murray, 8vo. vol. 2. p. 424.) 

Respecting the pillars of Seth, see Shuckford's Sac. and Prof. Hist. Connected. 
Phil. 1824. Vol. 1. p. 55. Slillingfleet's Oi'igines Sacra. B. 1. c. 2. 



6 ARCHjEOLOGY of literature and art. 

vS 7. Subsequently to the deluge, the free communication and propaga- 
tion of knowledge was hindered by the confusion of tongues, and the 
consequent dispersion of the inhabitants of the earth into many coun- 
tries. Thereby the progress of human acquirements was retarded 
in a very sensible manner during the first ten centuries. For a long 
time men were destitute of some particulars of knowledge, almost es- 
sential to life ; as for instance, the use of fire. 

However incredible it may at first seem, that any part of mankind should have 
been ignorant of the use of fire, it is attested by the most ancient and unanimous 
traditions. See references in proof of it, in De Goguet's Origin of Laws, Arts 
&c. P. 1. B. ii. 

Modern discoveries have confirmed the same. ' The inhabitants of the Mari- 
an islands [Marianas or Ladrones], which were discovered in 1521, had no idea 
of fire. Never was astonishment greater than theirs, when they saw it, on the 
descent of Magellan on one of their islands. At first they believed it to be a 
kind of animal that fixed itself to and fed upon wood. Some of them, who ap- 
proached too near, being burnt, the rest were terrified, and durst only look upon • 
it at a distance.' Ibid. 

§ 8. The food of man in the first ages was extremely simple, and con- 
sisted in a great measure of the spontaneous productions of the earth. 
The use of animals for nourishment was very limited, from want of 
means to domesticate or capture them. The art of preparing food of 
either kind was likewise very imperfect. But the necessity of taking 
nourishment was, doubtless, the most imperious of wants ; and hence 
it is not only probable, but certain, from the testimony of sacred and 
profane authors, that tilling the ground and tending herds and flocks 
were the first and most general occupations of men, and that the knowl- 
edge relating to these objects was the first acquired and the most ex- 
tensive. A proof of the antiquity of agriculture is found in the fact, 
that almost all the ancient nations ascribe its invention and introduction 
in their country to some divinity, or some deified founder of their state, 
or early sovereign of their land. 

§ 9. According to the difference of country, climate, manner of liv- 
ing, and habits, there was a difference likewise in these simple attain- 
ments, and in the steps of their progress. With some nations agricul- 
ture, with others the raising of cattle, and with others hunting and 
fishing were the most common occupations, and by natural conse- 
quence, among each people, the experience relating to their own occu- 
pations, and the observations and acquirements resulting from it, were 
the most generally diffused and the most perfect. Compared with the 
other modes of subsistence, agriculture has an important advantage 



INTRODUCTION. i 

in promoting various arts, because it compels men to renounce a wan- 
dering life, and settle in fixed, permanent abodes ; thus it increases the 
demand for conveniences, and furnishes an occasion for inventions, 
which may help to facilitate and carry to perfection the culture of the 
soil. 

§ 10. Among the inventions, which resulted from this, we may notice 
especially architecture and the working of metals. The first arose 
from the necessity of procuring a shelter from the inclemency of the 
seasons and the attacks of wild beasts. Rude in its origin, it hardly 
deserved the name of an art ; but under the influences of social life, 
it made a progress considerably rapid. The metals were probably 
discovered to man by some accident. For the art of working them we 
may be indebted to operations perceived in nature, volcanic eruptions, 
e. g. or casual fires. 

The art of working metals is alluded to by Muses (Gen. 4. 22) as existing be- 
fore the deluge, but was lost probably in the dispersion of Noah's descendants, ex- 
cept among those, who remained near the spot where man was first located. 
(Comp. § 120 

The same authority shews the use of metals established a few ages after the 
flood ^Gen. xxii. 6. xxxi. 19. xxxiii. 12. Levit. xxvi. 19. Deut. xxix. 16, 17. 
Comp. Job, xxviii. 1, 2, 17). Goguet remarks that the use of iron probably was 
not so early as that of other metals, and that tools of stone preceded those made 
of iron. ' Anciently they employed copper for all the purposes for which we now 
make use of iron. Arms, tools for husbandry and the mechanic arts were all of 
copper for many ages. The writings of Homer leave no room to doubt of this. 
We see, that at the time of the Trojan war, iron was very little used. Copper 
supplied its place. It was the same for ages amongst the Romans.' 'A kind of 
stones commonly called thunder-stones (Ceraunia, Diet. Class. d'Hist. .Nat. art. 
Ceraunias) are still preserved in a great many cabinets. They have the shape 
of axes, plough-shares, hammers, mallets or wedges ; for the most part they are 
of a substance like that of our gun-flints, so hard that no file can make the least 
impression upon them. It is evident from inspection that these stones have been 
wrought by the hands of men. The holes for inserting the handles prove 
their destination and the several uses that were made of them. It is well known 
that tools of stone have been in use in America from time immemorial. They 
are found in the tombs of the ancient inhabitants of Peru, and several nations 
use them at this day. They shape and sharpen them upon a kind of grindstone, 
and by length of time, labour and patience, form them into any figure they 
please. They then fit them very dexterously with a handle and use them nearly 
in the same manner we do our tools of iron. Asia and Europe are strewed with 
stones of this sort. They are frequently found. There must then have been a 
time, when the people of these countries were ignorant of the use of iron, as the 
people of America were before the arrival of the Europeans.' (P. I. B. ii. c.4.) 

§ 11. The arts of imitation had a later origin, because they were not 
produced by an equally urgent want, and require more deep medita- 
tion and some abstraction of mind. In their commencement they 
were, however, merely the developements of superior mechanical dex- 



S archaeology of literature and art. 

terity, rather than what may be properly called fine arts, and the first 
attempts were but rude and defective. Among these we number what- 
ever belongs to sculpture, or the art of imitating figures in relief; for 
which purpose it is probable, that soft materials, as earth and clay, 
were at first employed. The proper art of drawing presupposes more 
abstraction; probably it was first practised in tracing the outlines of shad- 
ows cast from different objects and bodies. Music, which, indepen- 
dent of any natural pleasure in rhythm and melodious sounds, might 
originate from the songs of birds, must be regarded as among these 
early arts of imitation. With it, if not before it, was invented poetry, 
which, in its origin and its first advances, was joined inseparably with 
something of musical accompaniment. 

§ 12. We have already (§ 3) mentioned Language as the principal 
means of communication among men. Respecting its origin, we 
only observe, that the first men possessed by creation the faculty of 
speech, although language itself, most probably, was not an immediate 
gift of the Deity, but a gradual invention of man ; the natural expres- 
sions of feeling, which he had in common with other animals, being 
by degrees formed into articulate sounds and signs of thought. Not 
necessary to him in the isolated state of nature, it was yet so essential 
to the social state as to call into exercise the implanted faculty of 
speech, and constantly and rapidly increase the stock of words. But 
as the ideas were few and confined chiefly to objects of sense, the orig- 
inal language needed neither great compass, nor high improvement. 

The remarks of the author in this section indicate too much agreement with 
the common error of considering a state of barbarism as the natural and original 
state of man. Philosophers in tracing the progress of human knowledge have 
often founded their speculations on this supposition, that men at first were but a 
number of ignorant savages, not joined by any social ties, a mere milium ac tur- 
pe peons, scarcely elevated above the beasts of the forests through which they 
roamed. Dr. Fergurson has the following judicious observations on this topic. 
' The progress of mankind from a supposed state of animal sensibility, to the at- 
tainment of reason, to the use of language, and to the habit of society, has been 
painted with a force of imagination, and its steps pointed out with a boldness of 
invention, that would tempt us to admit among the materials of history the sug- 
gestions of fancy, and to receive perhaps as the model of our nature in its original 
state some of the animals whose shape has the greatest resemblance to ours. It 
would be ridiculous to affirm, as a discovery, that the species of the horse was 
probably never the same with that of the lion ; yet, in opposition to what has 
dropped from the pens of eminent writers, we are obliged to observe that men 
have always appeared among animals a distinct and superior race ,- that" neither 
the possession of similar organs, nor the approximation of shape, nor the use of 
the hand, nor the continued intercourse with this sovereign artist has enabled 
any other species to blend their nature or their inventions with his ; that in his 
rudest state, he is found to be above them, and in his greatest degeneracy, he never 
descends to their level. He is, in short, a man in every condition ; with him so- 
ciety appears to be as old as the individual, and the use of the tongue as universal 



INTRODUCTION. 9 

asthatof the hand or the foot. Ifthere was a time in which he had his acquaint- 
ance with his own species to make, and his faculties to acquire, it is a time of 
which we have no record, andin relation to which our opinonscan serve no pur- 
pose and are supported by no evidence'. 

See A. Fergur son's Ess. on History of Civ. Society, Bost. 1809. 8vo. The al- 
lusion is to such theorists as Rousseau and Monboddo. See Rousseau, sur 1'origi- 
ne del'inegalite parmi les hommes. — Mo-nboddo (J. Burnet), Origin and Progress 
of Language, Eainb. 1774, 6 vols. 8vo. — Bozy de St. Vincent, L'Homme, Essai 
Zoologique sur le genre humain. Par. 1827. 2 vols. 16mo. This author at- 
tempts to prove that there are several species of human kind, and that Adam 
was the father of but one species. See Smith on the complexion and figure of 
the Human species. — J. C. Prichard, Researches into the Physical History of 
Mankind. Lond. 1826. 2 vols. 8vo. 

The whole history of the world is opposed to the idea of the gradual advance- 
ment of the human race from a condition of barbarism. In the first place, all the 
nations which are known to have risen from barbarism to cultivation have been 
thus raised by coming into contact and intercourse with other nations more civi- 
lized and cultivated than themselves, and not by the natural progress of their own 
independent steps towards perfection. In the next place, a nation or society once 
merged in barbarism is found in fact to sink into deeper and deeper degradation 
when separated from the influence of more enlightened nations, instead of rising 
gradually from its depression and gaining the rank and happiness of a civilized 
people. So great is this tendency to deterioration that it is a matter of exceeding 
difficulty, even with all the aids which the most cultivated nation can furnish, to 
introduce and perpetuate among savage tribes the manners, intelligence and 
blessings of civilized life. But the truth on this subject is, that the natural and 
original state of man, that in which he was placed by his benevolent Creator, was 
a state combining all the blessings of civilization needed in a single holy family. 
Man was at his creation put at once into the social and family condition, and if 
before the deluge there was any such slate of things as existed after it in 
the savage and barbarous tribes, it was a state into which man plunged 
himself, by not choosing to retain God in his knowledge. It was in 
this way that man was thrown into the savage state after the deluge. 
The family of Noah was a civilized family, in which were preserved, no doubt, 
all the useful knowledge and arts of the antediluvian world, as well as the true 
religion. There is no evidence that there was any state of barbarism among their 
descendants until after the dispersion. And so far as history and tradition cast 
any light on this subject, they point to that portion of the earth, where the subsiding 
flood left the family of Noah, as the region of earliest civilization and refinement. 
Every search after the primary sources of intellectual culture conducts the in- 
quirer towards this quarter, as the original centre of light. The families and 
tribes which remained nearest this centre, retained most of the arts, sciences, and 
religion of their ancestors. Those which removed the farthest retained the 
least, and gradually lost nearly all resemblance to their primitive character, and 
finally, in the course of their various and distant migrations, sunk tothe manners 
and spirit of savages. 

See Zimmerman, Geograph. Geschichte des Menschen. — Meiners, Gesch. der 
Menscheit. Comp. Bailly, Lett, surl'origine des Sciences. Tytler's History, P. II. 
S. 50 — Prichard, Phys. Hist. Vol. I, p. 86.— Bibl. Repos. and Cluart. Gibs. No. 
xvii. p. 261.— Faber's Difficulties of Infidelity, Sect. III. 

As to the origin of language, the question has been fully discussed by theolo- 
gians,grammarians and philosophers. Many have maintained that it was of 
human invention. But the advocates of this opinion have advanced the most di- 
verse and contradictory conjectures as to the mode and process. 

The famous Monboddo, for instance, supposes the original form of language to 
have been the inarticulate cries, ' bj r which animals call upon one another, and ex- 
hort or command one another to do certain things,' and adduces, apparently to illus- 
trate what he means, such exclamations as Hi ha, Ho ho, Halouet, used, he says, 
amongthe Hurons of North America, and quite analogous to our own halloo, huz- 
za, hurra, ' which are no other but cries, calling, or exhorting, a little articulated 'I 
Dr. Murray, who died in the year 1R13, then Professor of Oriental Languages in 
the University of Edinburgh, imagined all language to be derived from nine 

o 



10 ARCHEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. 

barbarously rough monosyllables. ' Taste and philosophy,' says he, 'will re- 
ceive with aversion the rude syllables, which are the base of that, medium 
through which Homer, and Milton, and Newton, have delighted or illumined 
mankind, The words themselves, though inelegant, are not numerous: each 
of them is a verb and name for a species of action. Power, motion, force, ideas 
united in every untutored mind, are implied in them all. The variation of force in 
degree was not designated by a different word, but by a slight change in the 
pronunciation. Harsh and violent action, which affected the senses, was ex- 
pressed by harsher articulations. 

1. To strike or move with swift, equable, penetrating or sharp effect was Ac ! 
Ag! 

If the motion was less sudden, but of the same species, Wag. 
If made with force and a great effort, Hwag. 

These are varieties of one word, originally used to mark the motion of fire, 
water, wind, darts. 

2. To strike with a quick, vigorous, impelling force, Bag or Bwag, of which 
Fag and Pag are softer varieties. 

3. To strike with a harsh, violent, strong blow, Dwag, of which Thwag and 
Twag are varieties. 

4. To move or strike with a quick, tottering, unequal impulse, Gwag or Cwag. 

5. To strike with a pliant slap, Lag and Hlag. 

6. To press by strong force or impulse so as to condense, bruise or compel, Mag. 

7. To strike with a crushing, destroying power, Nag, Hnag. 

8. To strike with a strong, rude, sharp, penetrating power-. Rag or Hrag. 

9. To move with a weighty, strong impulse, Swag. 

These nine words are the foundations of language, on which an edifice has been 
erected of a more useful and wonderful kind, than any which have exercised hu- 
man ingenuity. They were uttered at first, and probably lor several generations, 
in an insulated manner. The circumstances of the actions were communicated 
by gestures, and the variable tunes of the voice ; but the actions themselves were 
expressed by their suitable monosyllable.' 

Such theories seem scarcely less absurd than that of the Italian, who considered 
the Greek as the original language, and traced its rise to a few vowel sounds 
gradually generated in the family of Adam. 'When Adam opened his eyes on 
the beauties of creation, he very naturally exclaimed, O !, which gave birth to 
Omega. When Eve was taken out of his ribs, he uttered oo ! or u !, Upsilon. 
Their first child as soon as born cried oute! e!, and this formed Epsilon or 
Eta. The next, probably, had a little shriller note i ! i !, and furnished the parents 
with a fourth vowel, Iota.' Rousseau represents man as originally without lan- 
guage and without society, and having started the enquiry how language was in- 
vented, soon 'stuck in the difficulty, whether language wasmore necessary for the in- 
stitution of society, or society for the invention of language.' But Maupertuis leaps 
the obstacle bravely, and 'conjectures that language was formed by a session of 
learned societies assembled for the purpose!' Other writers speak mwe rationally, 
although agreeing with our author, that the faculty of speech, and not any language 
itself, was the immediate gift of God to man. ' The theory which derives the most 
support from history,' says Dr. Knapp, ' is that the roots, the primitive words, were 
originally made in imitation of the sounds we hear from the different objects in 
the natural world, and that these original sounds become less and less discerni- 
ble in languages in proportion as they are improved and enlarged.' 

It is surprising that any person, pretending to receive the Mosaic account of 
the creation of man, should attempt to explain the origin of language in any 
such way. In that account Adam is represented asusing language immediately 
on his creation, not only giving names to objects, but assigning' reasons for the 
names, and reasons too which have not the least connection with the sounds of the 
words, or any sounds in nature (Gen. ii. 19—23. iii. 20). The truth is that men 
have been led into their speculations on this subject, because, on a superficial 
view, it seems difficult to suppose God to create a man, or any thing else, in a 
mature state. But a little further reflection ought to show us, that it is justas dif- 
ficult to suppose him to create a man in an immature stale. The real difficulty 



INTRODUCTION. 1 1 

lies in conceiving any sort of creation. All the evidence we have as to the actual 
state, in which God did in fact create man, is the testimony of Moses, and that is 
no evidence at all, beyond that of obscure ancient tradition, unless it is sanctioned 
by divine inspiration. Those who believe it to be thus sanctioned, it would seem, 
ought to abide by its facts. And is itnot the simple, undisguised representation 
of Moses, that Adamhadfrom the first a.real and adequate language, consisting of 
articulate sounds'* As to the extent of his vocabulary, nothing is directly told 
us ; but is it not as obvious thathe had literally a language, as that he had literally 
a hand, a tongue, or an eye ? 

Whatever mode of expression then any may choose to adopt in reference to 
this matter, whether to say that language was of divine origin, or that Adam was 
created with a language, or that language was an immediate gift of God to him, 
or that God created him with a faculty immediately to form articuate sounds sig- 
nificant of thought, one thing is certain, a spoken language existed immediately 
after the creation of Adam. 

If any languages besides this original were in use before the flood, they 
were doubtless derived from it. From the flood until the confusion of tongues, 
Moses explicitly testifies, there was but one language in the world. As, then, 
Adam was the father of the many millions that have peopled the earth, so his 
language was the parent of the thousands of dialects, by which they have carried 
on the mutual interchange of thought and feeling.— See K?wpp, Lect. on Ch. 
Theol. B. I. P. ii. Art. 6. § 55. — Herder, ueberden Ursprung der Sprache. Berl. 
1789. — Monboddo, Or. and Prog, of Lang. — Ad. Smith, Considerations on the first 
formation of Lang, (in Theo. of Mor. Sent. Bost. 1817.) — S/iuckford, Sac. and 
Prof. Hist, connected. B. II.— Warburton, Div. Leg. of Moses. B. IV. Sect. 4. 
Lond. 1741.— Good, Book of Nat. Lect. IX.— Blair, Lect. on Rhet. Lect. VI. 
Murray, Hist, of the European Languages, Edinb. 1823. 2 vol. 8. — Condillac, Ess. 
sur l'orig. des Connois. Hum. (in Vol. I. Works. Par. 1821).— Arndt, ueber den 
Ursp. der Europ. Sprachen. Frankf. 1827. 8. 

§ 13. The invention of Writing belongs to a period subsequent to 
the origin of language. By this invention the sounds, which had 
hitherto been only audible, were rendered, as it were, visible, and ac- 
quired a much more extensive and more permanent utility as signs of 
thought. It was an invention in the highest degree important to the 
communication of human knowedge, and still remains essentially ne- 
cessary for its advancement. As it stands in so close and universal 
connection with literature and science, we ought not merely to mention 
it, but to consider its origin, and the successive steps of its progress. 

§ 1 4. Previously to the art of writing, there were other methods of 
representing thoughts to the eye, and thus imparting them to a greater 
number of individuals, and even to posterity. They were, however, 
very inadequate methods, and were chiefly employed to preserve the 
memory of some remarkable event or person. Of this kind are mon- 
umental structures, pillars, or even rude masses of stone. Established 
festivals, and historical ballads transmitted orally, might give to such 
monuments a significancy, otherwise not belonging to them. On the 
return of a festival, the occasion in which it originated and its history 
would be sung or rehearsed. Traces of such methods may still be 
found among savage or but partially civilized tribes. 



12 ARCHAEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. 

§ 15. Superior to any such mode was the imitation or picturing of 
objects, which is considered as the first step towards a written language. 
This presupposes some idea of the art of drawing, or a rude sort of 
painting. Such imitation, however, could express only separate indi- 
vidual thoughts without their connections and relations, and must he 
limited to visible objects. 

It is chiefly mere actions and events that can in this way be made 
known, and even of these only what transpires at a particular instant 
can be represented by each single picture. There are vestiges of 
this first mode of writing in the Egyptian hieroglyphics, which, we 
remark, however, received various successive changes in form and 
signification (§ 16). It was in use among the Mexicans, who apprized 
their king Montezuma of the landing of the Spaniards by means of a 
linen cloth, on which this event was represented by pictures of visible 
objects. 

See Warburton, Div. Leg. B. IV. Sect. 4. where he gives a curious specimen 
of Mexican picture-writing. 

This mode is practised by some of the North American Indians. ' In School- 
craft's Journal of Travels through the North-western regions of the U. S. we 
are told that the party, in passing from the river St. Louis to Sandy Lake, had, 
with their Indian attendants, gotten out of the way, and could not tell where they 
were. The Indians not knowing what might be the result, determined to leave 
at a certain place, a memorial of their journey for the benefit of such of their 
tribe as might come in that direction afterwards. In the party there was a mili- 
tary officer, a person whom the Indians understood to be an attorney, and a miner- 
alogist; eight were armed; when they halted they made three encampments. 
The savages went to work and traced with their knives upon a piece of birch 
bark a man with a sword for the officer, another with a book for the lawyer, and 
a third with a hammer for the mineralogist; three ascending columns of smoke 
denoted the three encampments, and eight muskets, the number of armed men.' 
Upham's El. Int. Phil. First Ed. 

§ 1 6. These imitations or pictures afterwards became symbolical, and 
represented not so much the objects pictured, as others having some 
resemblance to them, and incapable of imitation by painting. In this 
way many spiritual and invisible things might be indicated by bodily 
and visible signs. The necessity of something of the kind must soon 
appear among a people, not wholly occupied with impressions on the 
senses, but engaging in reflections upon God and nature. Accordingly 
the Egyptians, especially their priests, at a very early period employed 
the hieroglyphics in a symbolical and allegorical manner. The eye, 
for instance, became a symbol of providence, the bird an emblem of 
swiftness, the scaling ladder a representative of a siege. 

The late discoveries of Champollion respecting the Egyptian hieroglyphics 



INTRODUCTION. 13 

have awakened much interest. The following short account is from the Am. 
Quart. Reg. vol. iv. p. 52. 

' According to Champollion, the hieroglyphics are divisible into three distinct 
classes: 1. Figurative signs ; 2. Symbolic ; 3. Phonetic, or expressive of sound. 
The figurative occur often, either in an entire or an abridged form. Thus the 
sun is represented by an exact image ; the firmament by the section of a ceiling, 
with or without stars. The first is termed figurative proper, the second figura- 
tive conventional. The plan of a house is given instead of the house itself. This 
is teimed figurative abridged. The second form of hieroglyphics is the symboli- 
cal. These are the characters generally alluded to by the ancients, when they 
speak of hieroglyphics. Two arms stretched up towards heaven expressed the 
word offering ; the four quarters of a lion, strength; an asp, power of life and death. 
As the Egyptians were a very civilized nation, it is clear that hieroglyphics like 
those described were not by any means sufficient to designate their various wants, 
occupations, and ideas ; and this want may have led to the invention of what 
Champollion calls the third class of hieroglyphics, phonetic, or designating a 
sound. He has also discovered the principle, on which these signs were chosen 
to express one certain sound ; it is this, that the hieroglyphic of any object might 
be used to represent the initial sound, or as we should say, the initial letter, of the 
name of that object.' [E. g.the picture of an eagle stood for the sound or letter A, 
the first letter or sound in the word Ahom, the Egyptian name for eagle, and the 
the picture of amouth for R, the first sound in Ro, the Egyptian name for mouth.] 
' As the great number of hieroglyphics, which this principle would assign to 
each of the 29 elementary sounds (the number in the Egyptian alphabet ), would 
have been a continual source of error, the characters were soon reduced to a few. 
Asfar as ascertained, 18 or 19 is the largest number assigned to any one letter, 
while few have more than five or six representatives, and several only one or 
two. — For farther information see, Essay on the Hieroglyphic System of M. 
Champollion &c. by J. G. H. Greppo, Tr. by /. Stuart. Bost. 1830. 12mo.~ Pre- 
cis du Systeme Hieroglyphique &c. par M. Champollion. 2d ed. Par. 1828. 

The following notice of the views of Scyffarth respecting the hieroglyphics is 
from the Christ. Spect. Vol. viii. p. 433. ' These venerable characters have lately 
found another erudite expositor in Professor Seyffarth, of Leipsic. From the 
celebrated inscription on the Rosetta Stone, and from examining many rolls of 
papyrus, this laborious inquirer is of opinion that the hieroglyphyics in general 
are simply hieratic letters, ornamented agreeably to a calligraphic principle. He 
also infers, that both the hieratic and demotic letters had their origin in the 
most ancient Phoenician alphabet. The Leipsic Literary Journal, which con- 
tains a notice of this theory, mentions farther that the learned professor reckons 
the hieroglyphic signs or characters to amount to about 6000, as four or more fig- 
ures are frequently conjoined in the formation of one of them. We feel more 
and more convinced that, by arranging and comparing the multitude of ancient 
Egyptian records, inscriptions on stones and monuments, sarcophaguses, papyri, 
mummy cases, &c. &c. which now abound in Europe, we shall at length be enabled 
to decipher this long buried language of the early world.' 

The N. Y. Obs. Feb. 21, 1835, has the following remark. ' We are informed 
that an Italian Abbe has just published a new version of the inscription on 
the Rosetta Stone ; or what is yet more important, if it be correct, has discov- 
ered a new key to the deciphering of the hieroglyphic language of ancient 
Egypt. It is said to be altogether different from that of Champollion, and all pre- 
ceding authorities.' 

§ 17. In proportion as these pictural signs became more common and 
familiar, curtailments or abbreviations of them were introduced, for 
the sake of convenience. The figure was made in a more simple 
form. Often particular parts were substituted for the whole, espe- 
cially such parts as were most essential to the significancy of the 
picture, and most important for its present use. For example, two 



14 ARCHVE0L0GY OF LITERATURE AND ART. 

hands and a bow might take the place of the full image of an archer. 
The picture of an effect might be employed to represent its obvious 
cause, or that of an instrument to represent the person customarily 
using it ; thus, in an abridged image, rising smoke might denote a 
conflagration, and an eye and sceptre signify a monarch. To these 
were added doubtless many other signs, wholly arbitrary in their na- 
ture, and obtaining a definite meaning by agreement and frequent use. 

§ 1 8. But all these means served only to represent things, not the 
words and sounds, by which we express them in speech. At length, 
men began to apply the simple figures, which by a course of abbrevi- 
ation had taken the place of the original pictures, to spoken language 
and its separate organic elements. Probably it was first done with 
whole words, to each of which was appropriated a certain sign, as in 
the written language of the Chinese; and afterwards with syllables, as 
the frequent recurrence of the same syllables in different words was 
observed, and so certain common signs were applied to represent 
them. These signs expressed at the same time both vowels and con- 
sonants. Among the Ethiopians and several people of the East there 
was some such system of syllable-writing, and it is found at the pres- 
ent day among the Siamese. 

The first information received by Europeans respecting the written language 
of the Chinese was from the Catholic missionaries. They represented it as com- 
prising 80,000 arbitrary characters. Later researches have shown that the ele- 
mentary characters are much fewer. In an account of this language published 
in 1825, Dr. Morrison gives first a collection of 373 ancient symbols, with expla- 
nations of their meaning and origin. These ancient symbols are said to consti- 
tute the first principles of the language. From them were derived 214 characters, 
which are the leading ones, or heads of classes, in modern usage, and are called 
radicals. He next gives a table of 411 syllables, of which exclusive of tones and 
accents, the spoken language consists. The 214 radicals and 411 syllables are 
considered as forming the materials of the whole written language. It is obvious, 
therefore, that the idea of its having a distinct character for every word cannot 
be correct, and yet it is wholly unlike to an alphabetic or syllabic system. ' Its 
characters are not intended to be the signs of simple articulate sounds. They are 
sometimes denominated hieroglyphic and symbolical. It originated in a sort of 
picture writing, from which it has, after the lapse of many years, become what it 
now is. In its present state, the best idea of its character would be derived from 
comparing it with the Arabic figures. These figures, characters, or symbols are 
now almost universally understood throughout the world, however differently 
named by the people of different nations, and the primitive signs are now to most 
nations quite arbitrary, whatever the reasons of their first formation may have 
been. But supposing 2 and 3 to be entirely arbitrary, the union of these two, 23 
■or 32, presents to the eye a definite idea, which is the result of combination, and 
which remains the same whether pronounced by an Englishman, a Hindoo, or a 
Chinese, in the spoken language peculiar to each nation.' In consequence of this 
peculiarity of the Chinese written language, it is understood and read in all the 
regions of eastern Asia, by people whose spoken languages are very different, 
and who cannot maintain the least oral intercourse with each other. See Chinese 
Miscellany, &c. By R. Morrison, Lond. 1825. 4. 

A most remarkable instance of the syllabic alphabet is found in that of the 



INTRODUCTION. 15 

Cherokee Indians. This was invented, about the year 1824, by a Cherokee named 
Guess or Gwyst, who was not able to speak English, or read a word in any lan- 
guage. Having learned the principle of alphabetic writing, viz. that certain 
characters are signs of sound, he conceived the idea of expressing all the 
syllable-sounds of his native language by separate marks. On collecting the dif- 
ferent sounds which he could recollect, he found the number to be eighty two. 
Four others were afterwards discovered by himself or some one else; making 
all the known syllables of the language only eighty six ; a very curious fact ; 
especially when it is considered that the language is very copious, a single verb 
undergoing, it is said, some thousands of inflections. The syllables all terminate, 
as in the Polynesian languages, with a vowel sound. To represent these sounds, 
Guyst took the English Capital letters from a spelling-book in his possession, and 
combining them with other marks of his own invention, formed his alphabet con- 
sisting of eighty six characters. With this alphabet he commenced writing let- 
ters, and a great interest was soon awakened thereby among the Cherokees. The 
youth of the land traveled a great distance to learn the new art of writing and 
reading, which, from the peculiarity of the alphabet and language, they could ac- 
quire in three days sufficiently to practice themselves and to teach others. Types 
for printing in this character have been cast. A newspaper, partly in the Chero- 
kee language with the same character, was sustained among that unfortunate 
people for a short time. The appearance of the language thus printed is singu- 
larly uncouth and barbarous. See, Missionary Herald, vol. xxii. p. 47. 

§ 19. The last step in bringing this art to its maturity was alphabetic 
or letter writing. This method combines the use of the eye and the 
ear, in as much as it represents not the objects of thought themselves, 
but the sounds by which these objects are indicated to the ear in our 
spoken language. The exact time of this most useful invention can- 
not be ascertained ; but passages in the Bible, in the writings of Moses 
(Ex. xvii. 14.) and the book of Job (xix. 23, 24.) where it is spoken of 
as well known, prove its existence at a very early period. It is im- 
possible to decide who was its author, or even to what people the honor 
of its origin belongs. Probably it may be claimed by the Assyrians 
or the Egyptians, their social organization having been the most an- 
cient. The Greeks and Romans generally ascribed the invention of 
letters to the Phoenicians. 

§ 20 While the art of writing was known to but few nations, and 
only to particular individuals in these, its use was rare, except upon 
public monuments, where the letters were generally engraved on 
stone, metal, or wood. Such substances were the first employed for 
the purpose of writing ; afterwards were used skins, bark, leaves, 
especially of the palm-tree, tablets covered with wax, ivory, linen, 
parchments, and the Egyptian papyrus, prepared from the fibres of the 
plant of that name. The chisel, style, pencil, and reed were anciently 
the most common instruments for writing ; the place of the last was 
first yielded to the quill in more recent times. It was common to 



16 ARCHEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. 

proceed from right to left rather, than from left to right as in modern 
practice. 

$ 21. The contents of the first writings, both on monuments and in 
books, were historical. Letters on their invention were naturally ap- 
plied to commemorate remarkable events upon pillars, altars, pyramids, 
obelisks and the like, and to record the sayings and tales which had 
hitherto been transmitted orally from one generation to another. As 
this historical matter generally received something of the form of poe- 
try in oral communication, it resulted of course that poetical tales 
were written earlier than narratives in prose. Even moral and polit- 
ical maxims were framed into song, and accompanied' with music. Of 
all books now in existence, the writings of Moses and the book of Job 
are the most ancient, although many probably were written before 
these. Whatever claims have been urged for the antiquity of any 
other books, they are all certainly of later origin. 

Much has been said by some respecting the high antiquity of the records 
among oriental nations. But more full investigation proves, that there is nothing 
authentic in their histories belonging to a very early date. A distinguished 
scholar, Klaproth, has given, as the result of a thorough examination of the sub- 
ject, that there is no hope of finding, among the Asiatics, materials for the early 
history of man, beyond what is found in the books of Moses. He remarks that 
the history of ancient nations is naturally divided into three parts, (1) mythologi- 
cal, which may contain some portion of truth enveloped in an impenetrable veil 
of allegories and fables, (2) uncertain, in which the main facts are true and the 
personages real, but the chronology undetermined, and (3) true, in which the facts 
and the time are clearly and satisfactorily recorded. The true or certain history 
of the Hindoos does not reach back so far as the time of Christ, and that of China 
extends not quite 800 years before Christ, and even the uncertain history of these, 
which are the most ancient of the Asiatic nations, does not go much beyond the 
time of the Mosaic deluge, or between 2 and 3000 years before Christ. See 
Christ. Spectator, vol. vii. p. 544. 

§ 22. By the aid of these and other helps, scientific knowledge 
among ancient nations gradually became more various and general. 
But not until a comparatively late period could it receive a systematic 
form, in which general principles were separated from particular facts 
and perceptions, and arranged according to some regular method or 
properly scientific classification. Here necessity was the first teacher, 
and conducted human intelligence to those truths and sciences, which 
were most indispensable to the supply of human wants, and most useful 
in advancing the improvement of social life. Such were especially 
medicine, arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and geography. 

§ 23. The natural instinct for self-preservation and for guarding 
against every thing which threatens danger to health and life, occa- 



INTRODUCTION. 17 

sioned the first observations and rules of medicine. Various acci- 
dental opportunities for such observations and experience as constituted, 
its original foundation, were presented while men used only vegetable 
food. It was long however before the art of medicine was reduced to 
definite principles, and became an object of special attention by a partic- 
ular class or profession. The Assyrians, Egyptians and Phoenicians 
were the first to cultivate it ; although the time of its being brought 
into any regular or scientific form cannot be acurately determined. 
The art was at first directed more especially to external maladies, and 
anatomy probably owes its origin to the care and healing of wounds. 

Sprengel, Histoire de la Medicine, Par. 1815. 9 vols. 8. — W. Royston, Rise and 
Progress of the Medical Arts, Lond. 1808. 8. — Le Clerc, Histoire de la Medicine, 
Amst. 1723. 4. 

§ 24. Of mathematical sciences arithmetic seems to have been the 
most ancient. It probably consisted at first only of a few simple op- 
erations, of which no theory had been formed. The first organization 
of civil society and division of property required the use of number, 
weight, and measure. The practical part of this science therefore un- 
questionably must be very ancient, and probably existed first among 
the Egyptians and Phoenicians, whose commerce and navigation ren- 
dered its assistance indispensable. This must have been the case also 
with the Babylonians, on account of their early attention to astronomy 
and chronology. Pebbles, seeds of grain and the like, were used as 
the first helps in enumeration ; but ere long certain written characters 
were employed as indicative of numbers ; of which there are various 
traces upon the earliest Egyptian monuments. 

See Bossut's General History of Mathematics, tr. by Bonnycastle.— Montucla, 
Histoire des Mathematiques. 

§ 25. The origin of astronomy likewise belongs to the earliest pe- 
riods, since some of its truths are necessary for tbe dividing and reck- 
oning of time, and not only in the management of navigation, but also 
in the orderly arrangement of civil business, and in all the labors of 
agriculture. The Egyptians, and the Babylonians and Chaldeans 
especially, were allured to the study of the heavens by the mildness 
of their climate and the extent and openness of their horizon. The 
early origin of astrology, which was so prevalent among the Chal- 
deans, is full proof of their early observation of the stars. And the 
most ancient civil histories show, that the idea of the constellations, and 
even the discovery of the planets, was a very early attainment of man. 

3 



18 ARCHJEOI.OGY Ot LITERATURE AND ART. 

See Jdeler, Untersuchung tiber d. Ursp. und d. Bedeut. d. Sternnamen. Berl. 
1809. 8.--J. S. Badly, Histoire de PAstronomie ancienne. Par. 1781. 4.—De- 
lambre, Histoire dej' Astronomic Par. 1817. 2 vols. 4. 

§ 26. Geometry, in its practice, is very old, but was originally lim- 
ited to a few elementary principles and manual operations. It was at 
first probably confined to longimetry, or the measuring of lengths and 
straight lines, which would be indispensable in the rudest attempts at 
building. Planimetry, or the measuring of surfaces was more diffi- 
cult, and required for its discovery a greater degree of improvement 
and attention. The first occasion for it seems to have been the divis- 
ion of lands. Stereometry, or the science of measuring solid bodies, 
was probably last in the order of discovery, although the invention of 
the balance, early in use, presupposes it. In these branches of sci- 
ence, the Egyptians, Babylonians and Phoenicians also led the way. 
Several mechanical instruments must undoubtedly be referred to a 
very high antiquity, as, for instance, the balance, the lever, and also 
the sledge and the wheel carriage. 

§ 27. The origin of geography must be ascribed to the necessity, 
which would soon be felt, of determining the situations and distance of 
countries already known and inhabited. The use of certain marks 
or memorials for recognizing places visited and left, the tracing of jour- 
nies from one spot to another, and the establishing of public routes, all 
conduced to a developement of this branch of knowledge. Of its 
existence to some extent, there is proof both in the conquests, 
and in the travels by sea and by land, which took place in the earliest 
times. It was however then, as in fact it was in the later and more 
enlightened periods of antiquity, exceedingly limited and defective. 
Neither the historical and statistical, nor the physical and mathemati- 
cal parts of this science were so regularly and carefully cultivated as 
were other sciences. 

J. Blair, History of Geography, Lond. 1784. 12.— J. R. Joly, Ancienne Geogr. 
comp. a la moderne. Par. 1801. 2 vols. 8. — W. Vincent, Commerce and Naviga- 
tion of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean. Lond. 1807. 2 vols. 4. — Hawkins, Ob- 
serv. on the Tin Trade of the Ancients. 8. 

§ 28. It appears from the foregoing remarks, that the first seat and 

as it were, the cradle of the sciences was in Asia and Egypt. The 

• cause is to be found in the numerous population of the countries, and 

the early organization of their civil state, so that the primary wants of 

life were easily supplied, and the human mind enjoyed freedom and 



INTRODUCTION. 19 

leisure for improvement. These countries also were not disturbed by 
tumult and war ; Egypt particularly enjoyed a long period of happy 
tranquility. The intercourse of the Phoenicians with other people, by 
means of their commerce and navigation, was peculiarly favorable to 
their advancement in knowledge. In general however, the progress 
in the arts and sciences was far less rapid in the first ages, than after- 
wards. The proper helps were comparatively few, and there was es- 
pecially wanting the means of an easy and ready intercommunication 
of knowledge, until the invention of alphabetic writing furnished one 
so appropriate and so useful. 

§ 29. From Asia and Egypt the arts and sciences were introduced 
into Greece. Here they attained that culture and perfection, which 
renders ancient history and literature so agreeable and so valuable 
a branch of modern knowledge. Through the Greeks, the Romans 
afterwards came into possession of the same treasure. These two na- 
tions preeminently distinguished themselves by their merits and ac- 
complishments in literature and the fine arts. Hence it is that there is 
so much in what pertains to Greece and Rome, that is worthy of our 
admiration and study. 

Much has been written both for and against classical studies. The various ar- 
guments cannot be presented here. But some references ought to be given. 

Respecting the peculiar excellence and spirit of the ancient classics, see Dvbos, 
Reflections critiques sur laPoesie et la Peinture ftr. by Nugent.) Lond. 1743. 3 
vols. 8. — A. Blackwall, Introduction to the Classics. Lond. 1727. 8 ; publ. also 
in Latin under the title, De Praestantia Class. Auct. Lips. 1735. 8. — G.Man- 
waring, On the Classiks, Lond. 1737. 8. — G. F. Gellert, sammtl. Schriften. Th. 
5th.— D. Jenisch, Geist der Alten. Berl. 1789. 8. 

Shortly after the revival of letters the famous question respecting the compar- 
ative merits of the ancients and moderns began to be agitated. The earliest wri- 
ters were Italian. A. Tassoni, Pensieri diversi. Carp. 1620. 4 (10th B.)— S. 
Lancelotto, L'oggidi, ovvero gl'ingegni moderni non infenori a'passati. Ven. 1658. 
8. — P. Beni, Comparazione di Tasso con Homero &c. Pad. 1612. 4 — In France 
the controversy began in 1687. — Ch. PerrauU, Le Siecle de Louis le Grand. 1687. 
By Same, Parallele des Anc. et Modernes. Par. 1688. — Longepierre, Disc, sur 
les Anciens. Par. 1687. 12. — P. D. Huet, Lettre sur le merite des Anc. et Mod. 
( in Pieces fug. d'Hist. et de Litt. Par. 1702. 12.)— Boileau, Reflex. Crit. in his 
Trans, of Longinus. Par. 1694. 12. — Tourneil, Disc, de la fameuse Quest, sur 
le Mer. des Anc. et des Mod. (in his works. Par. 1721. 4). — La Matte, Disc, sur 
Homere, (in his works, Par. 1754. 12). — Mad. Dacier, Des causes de la corrupt, 
du gout: Par. 1714. 12. — In England the following among others appeared on 
the question. Sir Wm. Temple, Essay upon the ancient and modern Learning, — 
in his Miscellanies. Lond. 1696. 8. — Wm. Wotton, Reflect, on anc. and mod. 
Learning. Lond. 1705. 8. — Swift, Battle of the Books. — Addison, Disc, upon 
anc. and mod. Learning. Long. 1739. 4. — See also J. Dennis, Advancement and 
reformation of mod. poetry. Lond. 1701.8. In Germany the question has not 
been much agitated. Haller, Quantum Antiqui eruditione etindustria antecel- 
lant Modernos. Bern. 1734. 4. — J. B. Carpzow, de antiq. et recent, doclrinae 
eompar. Helmst. 1748. 4. 

The utility of classical studies has been strongly controverted in this country. 



20 ARCHjEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. 

But the public conviction is evidently settling firmly in their favor. The Greek 
and Latin classics are now considered as indispensable in a good education, more 
generally than before the recent discussions of the question. The following are 
some of the many pieces relating to this topic. T. Grimke, Address bef. Lit. and 
Phil. Soc. of S. Carolina. Charleston, 1821.— Pax, on the Course of Study m the 
Oneida Institute, N. York Observer, Vol. XII. 1834.— BM. Repos. Oct. 1832.— 
Amer. Joum. of Science, Vol. XV. p. 297— Christ. Sped. 1827, p. 456.— M. Stuart, 
Q.uart. Jour. Am. Ed. Soc. July, 1828. 

§ 30. In what we term the Archceology of Literature and Art among 
the Greeks and Romans, it is not designed to enter into very minute 
details. The object will be to give a correct general view of the sub- 
ject, presenting the most important circumstances of the origin and 
progress of refinement in these nations, and enabling the reader to 
form a just idea of the actual state of letters and arts among them, as 
well as of the monuments which they have left to posterity. This ob- 
ject cannot be accomplished fully, if the history of knowledge and art 
is wholly separated from what may be called their antiquities. 

§ 31. The utility of such archaeological information cannot be ques- 
tioned. It furnishes us with the best illustrations of many passages 
and allusions in the Greek and Roman authors. It helps us to under- 
stand the peculiar excellencies and beauties of their writings and those 
also of the works of art. It puts us in a situation to form more correct 
opinions on these and kindred topics. In short it serves in respect to 
our own literary taste, not only to secure to it a solid basis, but to im- 
part refinement and delicacy. 

§ 32. The following works may be consulted for further details on 
the subjects presented in this introduction, and likewise on some of the 
topics of the following sketch. 

De l'Origine des Loix, des Arts et des Sciences chez les anciens Peuples (par 
M. Ant, Y. Goguet). 6meed.corr. Par. 1820. Eng, Transl. Edinb, 1775.— Versuch 
einer Geschichte derCultur des menschlichen Geschlechts (von Adelung). Leipz. 
1800. 8. — Chrlstoph. Melners, Geschichte des Ursprungs, Fortgangs und Verfalls 
der Wissenschaften in Griechenland und Rom. Lemgo 1781. — By same, Grund- 
riss der Geschichte der Menschheit. Lemgo, 1786. 8. — Herm. Hugo de prima 
scribendi origine ; cui notas adj. Trotzius. Traj. ad Rh. 1738. 8. — Traite de la 
formation mechanique des langues, (par Mr. le President de Brosses). Paris, 1801. 
—The Origin and Progress of Writing, by Tho. Astle, Esq. Lond. 1803. 4.— T. 
L. Hug, die Erfindung der Buchstabenschrift, ihr Zustand und fruhester Ge- 
brauch im Alterthum. Ulm. 1801. 4.— T. G. Christ's Abhandlungen Ober die Lit- 
eratur und Kunstwerke, vornehmlich des Alterthums, durchgesehen und mit An- 
merkungen begleitet von I. K. Zeune. Leipz. 1775/8.—/ A. Ernesti Archaeologia 
literaria. Ed. II. emendata atque aucta opera et studio G. H. Martini. Lipsia?, 



INTRODUCTION. 21 

1790. — T. Ph. Slebenkees Handbuch der Archaologie, oder Anleitung zur 
Kenntniss der Kunstwerke des Alterthums und zur Geschichte der Kunst der alten 
Volker. Zwei Abth. Nflrnb. 1799 u. 1300. 8.-7. 7. Ranibach, archaologisehe 
Untersuchungen. Halle 1778. As third Volume to his Translation of Pot- 
ter's Archaeol. Graeca. — Joh. Winkelmawn, Geschichte der Kunst des Alter- 
thums. Neue Aufl. Wien 1776. — Histoire de PArt chez Les Anciens par Win- 
kelmawn, ; avec des notes historiques et critiques de differens auteurs. Paris. An 
2e de la Rep. — Histoire de PArt par les Monumens depuisla decadence au IVme 
Siecle jusqu' a son renouvellement au XVIme pour servir de suite a Phistoire des 
Arts chez les anciens. Par Seroux d'Agincourt. Paris 1810 — 1823. — C. 6. Heyne's 
Einleitung in das Studium der Antike. Gott. 1772. 8. — Entwurf einer Geschichte 
der zeichnenden Kanste, von Dr. A . F. Buesching. Hamburg 1791. 8. — Orbis An- 
tiqui Monumentis Suis Illustrati Prima; Linese. Iterum duxit 7. 7. Oberlinus. Ar- 
gentor. 1790. 8. — P. F. A. Nitsch, Einleitung des Studiums der alten Kunst- 
werke far Kunstler und Kunstliebhaber. Leipz. 1792. 8. — Introduction a PEtude 
des Monumens Antiques, par A.L. Millin; ed. 2. Par. 1798. 8. — I.C.L. Schaajf, 
Encyklopadie der classischen Alterthumskunde. Magdeb. 1820. — Bailly, Lettres 
sur POrigine des Sciences. Paris 1777.— Chr. Fried. Weber, Versuch einer Ge- 
schichte der Screibkunst. Goett. 1807. Q.—Hirt, Geschichte der Baukunst bei den 
Alter. Berl. 1822. — Recherches sur Porigine de decouvertes attribues aux Moder- 
nes &c. by Le Tens. Paris, 1766. — Irwing, Versuche Uber den Ursprung der Er- 
kenntniss d. Wahrheit u. d. Wissenschaften. Berlin, 1781. S.—Beckmann, Hist, 
of Inventions and Discoveries, 4 vols. 8. Lond. 1814. — Virey, Hist. Natur. du 
Genre Humain. Bruxelles. 1827. 3 vols. 12.— Rio, L'Histoire de PEsprit Hu- 
main dans PAntiquite. Par. 1829. 2 vols. 8.— A. L. Millin, Monumens antiques 
inedits. Par. 1802 -4. 2 vols. 4. 



ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 



/. — Of the origin and first steps of Grecian culture. 

§ 33.* The most ancient traditions that have been preserved respect- 
ing the first population of Greece, exhibit the whole country as over- 
spread by a race called Pelasgi ; and there is some concurrence of 
testimony, that they were the primitive inhabitants of the country. 
(Strabo, L. VIII. § 10). Almost impenetrable darkness, however, 
hangs over their origin. But whether they were originally natives 
of the land (dvjox&oveg), or emigrants from countries beyond the 
Mediterranean, it is certain that more than 1800 years before Christ, 
they were dispersed over Greece, and a part of Italy. They con- 
sisted of a great number of independent tribes. 

See Herbert Marsh, Horse Pelasgicae, Camb. 1815. — Raoul-Rochette, Histoire 
Critique de l'etablissement des Colonies grecques. — Reeherches sur l'origine des 
Pelasges, in Memoires de l'Acad. Inser. and Belles Lett. Vol. XIV. — Karl. 
Ottf. Mueller, Gesch. hellenischer Stamme. Breslau, 1820. — Clavier, Histoire des 
premiers temps de la Grece &c. Par. 1822. 3 vols. 8. — Prichard, Phys. Hist, of 
Mankind, B. 5. Ch. 4.— Beck, Allg. Welt-und Volk-Geschichte. 

§ 34.* It is the general representation of the ancient writers, that 
the inhabitants of Greece, in the earliest periods to which tradition 
extended, were in a condition of extreme barbarism. Their food is 
said to have been the fruit of the earth spontaneously produced and 
gathered by accident or under the impulse of hunger ; their sexual 
intercourse to have been regulated by no law but animal passion ; and 
their science and art insufficient even to direct them to the use or 
discovery of the common element of fire (§ 7). There is no evidence 
that they made any advances from such a state, independently of the 
colonies from Egypt or Phoenicia, or other eastern countries, which ere 
long were planted among them. There seem to have been two peri- 



24 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

ods of this colonization, somewhat distinct, the first about 1800 years, 
and the other about 1500, before Christ. 

From the first of these periods civilization began to advance. If the Pelasgi 
were the original inhabitants represented as as once so barbarous, they were from 
this period elevated somewhat above their previous state. If the term Pelasgi 
was a common name to designate all the early occupants of Greece, that had 
come from beyond the sea, and so included the colonists of this very period, then 
we must say, that the Pelasgi from about 1800 B. C. were in a state more elevated, 
than the previous inhabitants. Or, whatever maybe the truth as to the Pelasgi, 
some advancement in civilization actually took place among the people ofGreece 
not far from this time. By some writers on this subject, especially the more re- 
cent, the Pelasgi are described as possessing, before the arrival of the later colo- 
nies, a system of religion with priests and mysteries, as having some knowledge 
of architecture, navigation, and military arts particularly fortification, and even 
using some sort of written language, if not an actual alphabet of letters. 

The second period alluded to was distinguished by the colony of the Phoenician 
Cadmus, who settled in Boeotia B. C. 1493, and founded the city, originally 
bearing his own name, afterwards called Thebes. This colony is the most cele- 
brated of all, as having contributed more than any other to the cultivation of the 
Greeks. The greatest benefit conferred by it was the art of alphabetic writing, 
which, according to the common opinion, was introduced by Cadmus (§44). 
— Schoell, Histoire de la Litterature Grecque, L. I. Ch. I. 

§ 35. Of the origin of the Greek language it may be said, that it 
was partly domestic and partly foreign. Its origin was do- 
mestic in as much as its basis and primary stock was the 
the vernacular tongue of the earliest inhabitants, who are by many 
considered to have been the Pelasgi, although, as has been suggested, 
this may be a name, under which were comprehended all the early oc- 
cupants of Greece that had come from beyond the sea. But the lan- 
guage must have experienced a very great foreign influence not only 
from the colonies successively planted in Greece, but from the inter- 
course, by commerce and otherwise, with the people occupying the 
coasts of Asia, with the Phoenicians and the Egyptians. In the most 
ancient monuments of the language especially the poetical, and in some 
very old proverbial fragments, there are evident traces of oriental- 
ism. (Comp. § 38). 

§ 36.* What the vernacular tongue of the first inhabitants of Greece 
was, is a question, upon which there has been much dispute, with com- 
paratively little light. That it was somehow formed from that one 
language, which survived the deluge and was the sole language of the 
earth until the confusion of tongues at Babel (2247 B. C), must be ad- 



ORIGIN OF GREEK LANGUAGE. 25 

mitted in all correct reasoning on the point. The confusion of tongues 
and the consequent dispersion of the human family was scarcely more 
than 300 years earlier than the period, to which the traditions respect- 
ing the population of Greece, already mentioned, must he referred. 
It is not certain precisely what changes took place in that language at 
the confusion ; but probably no one will suppose them to have been 
such as to form several absolutely new and essentially different tongues. 
The effect of confounding and separating the people surely might be 
accomplished by such changes in pronunciation and structure, as would 
leave the original language remaining substantially the same in all 
the new ones, as their basis. The languages of western Asia, although 
differing from each other in various particulars, are found to constitute 
a family possessing each the same radical characteristics. There can 
be little doubt that a radical resemblance, somewhat analogous to this, 
may be traced among all the early oriental tongues. 

See Historic sketch of the Hebrew Lan. in Stuart's Heb. Grammar. 

Whether the 'one language and one speech,' that underwent the changes of 
the confusion, was the language of Adam altered and improved by the successive 
generations of the Antediluvians all using the same tongue, or was one of several 
varieties formed out of it before the flood, is of no great importance to decide, 
even if we had the means of doing it with certainty. Nor does it seem of much 
consequence, whether, or not, we consider the Hebrew as the best representative 
of the language of Noah and his descendants previous to the confusion. It is, at 
least, quite certain that the Hebrew is one of the earliest of the languages known 
to have existed in western Asia. Many have believed it the original language of 
Eden, perpetuated and preserved from age to age in those families, that main- 
tained in the greatest degree the fear of God and cherished most the arts and du- 
ties of social life. See Shuckford, Sac. and Prof. Hist. B. ii. 

§ 37.* The fact ' of the dispersion mentioned by Moses must also 
be kept in view in inquiring whence came the first inhabitants of 
Greece. The common opinion ascribes the first settling of Asia Minor, 
the isles of the iEgean and the coasts of Greece, to the descendants 
of Japheth. These families or tribes, of course, carried with them 
their languages, as modified by the confusion.' How soon some of 
these families may have reached the southern parts of Greece cannot 
be known. Some etymologists have supposed the name Ionians 
("luveg), by which the Greeks were very early designated, to be de- 
rived from Javan, the son of Japheth (Gen. x. 2). The name Javan 
was used by the Hebrews to designate the people and country of the 
Ionians. And it is admitted by some who place no confidence in 

4 



26 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

this etymology, that the Greeks were called Ionians before the time of 
the Ion ("Iwf) mentioned in the Greek traditions. 

See Remains of Japhet, or Hist. Enquiries into the Affinity and origin of the 
European Languages, by J. Parsons. Lond. 1767. — Shuc/cford, Conn. Sac. and 
Prof. Hist. B. iii.— Gesenius, Heb. Lex. by Gibbs. 

§ 38.* The various and learned researches into the origin of the 
Greek language seem to furnish nothing more satisfactory than is sug- 
gested by these few facts and considerations. The families of Japheth 
removed, from the seats occupied by the human family immediately after 
the flood in a central part of Asia, towards the northwest to their as- 
signed portions of the earth, carrying with them a language or lan- 
guages radically the same with those left in Asia in the families of 
Shem. Whatever length of time therefore might elapse before the rich 
vales of Greece were occupied by them, or whatever family may have 
first entered them , the real basis of the language may be considered 
the same. In this view, some variety of the language of Noah, 
kindred to the Hebrew and its fellows of the Shemitish family, and 
possessing a radical resemblance to them, was the foundation on which 
was built the beautiful and polished superstructure of the Greek. • 

It is easy to account for the disappearance of a great part of the original re- 
semblance between the Greek and the oriental dialects, if the resemblance once 
existed. The tribes of Greece, being removed from the centre of civilization, 
gradually sunk down to a state of almost perfect barbarism, and in this state their 
own traditions first present them to us. And after they began to awake, under 
the impulse from the colonies already spoken of, there were frequent emigrations, 
revolutions, amalgamations, and other changes of society, calculated greatly to 
modify the language. So that admitting a much greater degree of resemblance 
to have once existed, the subsequent traces of it might not be more numerous 
than are actually found. — See Ernesti de Vestigiis linguae Hebraicae in lingua 
Giaeca ; Opusc. Philol. 

For an account of some of the various theories respecting the origin of the 
Greek language, see Harles Introd. inHistoriam Ling. Graecae (Prol. §4i. — The 
following is from a ' Synopsis of a course of Lect. on the Hist, of Gk. Litera- 
ture,' by Edward Everett, which it is much to be regretted he did not complete 
and publish. 

1. The descent of the nations of the earth has naturally led to inquiries into the 
descent of their languages. The permanence of the radical forms of language, 
amidst the changes of what is external, has encouraged these inquiries. 

2. In inquiring after the supposed original language, various theories have re- 
spectively ascribed that character to the Hebrew, the Teutonic, the Celtic, the 
Flemish, the Gothic. A writer of the present day maintains that German was 
the court language of Rome in the time of Augustus. [Cf. Postellus de onginibus 



- ORIGIN OF GREEK LANGUAGE. 27 

seu de Hebraicee lingua? et gentis antiquitate et de variorum linguarum affinitate, 
&c. V. Mueller uber die Ursprache]. 

3. The Greek has been derived by some from the Asiatic, and by others from 
the northern languages ; and by a third hypothesis has been made itself the orig- 
inal language. The defenders of this last opinion are Von der Hardt and Ericus. 
[Cf. Harlesii Introd. in Histor. Ling. Grsec. i. 12, 13, and Davies' Celtic Re- 
searches, p. 243. 

4. Descent of the Greek from the Scythian or Gothic maintained by Ihre. (Cf. 
Dissertat. de originibus ling. Lat. et Gra?c. inter Ma?so-Gothos reperiundis. Also 
Analecta Ulphiana]. From the Egyptian by Marsharn, (Cf. Canon. Chronic, p. 
119), and Lord Monboddo. From the Hebrew by Koenig, Oger and many others. 
From the Ethopian by Allwood. i"Cf. Literary Antiquities of Greece, by P, All- 
wood, 4to, Lond. 1799, p. 344]. By Nils Iddman from the Finnish. By Lin- 
hard from the Sclavonian. By Webb from the Chinese. [Harles ub. Supr], 

5. Two considerations account for such theories: (1.) Our ignorance of these 
pretended original languages, of which nothing remains but from a compara- 
tively recent age, Instanced in the Gothic, which, though a language of high 
antiquity, is known only from the version of the N. T. made by Ulphilas in the 
fourth century. (Cf. Bopp ueber die Conjugationssystem der Sangskritischer 
Sprache, &c). (2.) Some words are common to many languages, in consequence 
of accidental causes, not connected with the descent of the languages. Instanced 
in the relics of Arabic in several European tongues. (Cf. Bellermann, Phe- 
niciae lingua; vestigiorum in Melitensi specimen, Berlin, 1809]. 

6. Some words no doubt are common to many languages, in consequence of 
the original community of stock. 

§ 39.* The causes of the great perfection, to which the Greek language 
attained, are in vain sought for. No theory of its first basis and origin 
affords an answer to the question, how it acquired in form, harmony 
and power so wonderful a superiority, not only to a rough and scanty- 
eastern dialect, but to every known language of the world. This it 
certainly gained at a very early period, for the language existed in all 
its essential perfection in the time of Homer ; and gained it also in 
circumstances apparently not very favorable to the refinement of lan- 
guage, in the midst of the migrations, the wars, the conquests and ex- 
pulsions, the enthusiasm and lawlessness of the heroic ages. Some 
in explaining this refer to the delightful climate and beautiful scenery 
of Greece, as these undoubtedly tended to soften the character of the 
inhabitants and inspire them with delicate sensibilities, and so indi- 
rectly to mellow and adorn their language. Another source of im- 
provement to it has been pointed out in the early rise of republican 
institutions, and the obvious advantages enjoyed by a speaker in the 
popular assemblies who could best win attention and sway the judg- 
ment by the superior excellence of his diction. Some regard is like- 



2S ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 4 

wise due to the conjecture, which ascribes much of the polish of the 
Grecian tongue to those bards of the heroic ages, who celebrated with 
poetry and music the deeds of their ancestors, or of bold and enter- 
prising chieftains, or sung the praises of the Gods ; as their rythmical 
effusions, their hymns and invocations, might naturally promote the 
flexibility and sweetness of the language. But after all that can be 
said, the perfection of this language remains an unexplained phe- 
nomenon in the history of letters. 

It is not more so, however, than the wonderful copiousness, flexibility, and ap- 
parently artificial structure of several of the aboriginal languages of America. 
The truth is, no theoretical reasoning can be relied on in relation to a subject, 
which in its nature is so changeable as human language, a thing so airy and fleet- 
ing as 'winged words' and sounds of breath. We may explain facts if we can, 
but as in all other cases, so here, whether we can explain them or not, we must 
take them as they are. See Barton, New Views on the origin of the Amer. Abo- 
rigines. — Dwponceau, Prelim, Dissertation, Transact, of Lit. and Hist. Depart, of 
Americ. Phil. Soc. Vol. I. — Prichard, Phys. Hist. B. viii. 

§ 40.* It has already been remarked that the first impulse, that 
served to rouse the Greeks from the torpor of barbarism, was given by 
colonies from the east planted among them. Various descriptions and 
allusions in Homer make it evident, that a very considerable improve- 
ment had taken place in the condition of Grecian society antecedently 
to his time. The general source of this culture was the knowledge 
and civilization of the east. The influence upon the Greeks from the 
east was felt in other ways besides through the colonies just mentioned, 
and particularly by means of commerce. Commerce was at this 
early period chiefly in the hands of the Phoenicians. This adventur- 
ous people carried their merchandize to the western extremities of the 
Mediterranean, and surely could not overlook the numerous islands and 
cities of Greece. Nor is it improbable that some of those bold enter- 
prises against the people of the east, which are related of the heroic 
ages, exerted upon the Greeks some favorable reflex influence, 
especially the siege and capture of Troy. • 

See Heeren's Reflections, by Bancroft, ch. 3. 

§ 41.* The influence of eastern nations upon the early culture of 
the Greeks manifests itself in several particulars. It appears in their 
religion, in one point especially ; and that is the fact, that the gods of 
Greek mythology were at first viewed merely as symbols, or repre- 



ORIENTAL INFLUENCES. 29 

sentatives of sensible objects, such as rivers, mountains, the sun, &c. 
or of the invisible powers of nature. As such symbols these gods 
under the same or similar names existed in the eastern nations, 
especially the Egyptians. In the same sense, that is, as designed to 
represent allegorically the appearances and changes of the material 
world, they were first used by the Greeks, but afterwards came to be 
considered as possessing personal attributes, and at length the popular 
creed embraced them as beings having a real a ad present existence. 

Some of the peculiar early institutions for the Greeks, as the myste- 
ries and the oraqles, show also this influence of the east. Great as is 
the obscurity hanging over the nature and design of the Greek myste- 
ries, their foreign origin is not doubted, and the prototypes of many 
of them are found in the rites and superstitions of Egypt, Phoenicia and 
Crete. To such a source may be traced the mysteries of Bacchus and 
Adonis, the rites of the Curetes and Dactyli, and the Eleusinian, most 
celebrated of all. One of the earliest oracles, that of Dodona, seems 
to have been started by a female slave once employed in the service of 
an Egyptian temple ; and that of Delphi, which gained the highest 
renown, is ascribed to the artifice of a company of Cretan priests. 

Heercn's Reflections &c. by Bancroft. Ch. III.— Mitj 'or <Ts Hist. Ch. III. § 2. 
— F. Schlegel's Lect. on Hist, of Lit. Sect. 2. 

§ 42.* The influence of eastern cultivation may be noticed likewise 
in relation to the arts. Even in the time of Homer, Phoenician artists 
were considered by the Greeks as superior in skill and elegance. 
Whenever the poet speaks of an article of peculiar beauty and excel- 
lence, it is usually said to be of Phoenician workmanship ; as, for in- 
stance, the silver bowl, which Achilles proposed as a prize in the 
games at the funeral of Patroclus (II. V. 743), 'Sidonian artists 
wrought it, and Phoenicians brought it over the sea.' Hence it is 
obvious where Grecian artists were looking for patterns and models. 

It also may be worthy of remark, that we perceive an oriental stamp 
in the subjects and spirit of the fragments of the earliest Greek poetry. 
They are chiefly hymns to the gods, or metrical fables respecting the 
origin of the world, the formation of man, the primeval happiness, the 
subsequent apostacy, and the miseries which soon overwhelmed the 
race. They exhibit views respecting the nature and attributes of one 
supreme God much more spiritual than subsequently prevailed, and 
more consonant with the truth of revelation. They seem to be 



30 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE, 

tinctured with traditionary recollections of the patriarchal and antedi- 
luvian ages of Asiatic society. 

See F. SchelgeVs Lect. on Hist. Lit. Lect. 2. Also, on various coincidences in 
Grecian fiction with facts in Scripture history, see references under Mythology. 

§ 43.* In alluding to the circumstances connected with the early 
culture of the Greeks, it is proper to notice the bards or minstrels 
'Aoidoi, already mentioned (§ 39). They were of a class such as is 
generally found in every age of semibarbarous heroism and chivalry. 
They strolled from one prince's hall to another's, or were attached to a 
favorite chieftain and family, or employed and supported in connection 
with the temples and worship of the Gods. They either sung their 
own verse, or recited, as was generally the practice of those called 
rhapsodists (^Paip wdoi), the compositions of others. Greek literature 
had its origin in these performances. After the time of Homer, his 
poems were the principal theme of the Rhapsodists, who rehearsed 
his poetry accompanying it with music, and sometimes adding com- 
ments or explanations of their own. 

§ 44.* Nor should we overlook here those meetings for purposes of 
festivity and trial of bodily strength and activity, to which the Greeks 
were very early accustomed. They exerted, beyond doubt, some influ- 
ence on Grecian culture, especially when they became such illustrious 
occasions as were, in particular, the four national games. It is only 
necessary here just to advert to these, as having their rise in this early 
period. The Olympian, after many years of occasional suspension 
and renewal, were at last solemnly established 776, B. C. and were sub- 
sequently supported with increasing splendor. The other three, Pyth- 
ian, Isthmian and Nemean, were not fully established as regular festi- 
vals until a much later time, but still had been long in existence, and oc- 
casionally much frequented. 

Of the institutions more strictly of a political character, it is suffi- 
cient to mention the Amphictyonic council, which was of very early 
origin, and which may be supposed to have had some effect on the gen- 
eral improvement of the Greeks, as it seems to have been designed to 
support a kind of law of nations among the states, and to promote the 
tranquillity and happiness of the whole country. — See Mitford. Ch. 
III. §3- 



ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 31 



I/. — Of the Alphabet, method of writing, and books. 

§ 45. Alphabetic writing, according to the general opinion, was in- 
troduced by Cadmus, a Phoenician leader who settled in Bcsotia, and 
founded Thebes, 1493 B. C. There may be grounds for the conject- 
ure that the Greeks possessed before this some written characters or 
at least a sort of picture-writing. Perhaps, however, these more an- 
cient characters, called Pelasgic, were originally Phoenician, since 
the Pelasgi were probably of Phoenician origin. There is an obvious 
resemblance between the letters of the Phoenician and those of the 
Grecian alphabet. Indeed the Phoenician may be considered as the 
primary source of all the European alphabets ancient and modern. 
We need not, from this, suppose the Phoenicians to have been the ac- 
tual inventers of alphabetic writing, which perhaps had its origin in 
Egypt, commencing in an abbreviation of hieroglyphics. 

The common opinion ascribing to Cadmus the introduction of letters is founded 
upon an assertion of Herodotus (5. 28, 58). But it is contradicted by Diodorus 
Siculus (5. 57, 74), who relates that the Greeks possessed letters several genera- 
tions before Cadmus, and used them for public monuments, and that a deluge de- 
stroyed these first elements of civilization. Pausanias (1. 43) speaks of an in- 
scription read by him at Megara, on the most ancient monument in Greece. 
The date of this monument according to Larcher, was 1678 B. C. The inscrip- 
tion was therefore anterior to Cadmus and of course Pelasgic. 

But the alphabet of the Greeks bears, in the names, order, and forms of its 
letters, a striking resemblance to those of nations belonging to the Semitic race 
i. e. the Phoenicians, Samaritans and Jews. How is this to be reconciled with the 
idea, that the Pelasgi had an alphabet before the arrival <>f Cadmus? Or if there 
was a previous alphabet in Greece, was it given up on the arrival of Cadmus, 
and the Phoenician adopted in its place 1 It is conjectured by some, that the Pe- 
lasgi had the Phoenician alphabet from the first, and that Cadmus only introduced 
anew material for writing. Before him stones and metals were the chief mate- 
rials. If he introduced the art of writing on the palm-leaf, which was used for 
the purpose by the Egyptians before the papyrus, it would very naturally be 
adopted instead of the more difficult and laborious use of metals. And the let- 
ters traced on the palm-leaf might with propriety be termed yqa^iara <t>onty.tta, 
the epithet referring not to the form or nature, or origin of the letters (those of 
Cadmus being the same with those of the Pelasgi), but to the material on which 
they were written. See Schoell, Hist. Lit. Gr. L. iii. Ch. 3. — Weber, Geschichte 
der Schreibkunst, 

Respecting the origin of the Phoenician Alphabet, see Hug, Erfindung der 
Buchstabenschrift. ' This writer,' says Schoell, ' has shown that the Phoenician 
letters are hieroglyphic, and the hieroglyphics Egyptian. Aleph signifies ox, and 
its primitive form resembles the head of that animal. Beth signifies house, and 
its first form represents an Egyptian house or hut pointed at the top. Gamel 
(Gimmel) would signify a camel, and this letter was originally the head of the 
same.' The reader will not fail to perceive, that in each of these the principle of 
Champollion's system of interpreting the Egyptian hieroglyphics is exaetly ex- 
emplified. 

For a comparison of the Greek and Hebrew Alphabets, see Butlman's Gram, by 
Robinson, p. 459 ; — Stuart's Heb. Gram. p. 385 ;— of the Greek and Phoenician, 
Shuckford, Sac. and Prof. Hist. B. IV. 



82 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

§ 40. The alphabet of Cadmus was incomplete, consisting, as is 
commonly thought, of only sixteen letters, A, B, r> 4, E, J, K, A, 
M, N, 0, n, P, 2, T, Y. Soon after were added Z, 0, H, and a, 
and subsequently <P, X, V, and Jl. The former were termed Kad/ueia 
or 'PoivixBia yqdfi[iixTtx, Cadmean.or Phoenician letters. The addi- 
tional characters are ascribed to Palamedes, Simonides, and Epichar- 
mus. Cadmus is also said to have introduced the art of reckoning, 
and the use of several important signs, iniarjfia, to express number, as 
(lav (? or F) for the Number 6, xonna (9 or q) for 90, and aa/inl^) 
for 900. These letters soon were received among the Ionians, 
and, being somewhat changed by them, formed what was called the 
Ionian Alphabet, which contained twenty four letters, and of which 
Callistratus the Safnian is considered as the author. The Ionians im- 
parted these improvements to the other Grecian nations, and after the 
middle of the 94th Olympiad, about 403 B. C. the Athenians made 
use of this alphabet in the public writings of the state. 

Plin. Hist. Nat. L. vii. c. 56, 57.— Wolf, Proleg. Horn. § 70.— Hug's work be- 
fore cited (§ 45, 32) p. 15. — see also BuUman's Gram, by Robinson. 

' The common assertion of writers on the old Greek alphabet has been, that it 
consisted originally of only sixteen letters. But this assertion is built upon no def- 
inite and certain testimony. The oldest writers, Herodotus (5. 58) and Diodorus 
Siculus (5. 24), who relate (he story of Cadmus, say nothing of the number of 
letters ; and the accounts of later times disagree. Aristotle makes eighteen 
(Plin. Hist. Nat. 7. 56) ; another account seventeen. Plut. Sympos. 8. quaest. 3. 
Isidor. Orig. 1. 3). Stuart's Heb. Gram. 

Respecting the use of letters to designate numbers, see Index at the word 
Numbers. 

§ 47. The exact form of the earliest Greek letters cannot be decided, 
because there are now no written monuments of so high antiquity. 
That they underwent many changes in shape is from the nature of 
the case in the highest degree probable, and it is possible that charac- 
ters, afterwards supposed to be new, were merely intentional changes 
of this kind. Their resemblance to the Phoenician in form was no 
doubt greater at first than at a later period. Indeed evidence of vari : 
ous changes is still found upon existing medals and inscriptions, al- 
though in a matter where so much may be arbitrary, the epoch of the 
changes, or the age in which each different form was used, cannot be 
accurately determined. 

Euettner, Vergleichungstafeln der Schriftarten verschiednerVolker. Getting. 
1771. 4— Knight's Analyt. Ess. on the Greek Alphabet, §26.—Mmtfaucon, Palaeo- 
graphia Graeca. Par. 1708.— Wilson's Essay on Grammar. Phil. 1817. Ch. I. 

§ 48. The direction of the letters and lines in the writing of the 
most ancient Greeks was the same as among the eastern nations, from 



FORM OF LETTERS. 33 

right to left. This might he expected if their Alphabet came from 
Phoenicia. Ere long the direction was in the first line from right to 
left, in the second from left to right, and so on in alternation, each line 
being connected to the next by a curve. This method, as it repre- 
sented the course of the ox in ploughing, was termed (iovaiqotprjddv. 
In this manner, for example, the laws of Solon were written, and many- 
public monuments, of which some yet remain. A nother mode was 
termed xiovrjdov, in which the letters were arranged perpendicularly 
as by the modern Chinese, in the form of a pillar ; there was another, 
in which the lines were successively shortened, in the form of a basket, 
wnvQtddv ; these however were only for amusement and scarcely de- 
serve to be mentioned. At length came into general use the method 
followed by the moderns, of writing wholly from left to right ; its in- 
troduction among the Greeks is ascribed to Pronapides, who accord- 
ing to some was a preceptor to Homer. (Diod. Sic. 3. G6). 

$ 49. In more ancient times the large form of the letters, or the 
uncial character (literae majusculae, capitals), was always used in 
writing. It constantly appears on the old Greek coins and inscrip- 
tions, and is found also in the earliest manuscripts. The smaller 
form, or the cursive character, became common first in the middle ages, 
in the eighth or ninth century, and grew, it is likely, out of abbreviat- 
ions and alterations of the larger letters, Avhich were always written 
singly, with no grouping or contracting. An earlier use of this char- 
acter is, however, proved by some remaining specimens ; it is found 
on a roll of papyrus, to which a date as early as 104 B, C. has been 
conceded. Abbreviations of words were rarely made in ancient writing, 
although not altogether unusual upon coins and inscriptions. Such 
as were used were termed ai^sia, aiylui, and i*ovoy(>dfi[iuia. They 
consisted chiefly in this, that sometimes, and principally in writing 
proper names, only the initials were employed, or the middle of a 
word was omitted, and either written over it, or the omission indicated 
by a small dash, or several letters were combined into a single figure. 

J. Nicolai, Tractatus de siglis Veterum. Lugd. Bat. 170G.— Corsini, Nota? 
Graecorum. Flor. 1749. — Placentinii, de siglis Vet. Grsec. Opus. Rom. 1757. — Erk- 
Jarung einer agyptischen Urkunde aut' Papyrus in griech. Oursivschril't, von A. 
Bceckk Berl. 1821. 

On the origin and form of the Greek letters, and the modes of writing, see also 
Hades, Introd. jn Ling. Gr. §1. — Gqguet, Or. Laws &e. P. ii. B. 2. Ch. 6. 

§ 50. The breathings, as they are now called, were, in the most an- 
cient writing of the Greeks, characters occupying a place in the line 
along with the letters. Among the Ionians the character was H, and 
among the /Kalians it was F, or what is called the Digamma. The 

5 



84 AKCll.KOl.OOY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

former was, joined to the smooth consonants to render them aspirates, 
as in KHPQ1V02 for A'^oj-o?. Subsequently, two smaller signs were 
formed out of H by dividing it, F and ^ , and these were used to indi- 
cate respectively the presence and absence of aspiration. Afterwards 
they were changed, by transcribers for the sake of convenience, into 
another form, L and J , and again after the ninth century into a form, 
^ and J, still easier for writing. The ancient Greek grammarians 
sometimes introduced the breathing into the middle of a word, on the 
ground of its derivation or composition, as, for example, >£<j>g, nlr\- 
aidloe. This practice Mazochi observed in the Herculanean inscrip- 
tions, and Villoison also in a valuable manuscript of Homer found in 
the library of St. Mark at Venice, belonging to the tenth century. 

See Lemgoisch. Auserles. Bibliothek. V. viii.p. 78.— Knight, Analyt. Ess. on 
Greek Alphabet. 

$51. The marks called accents were not commonly used by the 
Greeks, because the true intonation of the language was sufficiently 
known to them, and of course such helps were unnecessary. There is, 
at least, no mention of them in the ancient authors, nor any trace of them 
in the oldest monuments of Greek writing. But, when in the speech of 
common life many words received wrong tones, the Grammarians be- 
gan in such cases to use signs to indicate the correct utterance. About 
the year 200 B. C. the present accentual system was introduced by 
Aristophanes of Byzantium ; yet considerable time elapsed before it 
came into general use. Upon inscriptions belonging to the first cent- 
ury after Christ, the accents have been found, but rarely. Perhaps 
these marks were not wholly unknown to the more ancient Greeks, 
being designed not to point out tones for the reader, but to serve as mu- 
sical notes for the singer. 

The accented verse on a wall in Hercnlaneum, adduced by Winckelmann 
(Works II. p. 124. cf. Pitture ant. d'Ercol. II. p. 34), is not considered genuine. 
Harles, Int. in Ling. Gr. Supp. I. p. 9. 

The doctrine of the Greek accents is amply treated by Prof. K. F. Chr. Wag- 
ner (Helmst. 1807), who refers also to the principal works on the subject. — See 
Villvison's Anecd. Grac. II. 131.— Harles, Int. in Ling Gr. § 6.— also Index, at 
word Accents. 

§ 52. Originally, likewise, sentences and their constituent members 
were not distinguished by any interpunction or intervening signs of 
separation. Not only were the sentences without punctuation, but the 
words themselves were often as near each other as the several letters 
of a single word. Sometimes however on inscriptions the words are 
separated by points placed between them. The invention of marks for 
punctuation is to be ascribed to Aristophanes, the Greek grammarian 



MATERIALS USED IN WRITING. 35 

before mentioned. The whole system consisted in the different loca- 
tions of a point or dot ; which, placed after the last letter at the top or 
above it (tsUio. aziyfirj), indicated the close of a sentence, or a period; 
after the last letter of a word at the bottom or under it (tinoojiyftr)) 
was equivalent to a comma ; and after the last letter in the middle 
(ffTtyf/tj [tear)) corresponded to a colon or semicolon. The comma or 
hypodiastole, was by the grammarians often placed between words, 
which otherwise might be incorrectly divided, as, for example, tanv, 
agiog, with the sign between that they might not be read e'fftt vd&og ; 
and the hyphen, a curved stroke under the line, was sometimes used to 
indicate that two words constituted one compound word, as in %eiQi<ro- 
<pog. Breaking off the lines was sometimes made to serve instead of 
punctuation ; in this method (ot^j^wj, OTL/rjodv), every complete sent- 
ence was made to begin a new line, and often even the several mem- 
bers of the sentence were thus arranged, in a form like that of verse. 

In modern printing, the following signs of interpanction are used ; viz. com- 
ma' — ,), colon ( — ), period ( — .), interrogation ( — ;), and lately, exclamation 
( — !). The diastole, or hypodiastole is used in some cases, as in S , xi (neuter of 
ootij) and to, re (article), to distinguish them from on and tot*. — For other 
marks, see Robinson's Buttmann, § 15, 29, 30. 

§ 53. The materials, on which it was customary to write in Greece, 
were different according to the different purposes of the writing. Stone, 
brass, lead, wood and the like were employed, when the design was 
to record memorable events for posterity, or to promulgate public de- 
crees or laws. For common and private purposes, the more usual ma- 
terials were leaves, inner bark of trees (ylotog), afterwards, parch- 
ment, wooden tablets simple or covered with wax, ivory, linen cloth, 
and Egyptian paper. The latter, formed from the fibres or bark of the 
papyrus (fiifilog), was, according to the opinion of some, first used in 
Greece in the time of Alexander the Great, but most probably earlier. 
There was also another variety of paper formed of the layers of in- 
ner bark (ZvloxagTiov), and another made from cotton (xocqtiov fiofi- 
fivxiag, charta bombycina). These two however were common only 
in the later ages. Still later was the 'invention of paper made from 
rags as at the present day, belonging perhaps to the middle of the 13th 
century. 

See G. F. Wehrs, vom Papier und den vor der Erfindung desselben ublich 
gewesen Screibmassen. Halle 1789. Suppl. Hanov. 1790. — A. F. Pfeiffcr, uber 
Bticher-Handschriften. Erlaag. 1810. —Caijlus, Mem. de l'Acad. des lnscr. xxvi. 
The term ;ra'oT);« was general, designating any substance employed for writing. 
Skins of animals rudely prepared (Saf&iqai, axvroi;) seem to have been used at an 
early period. Parchment was first prepared at Pergamos, whence its name 
JTteya^jjv/;. — Cf. Eickorn, Gesch. des Stud, der Class. Litt. § 60. 

The laws of Solon were inscribed on tablets of wood, called o$ore?, which are 
said to have been of a pyramidal shape, and so fixed as to turn on a pivot or axis. 
{Getlius, Noct. Att. ii. 42). The term xvQpeig was also applied to such tablets. 



36 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

§ 54. The usual instrument for writing on the harder materials, and 
also on the tablets covered wax, was the style (tmiloj, ygoKpeiov, ylv- 
q>Eioy). This was pointed at one end, and broad at the other for the 
purpose of erasing letters and smoothing the surface of the wax, if a 
mistake were made, or the writer for any reason wished an alteration. 
It was usually made of iron, sometimes of ivory. For drawing the let- 
ters with colors or some sort of ink, sometimes a pencil was employed, 
but more commonly a reed (xula/nog, 8<ivaS). The reed or cane chiefly 
used was that from Egypt or Cnidus. It was sharpened and split for 
the purpose, like our pen, which was not known to the ancients, the 
beginning of the 7th century being the earliest period of its use. 

See Beckmann's History of Inventions and Discoveries. — Isidorus, Origin. 
L. 6. c. 13. 

The pencil was properly an instrument for painting. Its invention is ascribed 
to Apollodorus, an Athenian painter, 408 B. (5. 

§ 55. The ink was commonly black (jusXav, fislav yQaqmtov); and 
was prepared, according to Pliny and Vitruvius, from soot and gum. 
In the middle ages, red ink was much used, particularly for initial 
letters, signatures, borderings and ornaments ; a superior, very bril- 
liant kind, called iyxuvuzov (encaustum), was used in the signatures 
to the public documents of the Greek Emperors. Among the ancients 
the titles of books and sometimes of particular sections were written 
in red (rubrica) ; hence the word rubrick. The practice of adorning 
the large initials with gold, silver, and images, and of writing upon 
purple or violet coloured parchment with letters of gold or silver, seems 
to have commenced in the later ages. With the ancients, however, it 
was customary to polish the parchment or paper with pumice-stone, 
and for the sake of durability as well as fragrance, to spread over it 
the oil of cedar. 

Hor. Art. Poet. 331. Plin. 1. xvi. c. 39. 

§ 56. The ancient form of books was that of Rolls (iilrjfiuiu) re- 
sembling modern charts or maps when rolled up, with writing only 
on the inner side. The several strips or leaves of the parchment or 
paper were glued to each other at the ends, either before or after the 
writing; from this circumstance the first strip or leaf, that uppermost 
on the roll, was called n^uroxoUov, and the last saxaroxollov. The 
whole was then wound upon a rod, or cylinder (doTQalLoxog, 6,uq>al6g), 
which was ordinarily made of wood, or ivory and had at both ends 
projecting ornaments, knobs or the like, called dxgofupdha, or xigaja. 
The title (aiUa^og) was written on the back of the protocol visible 
after the winding of the roll, or on a small separate strip (nmdxiov) 



TORM OF BOOKS. COPYISTS. 37 

attached to the edge of the roll. The book itself, or whole roll, was 

encompassed with bands, or enclosed in a case. 

Heeren and Gibbon allude to a singular manuscript, said to have existed in the 
library at Constantinople (§ 76); 'an ancient manuscript of Homer, on a roll .of 
parchment one hundred and twenty feet in length, the intestines, as it was fabled, 
of a prodigious serpent.'— Gibbon, Dec.aad Fall of Rom. Emp. ch. liii, (N. York, 
1822, vol. v. p. 367). 

§ 57. Although the roll was the most common form, yet the Greeks 
had books of a quadrangular form, with the writing on both sides of 
the leaves (oniodoyQayoi). Such were termed dslioi, a name first 
applied to tablets or pieces of writing, resembling in shape the letter 
Delta. The invention of the quadrangular form is generally ascribed 
to Attalus king of Pergamus, but came into general use first in the 5th 
•century after Christ. Several leaves or sheets, folded double, were 
placed in layers one upon another and joined by thread or strings; 
and these were said to be tergal dia, quaternary, nevrdSia, 
quinary, and so on, according to the number. The term 
rergddia, was also used sometimes to signify whole books of this form. 
The kind just described was different from the folded tablets, called di- 
nxvxa, which became specially remarkable in connection with affairs 
of state. 

§ 58. There were among the Greeks copyists, who made it their 
business to transcribe books. Those, who had distinguished skill in 
writing, were called xalliyqdyoi. Those, who applied themselves to take 
down discourses or addresses, and so made use of notes and abbrevia- 
tions, were named orj/iEioyQayoi and xaxvyqdcpoi. Such as wrote in 
golden letters, or ornamented with golden initial letters manuscripts, 
in which places had been left for that purpose, were termed /ovcroyQu- 
q>oh Among the later Greeks, transcribers received the Roman ap- 
pellation of notaries (notarii). In the middle^ ages the w r ork of tran- 
scribing was especially the employment of ecclesiastics and monks 
in the convents and abbeys, in which there was usually an apartment 
expressly fitted for the object, called the scriptorium. 

Alexandria was the principal resort of the copyists in the later periods of Gre- 
cian literature. Here the Calligraphi were very numerous even until the irrup- 
tion of the Arabs. About thirty years before that event the circumstance is men- 
tioned by an eye-witness ( Theophyl. Simocatta, Hist- viii. 13). — See Hod<r};iris 
Calligraphia et Poecilographia Groeca. 4. 

§ 59. In the most ancient times in Greece the use of writing was in- 
frequent. Many affairs of civil life, afterwards transacted in writing, 
were then conducted orally, as, for example, judicial causes, contracts, 
and treaties. The earliest written laws were those of Draco. Even 
inscriptions upon public monuments and tombs were but seldom in 
the first ages. There is scarcely a trace in Homer of written orders 



38 ARCH.EOLOOY OF GREEK LITERATURE 

ov despatches ; every thing of the kind being- transacted by oral inter- 
course or messages. In a single instance only does he allude to a 
written communication (Iliad, vi. 168 — 178), where Proetus is repre- 
sented as sending something like a letter with written characters (crr r 
fiara ygviyius sv nivattt nrvxrai) by Bellerophon to Jobates ; but there 
are different explanations of this passage. The writing of books 
seems to have commenced in the time of Pisistratus and Solon, and its 
first fruits were perhaps merely the recording of traditionary poetry. 
It is not an improbable supposition, that the poetry of Homer was not 
committed to writing by himself, but that this was first done at. a later 
period, and with the insertion of many passages not belonging to it. 

Wood's Essay on the Original Genius &c. of Homer. — Wolfii Prolegomena ad 
Homerum. — Coleridge on Homer, in Introduction to the study of the Greek 
Classic Poets. — Quarterly Review, No. 87. — Goguet, Or. Law.s &c. P. ii. B. II. 
§ 6. See also Index, Homer. 

§ 60. Instruction in the early periods was also of course chiefly 
oral. The name of sages, or wise men (uoyoi, oocpurrai), was con- 
ferred on all, who were distinguished for their knowledge and thereby 
enjoyed a conspicuous rank and influence in the state. These men 
delivered brally their doctrines and precepts, which in later periods 
were collected and recorded. In the first ages, when the compass and 
sum of all known attainments was not very great, many and various 
kinds were united in one individual, who was at once theologian, 
physiologist, speculative andpractical philosopher, statesman, lawgiver, 
poet, orator, and musician. The subsequent division and separation 
of the branches of knowledge contributed to its advancement and per- 
fection, although probably not to any increase of its direct and imme- 
diate influence. 



III. — Of the most flourishing period of Greek Literature. 

§ -61. During the time intervening between Solon, B. C. 594, and 
Alexander, B. C. 336, Greek literature rose to its greatest splendor. 
In this period, the circumstances of the Greeks generally, and of the 
Athenians in particular, were such as very happily conspired to pro- 
mote literature and the arts. Among the causes which contributed to 
their progress, may be mentioned, in addition to the circumstances al- 
ready noticed, the native disposition of the people, favourably influ- 
enced by the climate and the physical features of the country, the free 



GRECIAN EDUCATION. GYMNASIA. 39 

and republican form of the government, the general influence of their 
customs and usages, their commerce with other nations especially 
the Egyptians, and their system of education which was expressly 
adapted to the public interests of the community, and cultivated in for- 
tunate harmony both body and mind. With such advantages the 
Greeks became highly distinguished in the arts, and were the first to 
place them on established principles and reduce them to appropriate, 
consistent, and useful rules. 

§ 62. Their language, which had already acquired so mueh flexi- 
bility, copiousness and harmony, was carried to its highest perfection 
in the period, of which Ave now speak. From the works of their 
best writers they deduced a system of rhetorical truths and precepts, 
embodied with great discrimination and skill, and taught both orally 
and in writing. Eloquence and poetry they raised to the greatest 
eminence. They composed history with taste, judgment and fidelity. 
Philosophy was one of their favorite studies, and was taught in various 
schools with order and precision. They discussed with much penetra- 
tion many of the principles of government and public economy. They 
cultivated likewise with great success the mathematical sciences. And 
their good taste, the elements of which they possessed as it were by 
nature, and which was highly improved by their devoted attention to 
the fine arts, enabled them to impart to the sciences generally a live- 
lier aspect, and render them, more attractive and useful. 

§ 63. It is not designed here to give a minute history of the pro- 
gress of the various branches, or to specify and describe particularly 
the writers in the different departments. On these subjects something 
more full will be given in another place (Part II). It is only pro- 
posed now to point out the most remarkable circumstances and features 
of this illustrious period, and mention the principal institutions and 
customs, which served to awaken intellectual activity, and call forth 
.talents of every kind, and employ them in the most successful manner. 

§ 64. The whole system of education among the Greeks was pe- 
culiarly calculated for the developement and improvement of the pow- 
ers of the body and of the mind in common. Gymnastics constituted 
an essential part of it, and was taught and practised in the Gymnasia 
(yvfivdoia), or schools for bodily exercise. All that part of it, which 
related more specially to the cultivation of the mind, went under the 
term music, and in this comprehensive sense, the term is used by Plu- 
tarch and other ancient writers, when they speak of music as so indis- 
pensable in the education of the young and as exerting so great an in- 



40 ARCK&O&0GY 0¥ GREEK LITERATURE. 

fluence on the temper and character. That such importance was not 
ascribed to mere music, as now understood, is the more evident from the 
fact, that among: the Greeks music was united by an inseparable con- 
nection with song, poetry, rehearsals and imitative gestures. 

The following remarks on the Gymnasia are from the Travels of Anacharsis- 

'A magistrate, named the gymnasiarch, presides at the different gymnasia of 
Athens. His office is annual, and conferred on him by the general assembly of 
I he slate. It is his duty to furnish the oil made use of by the athletae to give sup- 
pleness to their limbs. He has under him, in each gymnasium, several officers, 
such as thegymnastes, the paidotribes, and others; some of whom maintain order 
among the youth, and others teach them different exercises. At the head of these 
are tea sophronisls, nominated by the ten tribes, to whom the superintendence of 
the morals of the youth is more especially committed, and all of whom must be 
approved by I he Areopagus. 

As it is of the greatest importance that confidence and security should prevail 
in the gymnasium, as well as in all numerous assemblies, thefts committed there 
are punished with death, when they exceed the value of ten drachmas. The 
gymnasia being deemed the assylum of innocence and modesty, Solon had pro- 
hibited the people from entering them, at the time when the scholars, celebrating, 
a festival in honor of Mercury, were less under the eye of their preceptors; but 
this regulation has fallen into disuse. 

The exercises practised there are ordained by the laws, subject to certain regu- 
lations, and animated by the commendations of the masters, and still more by the 
emulation that subsists among the scholars. All Greece considers them as the 
most essential part of education, as they render men active, robust, and capable 
of supporting military labours, as well as the leisure hours of peace. Considered 
relatively to health, physicians prescribe them with success. Of their great util- 
ity in the military art, it is impossible to give a higher idea, than by citing the ex- 
ample of the Lacedsemonians. To these exercises were they indebted for those 
victories which once made them so formidable to other nations; and, in later 
times, in order to conquer, it was first necessary to equal them in the gymnastic 
discipline. 

But if the advantages resulting from this institution be eminent, its abuses are 
not less dangerous. Medicine and philosophy both concur in condemning these 
exercises, when they exhaust the body, or give more ferocity than courage to the 
mind. 

The gymnasium of the Lycasnm has been successively^enlarged and embel- 
lished. The walls are enriched with paintings. Apolld-/<*6' the tutelary deity of 
the place. His statue is at the entrance ; and the gardens', ornamented with beau- 
tiful alleys, were restored in the last years of my residence in Greece. Those 
who walk there are invited to rest themselves, by seats placed under the trees.' 

On the education of the Athenians, see Barthclemy, Anacharsis, eh. xxvi. — On 
that of Sparta, and other states, Mueller History and Ant. of the Doric Race, 
B. IV. ch. 5, and 6. 

Respecting the music of the Greeks and its connections, see also G. A Villoteau,. 
Recherches sur l'Analogiede la Musique avecla Language. — P. J. Burette, Me- 
moirs in the Mem. de 1' Acad, des Insc. et Bell. Lett. Vol. V, X, XIII, XV and 
XVII. — Barlhelemf, Anach. ch. xxvii. — For a notice of the works which treat 
of the music of the ancients, see J. N.Forkels, Allgem. Lit. der Musik. Leipz. 
1792. S.—Sulzer's Allg. Theor. der schon. Kunste, art. Musik. 

§ 65. The consideration of this fact will help us to appreciate 
more justly those musical contests, which were regarded as among the 
most valuable means of intellectual improvement. . The love of glory 
was stimulated by them, and became the moving spring of the most 
intense efforts. These contests exerted the greater influence from the 
circumstance of their being usually connected with public and festival 
occasions, especially with the four solemn games of the Greeks, 
the Olympian, Pythian, Isthmian and Nemean. At Athens they were 



LITERARY CONTESTS. 41 

united with the Panathensen festival, one of the highest interest and at- 
tended by vast multitudes of people, and by the appointment of Peri- 
cles they were held in the Odeum, an edifice specially appropriated 
for the purpose. These contests existed shortly after the time of Solon, 
and were termed dytiveg fiovaixov, and thus distinguished from the cor- 
poreal exercises which were called dywveg yvfivwdi. Poets, rhapso- 
dists, actors, pantomimes, and musicians took part in them. The 
judges, dywvodixat,, dywvodejai, diov/ivrJTai,, figafievTcd, were men 
specially distinguished for knowledge and taste. They assigned the 
theme of the contest and their judgment on the comparative merits of 
the performers was decisive. 

See Martini, Abhandlung von tier Odeen der Alten. Leip. 1767. — Boettiger, 
Andeutungen &c. Uber Archaeologie, Dresden 1806— Aufsatz von d. Musik. 
Wettstr. d. Alten, in the N. Bibl. der sch. Wissencbaften, 7th B. 

' All the violence of the early ages was unable to repress that elegance of im- 
agination which seems congenial to Greece. Very antiently a contention for a 
prize in poetry and music was a favorite entertainment of the Grecian people ; 
and when connected, as it often was, with some ceremony of religion, (Thuc. 3. 
104. Xen. Mem. Socr. 3. c. 3), drew together large assemblies of both sexes. A 
festival of this kind in the little iland of Delos, at which Homer assisted, brought 
a numerous concourse from different parts by sea ; and Hesiod (Op. and Di. 1. 2. 
v. 272), informs us of a splendid meeting for the celebration of various games at 
Chalcis in Eubcea, where himself obtained the prize for poetry and song. The 
contest in music and poetry seems early to have been particularly connected with 
the worship of Apollo. When this was carried from the ilands of the iEgean to 
Delphi, a prize for poetry was instituted ; whence arose the Pythian games. But 
it appears from Homer that Games, in which athletic exercises and music and 
dancing were alternately introduced, made a common amusement of the courts 
of princes; and before his time the manner of conducting them was so far re- 
duced to a system, (Od. 8. v. 258), that public judges of the games are men- 
tionedas a kind of established magistrate. 1 Mitford, Hist. Greece. Ch. iii. Sec. 4. 

§ 66. The competitors in these contests were required to possess nat- 
ural abilities, long and laborious preparation, theoretical and practical 
knowledge of their art, a well modulated voice, and skill upon the mu- 
sical instruments which accompanied the exercise, usually the lyre or 
harp. The order in which they performed was decided by lot, and 
their conduct during the contest was prescribed by fixed laws. The 
name of the victor, the one to whom the judges assigned the prize, 
was proclaimed by a herald. His reward was a garland or wreath 
and public applause. Sometimes he received a medal, statue, or poem, 
dedicated to his honor. On these occasions, not only did musicians 
and poets contend, but orators also made public their works ; as, for ex- 
ample, Isocrates recited his Panegyric at the Olympic festival. Such 
recitals were sometimes called loyot, dlvumxoi ; among them may be 
included what were called sntdei^eig, public discussions of the soph- 
ists. Even historians were allowed to engage in those exercises. We 
have an example in Herodotus, who is said to have recited his history 
at the Olympic games, in the hearing of Thucydides, then a mere youth. 

6 



42 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

At the festivals held in honor of Bacchus at Athens, especially those termed 
Jiorvoni iiiyuia, there were contests, in which the representation of dramatical 
pieces bad a place. The poet who sought the prize must produce four or at least 
three, forming together one complete fable, each of which might be compared to 
a single statue belonging to a group. The four dramas must consist of three 
tragedies and one saty re. The complete suite of four pieces constituted what 
was called ihererQaXoyia ; the three tragedies formed the rqiXoyla. On the days 
of the exhibition, the theatre was opened at sunrise, and it seems that the people 
could sit out all the pieces offered, sometimes to the number of nine tragedies 
and three satyres. Five judges then decided upon the merits of the competitors 
and bestowed the prize. 

The Athenians had not like the moderns a regular theatre, daily open for pub- 
lic amusement. Dramatic representations belonged appropriately to religious 
festivals, and were confined to such occasions. Pieces once exhibited were sel- 
dom again brought forward, and then only under peculiar circumstances. This 
may explain the rich abundance of dramatic works among the Greeks. Au- 
thors cite at least two hundred tragedies of the first order, and five hundred of 
the second. The number of inferior merit is still greater. About as many com- 
edies are enumerated. Of all this treasure how little remains to us? (See Wolf 
and Buttmann, Museum der Alterthumskunde. Vol. I. 

The performances designed for public exhibition were submitted to the first 
Archon. When this magistrate judged them worthy of appearing, he assigned 
the poet a choir or chorus, an ornament or appendage so essential that no piece 
could be performed without it. Great pomp attended the choral service, that it 
might seem worthy of the auspices of a divinity. The expenses were defrayed 
by the rich citizens to whom the tribes decreed the honor, or assigned the tax. The 
citizens vied with each other in the splendor and magnificence with which they 
furnished these theatrical displays, which might serve to promote their private 
political interests under the name of generosity and patronage. 

The labor of the poet was not ended, as in modern times, with furnishing the 
composition for the use of the declaimers or actors. He was obliged to form his 
band of speakers, distribute the parts, and make them learn and rehearse. He 
was also obliged to instruct the chorus how to conform their movements to the 
voice of the coryphaeus. Often the poet became himself an actor, and assumed 
one of the more difficult parts. Their laborious task was expressed by the phrase 
SiSaoxe v Sqana, In this view the poets were termed SiSaoxalot, and the instruc- 
tion given by them to the perfomers was called technically diSaa?.aXia. This 
last term was, however, afterwards used in another sense in reference to the dra- 
ma, viz., to signify something like what we should call a literary notice, giving an 
account of the title and subject of a play; the time of its exhibition, its success, 
its author, and the actors, &c. Aristotle and the critics of Alexandria composed 
such notices (dtdaoy.aZ iai ), which were no doubt accompanied with critical remarks, 
and the loss of which is a matter of great regret. Scholl. Hist. Litt. Gr. L. III. 
ch. ii. — See Index, Theatre, Chorus. 

§ 67. Usually the Grecian writers were accustomed to make known 
their works in prose and poetry by recitation or rehearsal, rather than 
by circulating manuscripts. They read or rehearsed themselves, and 
procured it to be done by others, in order to avail themselves of the 
opinions of hearers and judges. This was done sometimes publicly, 
sometimes privately. When it was public, the reader had an elevated 
sea.t(dQovog), and the hearers sat around on benches. They commu- 
nicated their judgment of his work, and of particular parts of it, ei- 
ther by silence, which according to the motions and expressions of 
countenance connected with it, might signify, on the one hand, admi- 
ration and praise, and on the other, censure and contempt ; or by au- 
dible testimonials of approbation, with the words xaXwg, aocpag, and 
the like, and by loud applause (xoo'roc), at the close of the reading. 



PUBLIC READERS. SYMPOSIA. 43 

They sometimes gave more decided applause by conducting the au- 
thor to his residence with marks of honor. 

Sometimes, however, the author submitted his manuscript to the pe- 
rusal of others, who then might place their criticisms and remarks 
upon the margin. 

§ 68. It was very common for the Greeks to avail themselves of the 
service of a class of persons, whom they called dvayvdsaxai, readers, 
who made it their business to read aloud or recite to hearers the works 
of the more distinguished authors. The times selected for the pur- 
pose were the hours of the greatest leisure, those assigned to meals, 
or for bathing and so forth. These readers themselves cultivated let- 
ters, and especially strove to acquire a correct, agreeable, and com- 
manding style of elocution. They usually read the works of poets, 
orators and historians. Pythagoras is supposed to have introduced 
this practice. It doubtless took its rise from an early Greek custom, 
mentioned by Homer, according to which lyric songs and epic rhap- 
sodies were sung by the poets themselves or by other singers, who as 
well as the poets played upon musical instruments. 

§ 69. The symposia, or literary feasts (ov/moota) of the Greeks, 
are evidence that they sought to avail themselves of every opportuni- 
ty for the mutual interchange of literary acquisition, even in the hours 
of recreation and social amusement. Such table-intercourse the phi- 
losophers, especially, maintained with their young scholars in the 
Prytaneum, the Academy, the Lyceum, &c. There were rules for 
directing the conduct and conversation at these repasts of the schools ; 
as for example, a code or system of the kind was prepared by Xeno- 
crates for the symposia of the Academy, and by Aristotle for those of 
the Lyceum. Banquets of this sort were also adopted as a mode of 
celebrating the birth-day and memory of teachers and founders of the 
schools, or other distinguished persons. The excellent dialogues of 
Plato and Xenophon, entitled Svfinocriov, and 2v/inoaiov cpdoaocpwv, 
the piece ascribed to Plutarch with the title 'Enxd ooywv avfindaiov, 
and the work of Athenseus styled JBinvoaoquardt,, furnish the reader 
with the best idea of this form of social entertainment among the wise 
men of Greece. — See EschenbacK s Diss, de Symposiis sapientum, 
in his Dissertt. Academ. Norimb. 1705. 

§ 70. Among the Greeks, there were not, as in modern times, sepa- 
rate and distinct learned professions, or Faculties, as they have been 
termed. The compass and objects of knowledge were far less defined, 



44 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

and the studies and attainments of the individual more miscellaneous. 
The study of the national language, the constitution of the state, and 
the nature of man, constituted the main scope of literary exertion, and 
whatever methods of discipline, whatever knowledge, or whatever 
practical skill, could apparently subserve this, was received as an im- 
portant part of the common education of youth. There was constant 
occasion to apply the general knowledge acquired, to actual life, which 
interfered with long or eager pursuit of theory and speculation in par- 
ticular branches. 

§ 71. Grammar was one of the first parts of education and instruc- 
tion. Although this had reference solely to the native tongue, it was 
yet a study comprehending much more than is now usually under- 
stood by the term. The art of speaking and writing correctly, which 
was made a primary thing in the Grecian system, was termed, rga/n- 
fAarioTwij, and the teacher, rgafifxaTi-aTrig. But under rQcifi/tctTixTi 
or grammar, was included not only a knowledge of the language, but 
also something of poetry, eloquence, and history, and even the ele- 
ments of philosophy, at least in its applications to these branches ; 
and the teachers called grammarians, rgafifiaztxdi, imparted this va- 
rious instruction. Plato especially called the attention of the Greeks 
to the necessity and utility of such knowledge. The usual division 
of grammar, in its more appropriate sense, was into two parts, /iedoS- 
txij, which presented the rules and principles, and 'el^nx?;, which 
explained the nature and meaning of words and phrases. 

See C. D. Beck's Commentar. de literis et auctoribus grsec. atque lat. Lips. 
1789. 8. p. 47. 

§ 72. A very favorite study of the Greeks was philosophy. The 
name of philosophy was originally applied to all inquiries about the 
nature of the Deity, the origin and destiny of men, and the phenom- 
ena and powers of the physical world. Afterwards the consideration 
of physical topics was in a considerable degree excluded. It was a 
special effort of Socrates to direct the investigations of philosophy to 
the various subjects of morals and religion, to questions of private 
and public virtue and right. A glance at the several sects and schools 
of Greek philosophy will be given (P. II.) when we speak of the 
history of literature, and the principal writers. But this is a proper 
place to notice an important distinction made among the philosophers, 
between their exoteric and esoteric doctrines, loyoi e^wTsptxcu, and 
sauTSQixdi. The exoteric comprehended only the principles and pre- 
cepts, which they taught publicly to all their hearers and to the peo- 



MODES OF TEACHING. SCHOOLS. 45 

pie; the esoteric included also their secret views and maxims (dnoq- 
Qrjru), which were disclosed only to their particular disciples and 
adepts, and upon which in public, both orally and in their writings, 
they expressed themselves obscurely in enigmatic and figurative lan- 
guage. (Warburton, Div. Leg. of Moses.) 

§ 73. Various methods of giving instruction were employed by the 
philosophers. The one most adapted to their object was, without 
much doubt, the dialogistic, the form of an actual dialogue between the 
teacher and pupil. The philosopher beginning with the simplest and 
most obvious truths, or admitted principles, advanced step by step with 
his disciple, hearing and answering his questions and doubts, and thus 
conducting him imperceptibly to a conviction of what the master would 
teach. This manner was first used by Zeno of Elea, but was improv- 
ed by Socrates into a regular and skillful art, and is thence called the 
Socratic method. The method, however, was employed chiefly with 
such disciples as were supposed to have already acquired the first ele- 
ments of philosopny, and to be now prepared to pursue investigations 
after truth, in common with their teacher. Plato adopts this dialogis- 
tic form in his writings. Other methods were used, however, in 
philosophical instructions, as the eristic (e^tffux?)), the syllogistic and 
the mathematical. 

§ 74. The first and most celebrated public school at Athens, was 
the Academy, a building which belonged to the Ceramicus [Keqafiei- 
xog), without the proper limits of the city, surrounded by a grove with 
shady walks. Plato was the first teacher here, and was succeeded by 
various disciples, who from the place of instruction received the name 
of Academics. The Lyceum, the school of Aristotle, was an enclo- 
sure on the banks of the Ilyssus, also without the proper city, and sa- 
cred to Apollo ; as Aristotle and his successors were accustomed to 
give instruction in the place for walking (neglnuTog), they were cal- 
led the Peripatetics. Another building in the suburbs of Athens, 
called Cynosarges, and originally a gymnasium, or school for the 
bodily exercises, was the place where philosophy was taught by An- 
tisthenes and his followers ; and this, without regard to their doc- 
trines, may have given them the name of Cynics. Within the limits 
of the city was the celebrated portico, called Poecile (IJotxilrj) from 
its various paintings, and by way of eminence the Stoa (Srool) ; here 
Zeno from Cyprus opened his school, and thus attached to his disci- 
ples the appellation of Stoics. The garden of Epicurus should also 
be mentioned here, as it was in this, his own private retreat, that he 



40 AKIIl/EOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE 

taught his disciples, who are thence sometimes called philosophers of 
i lie garden. After Greek philosophy was transplanted to Alexandria, 
the Museum in the part of the city called Bruchion, was famous as 
the place where instruction was given by numerous teachers. 

§ 75. The teachers in these and other schools among the Greeks, 
enjoyed unlimited freedom in the expression of their views and prin- 
ciples, both upon theological and philosophical subjects. The gov- 
ernment provided for the external management and discipline of the 
schools (§ 64), and some regulations on this subject are found in the 
laws of Solon. The teachers were constantly attentive to the preser- 
vation of this discipline. The rigid discipline, especially of the 
Lacedemonians in their early education, was celebrated in ancient times, 
although it was sometimes more severe than judicious; as, for instance, 
in the annual scourging (didfiaoTiywcns) of boys at the altar of Diana 
Orthia. 

See Craqii { Craig) de Rep. Laced. 1670. — Potter Arch. Graec. B. II. ch. 20. — 
Midler, Hist, and Ant. Dor. Race. B. II. ch. 9. § 6. 

§ 76/ Among the means of promoting knowledge enjoyed by the 
Greeks, we must mention their Libraries, some of which are celebrated 
in history. The first considerable collection of books at Athens was 
made by Pisistratus. This collection is said to have been borne away 
with other booty by Xerxes on his capture of that city, and to have 
been restored by Seleucus Nicator, king of Syria. Sylla gained 
possession of it when he took the city of Athens, 85 B. C. and remov- 
ed it to Rome. Another library of much value is said to have been 
gathered by Aristotle aided by the munificence of Alexander, which 
also, after many accidents, according to the account of Strabo, fell into 
the hands of Sylla at the same time, and was carried to Rome. King 
Attalus and his son Eumenes collected a large library at their capital 
Pergamus. This contained 200,000 and according to some statements 
300,000 volumes, most of which were conveyed to Egypt and added, by 
Cleopatra or Antony, to the still more famous library of Alexandria, 
and finally shared in its miserable fate. The library of Alexandria, the 
most celebrated of ancient times, was commenced by Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus, and numbered among its keepers various distinguished Greeks, 
as Demetrius Phalereus, Callimachus, Eratosthenes, Apollonius Rho- 
dius and Aristophanes of Byzantium. It suffered repeated disasters 
and losses and was again improved and enlarged ; the largest number 
of volumes mentioned as belonging to it is 700,000. Different ac- 
counts are given of its final destruction, some ascribing it to the mis- 
taken zeal of Christians in the time of Theodosius the Great, and 



LIBRARIES. TRAVELS. 47 

others, to the fury of the Saracens under Omar, A. D. G42. There 
was also at Constantinople a large library of Latin and Greek authors, 
commenced probably by Constantius, the son of Constantino, and 
greatly augmented by Julian. Its contents gradually increased to 
120,000 volumes. It was finally, together with valuable collections in 
the arts, committed to the flames amid the dissensions in the time of 
Zeho and Basiliscus, or Basilices, about A. D. 477. 

See Heeren's Geschichte des Stud, der class. Literat. Gott. 1797. — Hcyne, de 
Interitu Operum artis priseae etc. Commentat. Soc. Goett. vol. XII. — ' Rliei- 
nisches Museum, No. 1.' — See also an account of an Athenian Library in Ana- 
charsis, Ch. XXIX. 

§ 77. Although the Greeks were exceedingly jealous of their na- 
tional honor, and were especially solicitous to secure to their literature 
the merit and praise of being an original possession carried to perfec- 
tion by native resources, yet they did not wholly reject the advantage 
resulting from acquaintance with the arts and sciences of other lands. 
They frequently traveled in those countries, which were most distin- 
guished for their advancement in knowledge, especially in Egypt. 
To the latter the Greeks were much indebted in matters pertaining to 
intellectual culture, as well as in reference to their civil and religious 
institutions. Nor did the Greeks neglect domestic travel; they were 
accustomed to visit the most distinguished provinces, regions and cities, 
to gain personal knowledge of what might be curious or useful, and 
their observations were sometimes committed to writing. By such tra- 
vels at home and in foreign lands, most of the distinguished men of 
Greece sought to increase and perfect their attainments. Here might 
be named, as instances, Homer, Lycurgus, Thales, Pythagoras, Solon, 
Herodotus, Anaxagoras, Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle, Polybius, Stia- 
bo, Pausanias, and many others. 

See Fra,ncii Exercitat. Acad, de peregrinatione veteran sapientium, eruditio- 
nis ergo suscepta. Lips. 1G79. 



IV. Of the decline of Greek Literature. 

§ 78. From its brilliant state previous to the time of Alexander, 
Greek literature gradually declined. Among the causes were the in- 
creasing luxury and consequent effeminacy and remissness of the peo- 
ple, and the various internal political commotions, which followed the 
death of Alexander. In fact, the declension began with the first loss 



48 ARCHEOLOGY - OF GREEK LITERATURE- 

of their independence under the supremacy of Philip. And when at 
last they became a prey to Roman ambition, at the fall of Corinth, and 
When somewhat later Athens herself was plundered, partially at least, 
of her stores of learning and art by Sylla, the Greeks, by being whol- 
ly deprived of liberty, were bereft of their highest motives to exertion. 
Their native vigor and originality no longer showed itself, except in 
a few single efforts, and finally sunk prostrate under foreign oppres- 
sion and domestic corruption. 

§ 79*. It is worthy of remark that the knowledge and use of the 
Greek language was greatly extended after the conquests of Alexan- 
der. Many cities were built by him in the east, which were inhabited 
chiefly by Greeks. Before the time of Christ the language had be- 
come familiar throughout Palestine. The Latin writers bear ample 
testimony to the general diffusion of Greek. The words of Cicero 
are, Grseca leguntur in omnibus fere gentibus. The Romans were 
obliged to adopt this for their official language, in the eastern provin- 
ces. Even when the seat of the Roman government was removed to 
Constantinople and a special effort was made to introduce the Latin, it 
was but partially successful. The Emperor Justinian found it neces- 
sary to publish his Institutes, Code and Pandects in Greek, as well as 
Latin, because the latter was so imperfectly understood by his subjects 
and civilians. 

See Gibbon's Rom. Emp. Ch LIII, ("Vol. v. p. 364, N. Y. 1822). Home's In- 
troduction to the Study of the Script. Vol. II. p. 1. Ch. I. § 2. 

§ 80.* From the period whence we date the decline of Greek lit- 
erature it appears less national in its character. This probably was 
not owing wholly to the circumstance that the Greeks were no longer 
their own masters. Something must be allowed for the fact, that the 
literature of the subsequent periods was not the growth of the native 
soil of Greece, but the product of places without her proper limits 
and remote from the scene of her early struggles and successes. It 
was chiefly at Rhodes, Pergamus and Alexandria, that letters were 
cultivated. Athens was no longer the capital and mistress of the lite- 
rary world ; although for a long time after her submission to Rome 
her schools were the resort of youth for completing their education. 
Even in this respect, however, she had rivals. Apollonia on the shore 
of the Hadriatic was celebrated for its cultivation of. Greek literature, 
and honored as the place where Augustus finished his studies. Mas- 
silia in Gaul, now Marseilles, a little later gained still greater celebrity 
for its schools of science. Antioch, Berytus, and Edessa may also 



IMPERIAL PATRONAGE. SUPPRESSION OF SCHOOLS. 49 

be mentioned as places where Greek was studied after the Christian 
era. 

See Sckdll. Hist. Lift. Gr. L. V. ch. 50.— Heereu's Geseh. desStud. der griech 
und rom. Litt. § 28. 

§ 81*. At different times during the decline of Greek letters roy- 
al and imperial patronage was not wanting. Very liberal encourage- 
ment was afforded by some of the first Ptolemies at Alexandria to all 
the arts and studies, especially by Philadelphus. At Pergamus, also, 
great efforts were made by Attalus and Eumenes to foster learning. 
Among the Roman Emperors, likewise, there were patrons of Greek 
literature. Under the Antonini there was a little fresh blooming both 
in Greek and Roman letters ; and Aurelius Antoninus especially be- 
friended the cultivation of philosophy and bestowed privileges upon 
Athens. Julian the Apostate cultivated and patronised Greek studies, 
and allowed considerable stipends to teachers in the schools of pagan 
philosophy. He is said to have erected at Constantinople the royal 
portico, where was lodged the library already mentioned ($ 76), and 
where also was established a sort of College for giving instruction in 
the arts and sciences. At a later period some emulation was awakened 
among Greek scholars in the east by the zeal and inquiries of the Ara- 
bian Caliphs, who were liberal patrons of learning, especially at Bag- 
dad. 

See Gibbon Hist. Rom. Emp. Ch. LILT. (vol. V. p. 367 ed. cit.)— Beevm, Gesch. 
des Stud, der griech. and rom. Litter. § 70. —Berington, Literary History of the 
Middle Ages. Lond. 1814. Appendix I. 

§ 82*. In speaking of the circumstances connected with the fate of. 
Greek literature, the suppression of the schools of Athens is usually 
mentioned and lamented. These schools had existed from the time 
of Pericles. In them the most distinguished philosophers and rheto- 
ricians had taught numerous disciples native and foreign. While sus- 
tained they kept alive a taste and love for Greek literature and phi- 
losophy. They were only partially interrupted by the subjection of 
Athens to Rome, and afterwards were warmly supported by some of 
the Roman Emperors, particularly by Julian, who, as has just been 
mentioned, allowed a stipend to the teachers in them. Hadrian also 
is said to have furnished them with the means of procuring books. 
But in the sixth century they were entirely suppressed by Justinian. 
Although Greek literature had been declining for many centuries, and 
these schools had not hindered its wane, still their suppression proba- 
bly hastened the entire oblivion, into which it soon fell in the west. Be- 

7 



50 ARCHEOLOGY of greek literature. 

cause after this event there was less literary intercourse between the 
west and the east. 

See Enfield's History of Philosophy, B. II. ch. ii. (vol.11, p. 327. Dubl. 1792.) 
Gibbtm's Hist. Rom. Emp.ch. XL. 7. (vol. IV. p. 90. N. York, 1822).— Mewsius, 
Fortuna Attica, ch. viii. p. 59. in torn. I. opp. 

§ 83.* The essential and fundamental contrariety of the Christian 
religion to the whole spirit of pagan philosophy and mythology, is a 
circumstance proper here to be noticed. It was not at all strange that 
Christians should neglect to study the pagan writings, except as they 
wished to arm themselves for the defence of their own faith. Oppo- 
sition to the cultivation of heathen literature early appeared, but there 
was not perfect agreement among the Fathers on the subject. The 
council of Carthage, A. D. 398, formally condemned it. Yet many 
distinguished Fathers recommended the study of Greek learning. 
Basil wrote a treatise in favor of it. Origen carefully taught it, and 
was applauded for the same by one of the most eminent of his disciples, 
Gregory Thaumaturgus. The general disrelish for every thing con- 
nected with paganism, nevertheless, would naturally tend to accelerate 
the growing neglect of the productions of Grecian literature. 

The Christians had their seminaries designed for the education of 
the maturer class of youth, and such especially as were to become re- 
ligious teachers. But the sacred scriptures were the basis of instruc- 
tion. 

See Enfield's Hist. Phil. B. VI. ch. ii. (p. 276 ed cit.)— Mosheim's Ecc. Hist, by 
Murdock, vol. 1. p. 100.— Hallam's View of Europe in the Middle Ages. chap. 
IX. P. I.— Prof. R. Emerson, On the Catechetical School, or Theological Semi- 
nary, at Alexandria. Bibl. Repos. No. xiii. 

Nothing in the above remarks implies that Christianity has been in its influ- 
ences unfavorable to the progress of mind. On the contrary it has unspeakably 
elevated the human intellect, and advanced, on the whole, more than any other 
cause, the interests of science and literature. It proposed and has accomplished 
a mighty mental revolution, opening wider and more extensive channels of 
thought, imparting keener sensibility to the feelings of the heart, and giving am- 
ple scope to all the noble energies of man. The happy results of this will go 
on accumulating to the end of the world. 

On the influence of Christianity upon Society, see Christ. Sped. Vol. V. p. 
409. On its influence upon Literature, see SchlegeVs Hist. Lit. Lee. 4 and 6. — 
Viller's Ess. on the Reformation.— Christ. Sped. Vol. VI. p. 57. 

§ 84.* The great loss of classical manuscripts after the Christian 
era, is justly regretted by all. The chief source of this loss was the 
destruction of the great libraries, which has been previously mention- 
ed (§ 76). Private hostility to the writings of particular authors occa- 
sioned some losses. It was a custom both with the Greeks and the 
Romans to sentence the writings of individual authors to the flames as 
a kind of punishment or to hinder the circulation of objectionable 



LOSS OF MANUSCRIPTS. CIVIL CALAMITIES. 51 

sentiments. The practice was adopted in the Christian Church. In 
the middle ages this hostility was in some instances directed against 
Classical Authors, and different emperors at Constantinople are said 
to have been induced to burn the existing copies of several of the an- 
cient poets. 

Some loss also may be ascribed to private negligence and ignorance, 
if we may conjecture from the statement, which asserts that three of 
the lost decades of Livy were once made into rackets for the use of a 
monastery. 

Another way in which such losses occurred, was by obliteration. 
The papyrus becoming very difficult to procure after Egypt fell into 
the hands of the Saracens in the 7th century, and parchment being 
thereby rendered more costly even than before, copyists very naturally 
began to seek some remedy. They devised the expedient of oblitera- 
ting the writing on an old manuscript. The parchment, after the ob- 
literation, was used again, and thus the manuscript, which originally 
contained perhaps some valuable work of a Greek or Roman author, 
received in its stead, it might be, the absurd tales of a monk, or the 
futile quibbles of a scholastic. 

See Home's Introd. to Study of Hoi. Scrip, vol. II. P. 1. ch. II. Sect 2. 

§ 85.* It would be foreign from the design of this glance at some 
of the circumstances attending the decline of Greek letters to notice 
particularly the civil history of the Greeks after the Christian era. 
Let it suffice to observe, that they underwent a series of political chan- 
ges, very few of which were calculated to exert any beneficial influ- 
ence upon learning, while many of them were, exceedingly unpropi- 
tious. Among the former the removal of the Roman Court to Con- 
stantinople was probably the most favorable, Among the latter may 
be mentioned the early inroads of the barbarians, the encroachments 
of the Saracens, the capture and plunder of Constantinople by the 
Latins, the internal dissensions after the recovery of the capital, and 
finally the attacks of the Turks, which were renewed from time to 
time until the final overthrow of the Greeks, A. D. 1453. By the 
various disasters thus suffered, the supremacy of the Greek Empe- 
rors was ere long confined to a narrow corner of Europe and at last 
to the suburbs of Constantinople, and here learning found its only re- 
fuge. 

See Berington's Lit. Hist, of Middle Ages. Appendix 1. 



52 ARCHEOLOGY OF GUKKK L1TERATIIRK. 



V. — Of the Remains and Monuments of Grecian Literature. 

§ 86. Besides the many valuable works, which have been preserved 
cither entire or in part, and published since the restoration of learning, 
and the invention of the art of printing, there are extant still other 
written monuments of Grecian antiquity an acquaintance with which 
is important, not only to the antiquarian, but to every lover of litera- 
ture. We may arrange these under three classes, Inscriptions, Coins 
and Manuscripts ; although the latter is far from being of so ancient a 

date as the two former. 

J. — Inscriptions. 

§ 87. The study of inscriptions (iniyQa/i/ia, inscriptio, titulus), 
is of great utility in gaining a knowledge of language, and an ac- 
quaintance with criticism, history, chronology, and archaeology. Con- 
sidered as public and contemporary monuments they form a class of 
historical evidence most worthy of credence. Therefore since the re- 
vival of letters much attention has been devoted to discovering, collect- 
ing, publishing and explaining inscriptions, upon which we have many 
writings. Some of the principal works relating to Greek inscriptions 
we will here name. 

Marmora Arundeliana s. Oxonienfia. ex ed. Humphr. Prideaux, c. n. Seldeni 
et Lydiati. Oxon. 1676. fol. Ed. II. cur. Mich. Maittaire. Lond. 1732. fol. rec. 
ed. a. Rich. Chandler. Oxon. 1763. fol. — Marmorum Oxoniensium inscriptions 
Grsecse, cura Gul. Roberts. Oxon. 1791. 8. — Edm. Chishull, Antiquitates Asiati- 
cs. Lond. 1728. fol. — Inscriptiones Attica?, nunc demum ex schectis Maffei editse 
ab Ed. Corsino. Plot . 1752. 4. — Inscriptiones antiques, pleraeque nondum editse, 
in Asia minori et Grsecia, prsesertim Athenis collects. Exscripsit et edidit Rich. 
Chandler. Lond. 1774. fol.— Sylloge Inscrip. Ant. Grsec. et Lat. Ed. F. Osann. 
Jena?. 1822. — Boeckh, Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum. Berol. 1825. fol. — The 
following may also be mentioned. — E. D. Clarke, Greek Marbles at Cambridge. 
Camb. 1809, 8.—E. I. Burrows, Elgin Marbles. 8.— Visconti, on the Elgin Mar- 
bles. 8. — Combe's Ancient Marbles. 4 Parts. 4. — Rose, Inscriptiones Graecae* 
Vetustissimae. 8. / 

§ 88. These inscriptions are found upon columns, altars, tombs, 
vases, statues, temples and other ancient edifices. Their design is to 
narrate some memorable event, or to point out the use and meaning of 
the object bearing them. Ordinarily they were in prose, sometimes in 
verse. The Greek inscription was expected to unite beauty, perspicu- 
ity and vigor. It was from this circumstance and from its taking some- 
times the poetical form, that the name of epigram (inlyqafifia) was ap- 
plied to the species of poetry so called, designating a short poem or 
stanza, which expresses clearly and forcibly an ingenious, pithy senti- 
ment. 



INSCRIPTIONS. 53 

$ 89. In order to form a correct judgment and decision upon inscrip- 
tions there is need of much critical care and examination, that we may 
not be deceived by pieces of doubtful authority or by false copies. There 
must be some familiar acquaintance with what pertains to the subject, 
both philologically and historically. In general we should possess a 
knowledge of the written characters of antiquity, of the changes intro- 
ced at different periods, and of what is called the lapidary style or 
manner of writing. We should be able by means of historical infor- 
mation to compare the contents of the inscriptions with the cir- 
cumstances of the persons, the times and the occasions mentioned. 
We must be qualified also to appreciate with exactness and impartiality 
the proofs and explanations, that may be drawn from particular inscrip- 
tions. 

Respecting the abbreviations used consult Scip. Maffei, Graecorum Siglae 
lapidariae collectae atque explicatae. Veron 1746. 8. — Also the works already 
named in § 87. 

$ 90*. From the multitude of ancient Greek inscriptions, which have 
been discovered, copied and explained, we will here mention only 
some of the more interesting and important, noticing first such as are 
of a date prior to Alexander, B. C. 336. 

1. The Fourmont inscriptions; on marbles discovered by the Abbe Fourmont 
at Sklabochori (Sclavo-Cnorio), the ancient Amyclae, in the year 1728. More 
than forty were found among the ruins of a temple of Apollo ; of these one is llie 
celebrated Amyclaean Inscription. That which goes under this name, consists 
of two tablets which may, or may not have been connected, and is in the manner 
of writing called ^ovarQoiprjSS v. The tablets contain merely a list of the names qf 
Grecian priestesses. The precise date cannot be fixed, but most probably the in- 
scription may be referred back to about 1000 B. C. There have been doubts, 
however, respecting the genuineness of this and the other inscriptions. They are 
regarded as authentic by Scholl and Raoul-Rochette. 

See Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscr. T. XV. XXIII.— Heyne's Sammlung antiquar. Aufsaetzc, St. I.— Nouv. 
Traite de Dipl. T. I.— Knight's Ess. on Gk. Alph. Sect Vl.—Soeckh's Corpus. Ins. Graec— Count Aber- 
deen in Th. Walpole's Memoirs relat. to Europ. and Asiat. Turkey.— Raoul-Rochette, Deux lettres a 
myl. Comte d' Aberdeen sur l'authenticite des Insc. de Fourmont. Par. 1819. 4. 

2. The Elian inscription ; on a brazen or copper tablet found by Sir W. Gell, in 
1813, under ground, in the region of Olympia in Elis. It is a treaty of alliance 
between the Elians and the Heraeans, in the Aeolic dialect. The date is sup- 
posed to|be about 615 B. C. It presents the Aeolic digamma, the Elians being 
named FJ.AE20I. 

Museum Crit. Cambridge. Vol. I. p. 535.— Class. Journal, Vol. XIII. p. 113,— XXIV. p. 104.— Schoell, 
Hist. Litt. Gr. L. II. Ch. 1. 

3. The inscription of Midas ; upon a very ancient monument, situated near the 
village of Doganlu, in Phrygia, probably near the ancient Nacoleia, about 30 
leagues east of the ancient Cotyaeum. i It is a sepulchral monument dug in the 
rock, and ornamented with a facade of very singular construction, near 70 feet in 
height. It bears two inscriptions written from right to left. They are in Pelasgic 
characters, as far as appears. Travellers have been able to decipher only certain 
words, among which are MIJAI and FANAKTEI, to king Midas, which 
would seem to indicate a tomb of one of the kings of this name. The princes 
bearing this name reigned between 737 and 560 B. C. The Phrygian kings ap- 
pear to have borne alternately the names of Midas and Gordius. What is sin- 
gular, at the point where the facade of this monument terminates, there is an or- 



54 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

nament of striking appearance, which represents a kind of knot, md at once calls 
to mind the famous Go) dian knot. 

See Schoell Hist. Lltt. Gr. L. III. Ch. vil.— R. ll'alpole, Travels in various countries of the East. 
Lend, 1820. 

4. The Sigaean Inscription. This was found upon a piece of marble sup- 
posed to have once supported a statue. It has its name from the promontory and 
town of Sigaeum, near ancient Troy, where it was discovered by Sherard, Eng- 
lish Consul at Smyrna, near a village church. This is also in the (SovorQoyySd v 
manner. It specifies a gift of three vessels (xocrojo, v TrozpoT^'otov, tfAfiog), made 
by Phanodicus to the Prytaneum or magistrates of Sigaeum. It is referred to the 
pe riod bet ween 500 and 600 B . C . 

See Chishull, Antlq. Asiat.— Chandler, Inscrip Antiq.— Nouv. Traite de Dlplom.— Shuckford's Sac. 
and Prof. Hist, connected. B. IV.— The marble Is now in London in the collection of Lord Elgin.— 
Scltoell, Hist. Litt. Gr. L. III. ch. vli.— Catalogue raisonne des Insc. de la collect, de myl. Comte Elgin, 
no. 53. 

There Is a second Sigaean inscription, belonging to a later period, B. C. 278, which may be mention- 
ed here. It was discovered by Lord E. W. Montagu, on a cippus of marble, connected with the walls 
of the same church before which the first was found. It is a decree of the senateand people of Sigaeum 
in honor of Antiochus Soter king of Syria and his spouse. See Chandler, Antiq. Asiat. p. 49. 

5. The inscription called the Teian Malediction (Teiorum Dirae) ; by this 
inscription found upon a stone lying in the environs of Bodrion, the ancient Teos, 
the Teians devote to the infernal deities whoever may injure them by resisting 
their magistrates, plundering their territories, or hinderingforeigners from bring- 
ing them grain. An anathema is also directed against those who may deface the 
inscription. It is worthy of notice that the letters are termed <Potvixrjia. Its 
date is placed by Scholl between 450 and 500 B. C. 

See Schoell Hist. Litt. Gr. L. III. ch. vii.— Chishull, Antiq. Asiat. 

6. "We may place next in rank several obituary inscriptions ; as (») that on thp 
tables of Pentelican marble found by Galland, 1678, in a church in Athens ; called 
sometimes the inscription of Nointel, because they were sent by him to Paris ; 
called also the marble of Baudelot because once possessed by him ; of a date about 
458 B. C. and in honor of warriors that had fallen in different places : (b) an 
insciiption in six distichs on a monument belonging to Lord Elgin ; in honor of 
the Athenians slain at Potidaea when their general Callias, B. C. 432. defied 
the Corinthians under Aristaeus and purchased victory by death: (c) a catalogue 
of the Athenian warriors who fell in the battle of Delium,B. C. 424, where So- 
crates is said to have saved the life of Xenophon ; it is on a large slab of marble 
belonging to the collection of Elgin. 

(a). Nov. Traite de Diplom, T. I. p. 633.— Museum Crit. Cambridge, No. VI. p. 394.— Desc. des An- 
tiques duMusee royal, par Visconti, et le comte de Clarac. Par. 1820. p. 105.— (6).— E. Q. Visconti, Let- 
tre du chev. A. Canova, et deux memoires sur les ouvrages de sculpture dans le collect, de myl. c. 
d'Elgin. Lond. 1816.— Class. Journal, Vol. XIV. p. 185.— (c). Visconti, Catal. raisonne des insc. gr. de la 
coll. de myl. c. d'Elgin. 

7. Next may be mentioned a number of financial inscriptions : (a) that discov- 
ered by Chandler in the citadel of Athens, with the letters arranged axoixrfiov, 
on a mutilated stone, the remaining fragment of which was conveyed to England 
by Lord Elgin ; detailing the expenses of the state for a full year, B. C. 424 or 
414, as differently assigned by the critics : (b) that on the stone called the Marble 
of Choiseul, sometimes of Barthelemy, now in the Royal Museum ; containing 
an account of the finances of the republic for the year B. C. 410; on the reverse 
of the same marble are two other inscriptions, also relating to finances: (c) seve- 
ral inscriptions among those, for which we are indebted to Pourmont, relating to 
the finances of Athens : (d) several inscriptions, pertaining to the condition or 
treasures of certain Athenian temples, as the Parthenon and others : (e) the in- 
scription upon what is called the Sandwich marble, brought from Athens to Lon- 
don, 1739, by the earlof Sandwich; it is an account of monies due to the temple 
of Apollo at Delos, and of the expenses of the Theoria or deputation of the 
Athenians, and is of the year 376 B. C. 

(a). Chandler, Insc. Ant. P. II. No. 2.— Aug. Boeckh, Staatshaushaltung der Athener. Berl. 1817. Vol. 
II. p. 182. (6). Barthelemy, Mem. d l'Acad. des Insc. et B. Lett. Vol. XLVIII.— Aug. Boeckh, ibid. <c) 
Boeckh, ib. id). W. Wilkins, Athenicnsia, or Remarks on Topog. and Build, of Athens. Lond. 1816. p. 
\9t.— Chandler, Insc. Ant.— Boeckh, Staatsh. &c. (e). Taylor, Commentar. ad Marmor. Sandwicense. 
Cantab. 17*3. 4.— Barthelemy, Anacharsis, Ch. LXXVI. Note 13. 

8. Finally in speaking of inscriptions previous to the time of Alexander, we 



INSCRIPTIONS. 55 

will refer to the two metrical inscriptions, discovered in 1810, near Athens. One 
is upon a marble cippus, in memory of a hero, Python of Megara, who having 
slain seven foes with his own hand, led back through Boeotiathen hostile to Athens 
three Athenian tribes, who owned him as their deliverer; it is anterior to Alex- 
ander, perhaps about B. C. 35G; consisting of nine hexameters, one pentameter 
and a fragment of another line, with the verses not separated, if we may trust to 
the copy sent to Paris by the French consul M. Fauvel, and not even the words 
distinguished. The other is of uncertain date : upon a sheet of lead, folded four 
times in the length and three times in the breadth (its dimensions not given by 
Fauvel), found in a tomb; containing a formula of incantation or enchantment 
against a certain Ctesias and his family, dooming them to the infernal deities. 
Visconti declares that nothing like this singular monument has been found among 
palaeographic relics. Tacitus, speaking of the evidence on which Piso was 
charged with causing the death of Germanicus (Annal. II. 69), says that in the 
house of the latter were found fragments of human bodies, not quite consumed 
to ashes, with magic verses, the name of Germanicus graved on plates of lead, 
and a variety of those spells which, according to the vulgar opinion, are of po- 
tency to devote the souls of the living to the infernal gods.' SchoLl, Hist. Litt. 
Gr. L. III. ch. vii. 

§ 91/ A greater number of inscriptions have been discovered, 
which belong to later periods in the history of the Greeks. We will 
now mention some between the time of Alexander and the Christian 
era. 

1. The inscription on the pedestal of a statue to Jupiter Urius. The pedestal 
was found by the English tiavelers Wheler and Spon in a private mansion in 
Chalcedony, and was conveyed to London. The inscription consists of four 
dislichs, presenting not only the name of the Divinity to whom the statue was 
erected, but that of the artist also, Philon, son of Antipater, the one employed by 
Alexander to execute the statue of Hephaestion. The date is of course about 
330 B. C. 

This monument is the more interesting on account of its relation to a passage 
in Cicero (Verr. IV. 57). In speaking of the spoliations committed by Verres, 
he says, there were three celebrated statues of Jupiter surnamed by the Greeks 
OvQiog, all of the same kind, one originally found in Macedonia and removed 
by Flaminius to the Roman Capitol, another still standing at the entrance of the 
Thracian Bosphorus (in Ponti ore et angustiis), and the third that seized by Ver- 
res at Syracuse. These statues have all perished, but the pedestal above men- 
tioned undoubtedly supported the second of them, which stood at the entrance of 
the Bosphorus. 

This inscription is found in Ctumdler, Antiq. Asiat. p. 49. See also the Miscellanea of Spon. p. 332. 
the Voyage of Wheler, p. 269; the Analecta of Brunch; the Anthology of Jacobs. A more correct 
copy, taken by P. Osann, is inserted in Fr. T. Friedemann and J. D. G. Sabode, Miscellanea max. 
part, critica. Hildes. 1822. vol. 1. p. 288. 

2. The inscriptions on the Herculanean tablets. In 1732, at or near the site 
of the ancient Herculaneum, two brazen or copper plates were found below the 
surface of the earth. They are interesting as among the most authentic monu- 
ments of the Doric 'dialect. One of the tablets gives the dimensions and geo- 
metric or geodetic description of a portion of land consecrated to Bacchus and 
the contract for it. The second contains the description of another portion of 
land pertaining to Minerva Polias. The plates are now in the Museum of Por- 
tici; the second is broken into two pieces, one of which was formerly conveyed 
to England. The inscriptions are assigned to a date a little prior to B. C. 300. 

BeeMich. Maittaire, Fragment. Britannicum tabulae Heracleensis, 1736.— Alex. Sym. Mazochi, Com- 
mentar. in aencas tabulas Heracleenses. Nap. 1754. Fol.— Winkelmann, Sendschreib. von den Hercu- 
lanisch. Alterthuemern. (Werk. Bd. n. § 6 )—Heynii Opusc. Acad. V. II. p. 233— Webb's Account of a 
copper plate &c. discovered 1732 near Heraclea. Lond. 1732. ito.—Pettingal, Inscription on the copper 
table discovered near Heraclea, 1760. 4to. 

3. The inscription which may be called the Olbian decree. It is interesting 
as a palaeographic monument of the Greek colonies on the shores of the Euxine ; 



56 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

and also as famishing some historical and geographical facts. It is a fragment, 
of nearly two hundred lines in two distinct parts, of a decree of the senate and 
republic of Olbia, a Greek city on the Hypanis or Bug, in honor of one Proteg- 
enes, magistrate and benefactor ol the city. It is engraved on a cippus of mar- 
ble which is preserved at Stolnole, in the government of Tchemigov, Russia. 
Its date is not certain, but has been placed between 278 and 250 R. G. 

The inscription \v;is published by P. dc Kaeppen in the Wiener Jahrbucher der Literatur. vol. xx. 
I8SS.— also In the work, Nordgestado des Pontus, Wiea 1823. 8.— It appeared likewise under the title 
Olblsches Psephlsma zu Ehren des Protegenes. Wien. rS23. 8— Matte Brun has a translation of it in 
French, with corrections and observations, in the Annates des Voyages. Vol. xx. p. 132. 

4. The inscription called the Ghronicon Parium, in the collection of Arunde- 
lian, or Oxford Marbles, brought to England from the island of Paros, by Thomas 
Howard earl of Arundel, and given by him to the University of Oxford. It is a 
monument of great value in reference to Grecian Chronology, as ' it fixes the 
dates of the most remarkable events from the time of Cecrops down to the age 
of Alexander the Great.' Its date is supposed to be about 268 B. C. 

The editors, Selden, Pridcaux, and Mattaire have made learned researches upon this subject ; so also 
Paimerius in his work entitled Exercitat. in Auctores Graecos. Ultraj. 1694.— Robertson more recently 
has endeavored to raise doubts concerning the authenticity of these inscriptions, in a work entitled. 
The Parian Chronicle, with a dissertation concerning its authenticity. Lond. 1788. In opposition to 
this, see Hewlett's Vindication of the authenticity of the Parian Chronicle. Lond. 1788. 8; Porson's 
Review of Robertson's Dissertation in the Monthly Review, 1789. p. 690.— and Die Parische Chronik, 
&c. by Ch. F. Ch. Wagner. Gott. 1790. 8. The Chronicle was first published by Selden, Marmora 
Amndeliana, Lond. 1628. 4 ; afterwards by Pridcaux, Marmora Oxoniensia. Oxon. 1676; Mattaire, 
Marmora Oxoniensia. Lond. 1732. Append. 1733 ; Chandler, Marmora Oxeniensia. Oxon. 1763. The 
latest edition is by W. Roberts. Oxf. 1791. It is found with an English version in Hale's Analysis of 
Chronology. 

5. We may notice here the Milesian inscription. It was found and copied 
by W. Shcrard, among the ruins of a temple of Apollo Didymaeus,near Miletus. 
It is a letter of Seleucus Callinicus, king of Syria, and his brother Antiochus 
Hierax, king of Asia, addressed to the overseers of the temple, when, 243 B. C. 
they had made peace with Ptolemy Euergetes I. king of Egypt. It is accompa- 
nied with a catalogue of presents consecrated by them to the god. 

See Chishull Antiq. Asiat. p. 65.— Schoell Hist. Litt. Gr. L. iv. Ch. xxvi. 

6. The inscription of Cyretiae. It was discovered in the valley of Titarese- 
us, not far from Larissa in Thessaly, by Col. Leake, who published a notice of it 
in the year 1815. It is interesting as a monument referring to the Roman con- 
quests in Greece. It is a letter of Titus duintius Flaminius, addressed to the 
people of Cyretiae, bestowing certain favors upon them. It is without date, but 
is assigned to about 195 B. C. 

This inscription was published by Visconti in the Journal des Savans. 1816. p. 21.— Also by Leake 
in the Classical Journal. Vol. XIII. p. 158. 

7. One of the most interesting inscriptions is that known by the name of the 
Rosetta Inscription, or the Rosetta Stone. It was discovered during the expedition 
of Buonaparte in Egypt about the year 1800. As a party of French troops were 
digging for the foundations of a fort at Rosetta, they disinterred a large block of 
black basalt, containing the remains of three inscriptions. This stone afterwards 
fell into the hands of the English and was deposited in the British Museum, Lon- 
don. A considerable part of the first inscription was wanting ; the beginning of 
the second, and end of the third were mutilated. The third only was in Greek. 

It is a sort of decree of the Egyptian priests in honor of Ptolemy V. Epipha- 
nes, of the year in which he began his reign, B. C. 193. It recounts the memora- 
ble deeds of his minority, and pledges the erection of a statue to him in every 
temple ; and, what is specially remarkable on account of the results to which it 
has led, adds, that this decree was ordered to be engraved in three different char- 
acters, viz. the Greek, the Enchorial, i. e. the common Egyptian letter, and the 
Sacred or Hieroglyphic. This triple inscription, therefore, presents a specimen 
of hieroglyphics with an authentic translation ; and is the foundation of the cel- 
ebrated discoveries of Champollion ( § 16). The proper names, Ptolemy and 
Cleopatra, occurring in the inscription furnished the clue, and the phonetic hie- 
roglyphs which form these names were first discovered. By means of these hie- 
roglyphs, other names of Grecian kings and queens written in hieroglyphics were 



INSCRIPTIONS. 57 

deciphered, and thus at length the value of all the phonetic pictures or signs 
was ascertained. 

For a more full account of the various efforts and steps connected with this discovery, see Schoelt, 
Hist. Litt. Gr. L. IV. ch. XXVI— Smart's Translation of Greppo, cited § K.—Amer. Quarterly Review, 
No. 2.— Foreign Quarterly Rev. No. 8.— Edinburgh Review, Nos. 89, 90.— Supplement to Encyclopedia 
Britannica, Art. Egypt. 

The Greek inscription was published by Granville Venn, under the title, The Greek Version of the 
Decree of the Egyptian Priests, &c. from the stone inscribed in the sacred and vulgar Egyptian, &c. 
Lond. 1802.— Subsequently, the three inscriptions were engraved by the London Society of Antiqua- 
ries, each inscription of its original size. From these engravings lithographic copies were published 
under the title, Inscriptio perantiqua &c. in lapide nigro prope Rosettam invento &c. Monachii, 1817. 
fol.— A copy of the inscription is also contained in F. Schlichtegroll, Ueber die bey Rosette gefundene 
dreyl'ache Inschrift, Munchen, 1818. 

8. The inscription on the Marbles of Cyzicus. The French Consul, de Pey- 
sonnel, in the latter part of the last century conveyed to France a number of 
marbles which are known by this name. The exact date of their inscriptions is 
not ascertained ; but they are monuments belonging to the period of the Macedo- 
nian supremacy, not long before that of the Romans. The most interesting of 
the inscriptions is a decree of the senate and people of Cyzicus, passed on the 
request of three colleges of Priestesses, authorizing the erection of a statue in 
honor of apriestessof Cybele. 

See Recueil d' Antiquites by Count de Caylus. Vol. II p. 193. 

In connection with the marbles of Cyzicus, it may be proper to refer to a mar- 
ble found at the site of ancient Cius which was near to Cyzicus. It was remov- 
ed to France by Count de Choiseul — Gouffier, and is now in the Royal Museum. 
The inscription consists of nine hexameters well preserved and two nearly effaced. 
The date is uncertain, but belongs to the time of the Ptolemies in Egypt; and the 
inscription is chiefly interesting as illustrating the connection between several of 
the Egyptian deities and those of the Greeks. 

It waspublished inaccurately, by Pococke, Inscrip. p. 30. and by Muratori. Insc. Antiq. tome. I. p. 
75. Afterwards three times by Jacobs, Anthol. Vol XII. p. 298. Vol. XIII. p. 798. Anthol. Pal. Vol. II. p. 
846.— See also Catal. d' Antiques etc. formant la collect, de feu M. le Comtc de Clioiseul-Gouflier par L 
J. J. Dubois. Par. 1818. 8. p. 74. 

9. The Acarnanian inscription. It is on a stone discovered by Pouqueville, at 
Actium, in 1813, and has acquired celebrity from its having found a learned ex- 
positor in France. It pertains to the time when the Roman armies appeared in 
Greece. It is a decree of the senate and people of Acarnania, proclaiming the 
brothers, Publius Acilius, and Lucius Acilius, as their friends and benefactors. 

The comments of Boissonade on this inscription are found in his edition of the letters of Lucas Hul- 
stenius, Paris, 1817. 8. 

10. The inscription called the decree or Psephisma of Cuma. It belongs to 
the time of Augustus. It is a decree of the senate and people of Cuma in Aeolia, 
in honor of Lucius Labeo, a Roman citizen, who refused divine honors and the 
title of y.Ttarrjg proposed by them, and to whom therefore they determined to 
erect statues and assign the first place at public spectacles. It consists of sixty 
lines, and was the largest inscription of the kind known to have escaped the rava- 
ges of time before the discovery of the Olbian decree (3). 

See Comte de Caylus, Recueil d' Antiquites, Vol. II.pl. 58. p. 179. 

§ 92'. Of the Greek inscriptions which have heen preserved he- 
longing to periods subsequent to the Christian era, we will name 
but a few. 

1. That on the tablet called the Marble of Colbert. This tablet is two feet 
six inches long and one foot six inches wide ; it was found at Athens in the 17th 
century. The inscription belongs to the reign of Tiberius. It is interesting as it 
contains a list of the magistrates of Athens, the archon, the basileus or king, 



58 ARCHvEOLOGV OF GREEK LITERATURE- 

lhe poll-inarch, the thesmothetae, the heralds, &c, who were in office in the Con- 
sulship of Drusus, A. D. 15. 

A faulty copy of this Inscription is found in Sport's Voyage, Vol, III. p. 106; one more correct in Mont- 
faucon, Palsogr, Or.p, 146. 

'3. The inscription respecting the Galatian spectacles. It was discovered by 
Tournefort at Aneyra in Galatia, and belongs also to the reign of Tiberius. It 
commemorates the games and sports given to the people of Galatia during the 
space of a year. The first part of the inscription, which probably contains the 
date and occasion of the shows, is illegible. This inscription may be found Montr 
faucon, Palaeog. Gr. p. 154. 

3. The Egyptian inscriptions in honor of Roman emperors. Several have 
been discovered ; as (a) that on the portico of the celebrated temple of Isis at 
Tcntyra, near modern Denderah, in honor of Augustus (as interpreted by Le- 
tronne) ; (b) that on a temple at Tentyra, dedicated to Venus, in honor of Ti- 
berius ; (c) that in honor of Nero found in the vicinity of the Pyramids ; (<2) 
those in honor of Trajan, one upon a portico at Chemnis or Panopolis, another 
on a gate of a temple of Isis and Serapisat Cysis, in the grand Oasis; (e) that 
on the Ipedestal of the celebrated column called Pompey's Pillar, supposed by 
many to be in honor of Diocletian, 

(a) Hamilton Acgyptiaca.— Letronne, Recherches &c. p. 155. Champollion-Figeac Lettre a M. Fou- 
rier, sur 1' Insc. grecque de Denderah. Grenoble, 1806.— Amer. Quarterly, Vol XV. (4) Niebuhr, Inscrip- 
t tones Nubienses.— Letronne, Recherches &c, p. 172. Hamilton, Aegyptiaca, p. 206. [c] Letronne p. 388. 
Quarterly Review, 1821. p. 179. (d) Letronne p. 192, 219.— Classical Journal, 1821. (e) Classical 
Journal Vol. XIII. E. D. Clarke's Travels in various countries, &c. P. II. Sect. II. Ch. VII. 

4. The inscriptions on the pillars of Herodes Atticus. These two pillars, of 
green marble {cipollino verde) called by the ancients marble of Carystus, were 
found at the beginning of the 16th century, on the Appian Way, about 3 miles 
from Rome, near the place called Triopium. They were removed to the gar- 
dens of Farnese, and are often called the Farnesian Columns. One of the in- 
scriptions consecrates a certain portion of land to Ceres and Proserpina, and the 
other states that the land was the property of Annia Regilla, the wife of Herodes. 
The former, in which the ancient Athenian manner of writing is followed, has 
occasioned much discussion. The inscriptions belong to the age of Marcus Au- 
relius Antoninus; Herodes died A. D. 185. 

These inscriptions are found in Montfaucon, Palaeogr. Graec. L. II. p. 135;— Lanzi, Saggiosulla lin- 
gua etrusca, P. I. ch. 6 ;— Iscrizzioni greche Triopee, con versioni ed osservazioni di E. Q. Visconti, 
Rum. 1794. 4;— and in the remains of Herodes Atticus edited by it. Fiorillo, Leipz. 1801. 8. See also 
Nouv. Traite de Diplomatique II p. 634.— Boeckh, Corpus &c. 

There are two other inscriptions very elegant relating to Herodes. They are 
upon two square tablets of white marble (cipollino bianco), the Pentelican of 
the ancients, quarries of which are said to have belonged to this distinguished 
orator. One of them was found in 1607, on the Appian way, not far from Rome ; 
and the other a few years later in the same place. They are now in the Royal 
Museum at Paris. The first inscription, in thirty-nine hexameters, consecrates 
a sepulchral field to Minerva and Nemesis; the second in fifty-nine verses cele- 
brates the virtues of Regilla. 

These metrical inscriptions were published by CI. Saumaise (Salmasius), Inscript. Herod. Attic. Par. 
1619. 4. They are inserted in J. Spon, Miscellanea erud. Antiquitatis, Lugd. 1680. 4 ;—Montelatici, 
Descri zzione della Villa Borghese [where the tablets were formerly lodged in a small temple]. Rom. 
1700;— Mattaire, MisceW. graec. aliquot Scriptorum Carmina. Lond. 1723. 4;— and in the Anthologies 
of Brunck and Jacobs. 

II. — Coins and Medals. 

§ 93. An acquaintance with ancient coins affords assistance in the 
pursuits of classical literature in several ways. We shall here con- 
sider them chiefly with respect to the inscriptions they bear. In this 
point of view, the Grecian coins, which now remain, present some of 
the most ancient specimens of Greek written characters, and serve for 
evidences of the different changes these have undergone. But the in- 
scriptions, legends, and impressions on coins and medals may also cast 



COINS AND MEDALS. 59 

very considerable light upon language, criticism, history, geography, 
chronology and even natural history. 

' Such a number of events have been recorded by ancient medals, and so great 
has been the care of the moderns, in collecting and preserving them, that they 
now give great light to history. It is remarkable that history scarce makes any 
mention of Balbec, or Palmyra, whose ruins ure so famous^ and we have little 
knowledge of them but what is supplied by inscriptions. It is by this means that 
Mr. Vaillant has disembroiled a history which was lost to the world before his 
time. For out of a short collection of medals he has given us an entire chroni- 
cle of the kings of Syria. (History of kings of Syria, Par. 1C81.) 

But medals are not only, or perhaps chiefly, valuable as they are a means of 
preserving the knowledge of the leading events in history ; they have likewise 
been a means of transmitting to us a more perfect knowledge of many things 
which we are desirouawf forming an idea of, than any history, by means of ver- 
bal description, could frossibly give us. We find upon them traces of customs and 
manners, the figures of ancient buildings, instruments, habits, and of a variety 
of thingswhich shew the state of thearts and conveniences of life, in the age 
wherein the medals were struck ; and many things in nature which historians 
have passed unnoticed, as being familiar in the times in which they wrote, or 
have omitted, as not being aware that they would ever engage the curiosity of 
after ages. 

It is also very amusing to view upon medals the features of the great men of 
antiquity ; which, if they were struck in an age in which the arts flourished, as 
is the case with many of the Roman, and particularly of the Grecian medals, we 
can have no doubt but that they are sufficiently exact. And even if they were 
struck in an age which did dot excel in the arts of painting, statuary, and carv- 
ing ; yet, as faces are chiefly drawn upon coins in profile, any person who has ta- 
ken notice of shadows, may conceive that a very striking likeness may easily be 
hit off in that way. However, in general, so extremely exact are the drawings 
of most single objects upon the old medals of the best ages, that even those fa- 
mous painters Raphael, Le Bruyn, and Rubens, thought it worth their while tho- 
roughly to study them, and preserve cabinets of them. And indeed the gene- 
rality of figures on many of the Grecian medals have a design, an attitude, a 
force, and .a delicacy, in the expression even of the muscles and veins of human 
figures, and they are supported by so high a relief, that they infinitely surpass 
both the Roman medals, and most of the moderns.' (Priestley s Lect. on History). 

A peculiar source of interest to the fancy in studying medals is furnished by 
the various symbols impressed upon them. Some of these symbols represent 
the ancient deities ; e. g. the laurel is a symbol of Apollo, the ivy and grape of 
Bacchus, the poppy of Proserpine, corn of Ceres, the olive and also the owl of 
Minerva, the dove of Venus, a torch of Diana. Other symbols represent coun- 
tries or cities, as pomegranate flowers, Rhodes; owl, Athens; tortoise, Peloponne- 
sus; wolf's heaa\ Argos; bull's head, Boeotia ; crescent, Byzantium. Others repre- 
sent abstract qualities or offices; as a caduceus, peace ; a cornucopia, abundance ; 
an altar, piety -, ihemituus, or twisted wand, Augurship; the apex, or cap with 
strings, Pontificate. 

§ 94. We cannot determine, with certainty, either the precise time 
when money was first coined in Greece, nor the country where it was 
first introduced. Ancient writers differ in their accounts. The point 
of precedence has been asserted by different authors in favor of the 
Lydians, the Eginetans, the Thessalians and the Phoenicians, as being 
the first, who used coined money. Homer makes no mention of it ; 
which renders it probable, that during the age of this poet, or at least 
in the time of the Trojan war, such money did not exist, and that ex- 
changes were made by barter, or by the use of pieces of metal, whose 
weight and value were determined at each exchange, or by the mer* 



60 ARCHEOLOGY OK GREEK LITERATURE. 

chant's mark. The earliest notice of this is in a passage of Genesis 
(xxiii. 16) referring to the bargain which Abraham made with king 
Abimelech, for a portion of land. 

See WaMeri, Archaeologia numaria. Lip. 1740. — Eckhel, Doctrina Num. 
Vet. Proleg. Cap. III. — Jahn's Heb. Antiquities, by Upham, § 115. — Heeren's Re- 
flect, p. 193. 

§ 95. Of the Grecian coins still existing, some authors regard 
those of Phidon, king of Argos, who lived shortly after the time 
of Homer, of the highest antiquity. Strabo (L. VIII.) and the Arun- 
delian Marbles testify that this king coined moi^r in the island of 
iEgina. But it is doubtful whether the silver corM stamped with his 
name, of which there is one in the Royal collection at Berlin, were 
struck during his reign, or after his death for the purpose of perpetu- 
ating his memory. The coin's of Amyntas, king of Macedonia, who 
lived about the time of Cyrus, if genuine, may be considered as among 
the most ancient which have been preserved. The characters B.AM 
IMT □ Y.M. which we find upon their reverse, may be explained 
thus, Paadecoa A(ji(itov Mavedovwv. A golden Cyrenaic coin of 
Demonax, who was sent from Mantinea to settle the affairs of Cyrene, 
in the time of Pisistratus, would be still more ancient, had it not the 
appearance of being a medal stamped at a later period as a memorial. 
When the characters upon Grecian coins are found written from 
right to left, it is quite probable that they are of high antiquity, particu- 
larly when the devices upon them show a rude state of art. 

Of this class there are a number of coins of certain cities in Mag- 
na Graecia, as Sybaris, Caulonia, Posidonia, and some ancient Sicil- 
ian coins from the cities Leontium, Messina, Segesta and Syracuse. 
But there are many coins bearing the names of Theseus, Achilles, 
Hector, Ulysses, &c. which are certainly not of very ancient stamp. 

See W. Jacob, Histor. Inquiry into the Production and Consumption of the 
Precious Metals. Lond, 1831. 2 Vols. 8. (Vol. I. p. 145.) 

The following table presents a chronological classification of ancient Greek 
coins. — ' 1. Those without impression. — 2. With one or more hollow indented 
marks on one side, and an impression in relief on the other. — Of Chalcedon on 
the Hellespont, Lesbos, Abdera, in Thrace, Acanthus in Macedon, those said to 
belong to ^Egium in Achaia or JSgina, having the figure of the tortoise. This 
class continues from about 900 to 700 B. C— 3. With an indented square divided 
into segments, having a small figure in one of them ; the rest blank, with a fig- 
ure in relief on the obverse. — Of Syracuse and other places adjacent. — Continue 
from 700 to 600 B. C. — 4. Coins hollow on the reverse, with figures in relief on 
the obverse. — Of Caulonia, Crotona, Metapontum, &c. Supposed by some to be 
a local coinage of Magna Graecia; but probably of equal antiquity with the for- 
mer. — 5. Coins in which a square dye is used on one side or both sides. — Of Ath- 
ens, Cyrene, Argos, &c— Of Alexander I. and Archelaus I. of Macedon. Dis- 
used in the reign of the latter about 420 B. C.—6. Complete coins, both in obverse 
and reverse, occur first in Sicily in the time of Gelo, about 491 B. C— 7. Coins 
of Alexander the Great and his successors. About the time of this hero the 



COINS AND MEDALS. 61 

Greek coins began to attain to perfection, and were struck of uncommon beauty. 
It is remarkable, that on the coins of this monarch his own image seldom occurs. 
After his death many coins bore his portrait. Trebellius Pollio informs us, that 
some coins, particularly those of Alexander, used to be worn as amulets ; and 
many medals are met with in cabinets bored seemingly with that intention. — 
8. Coins of the successors of Alexander. — Those of the Syrian raonarchs al- 
most equal the coins of Alexander himself in beauty. The Egyptian Ptolemies 
are somewhat inferior. — 9. The coins of the Arsacidas of Parthiadone by Greek 
workmen. — 10. The Greek imperial coins, being such as have the head of an 
emperor or an empress : such as have not these impressions being classed with the 
civic coins, though struck under the Roman power. None of the imperial coins 
occur in gold. Of silver there are those of Antioch, Tyre, Sidon, Tarsus, Be- 
rytus, Caesarea. The Greek imperial brass coins are very numerous. A series 
of almost all the emperors may be had from those of Antioch, with a Latin le- 
gend on the obverse and Greek on the reverse.' 

§ 96. The number of Grecian coins of gold now existing is not 
great; probably there is not one Attic gold coin whose genuineness 
can be proved; but their variety, in size and denomination, together 
with the testimony of authors, is evidence that many were struck. 
They bore the general name of xQvoog eniar/fiog, gold stamped. Of 
silver coins we have a very large number, of different values. The 
most ancient of both kinds have the purest metal. Ordinary small 
coin, as well as memorial devices, were made of copper ; and at La- 
cedemon, and Byzantium, of iron. The largest coin in common 
use, was the Staler, and the smallest the Lepton. One of the brazen 
or copper pieces of middling size, in most common circulation, was 
the Chalcus, of which the Lepton was but a seventh part. Of golden 
coins the Chrysus (xQ va °vs, supp. ai«rrjo) was one of those most in 
use. The Medallions, or pieces which were distributed as tokens of 
gratitude or flattery, at public games or other solemn festival occasions, 
were of a large size and usually of finer execution. 

A vast number of ancient coins have been discovered. One reason of their 
preservation was the custom, which the ancients had of burying one or more 
coins with their dead to pay Charon for their passage over the Styx. 

' From Phidon of Argos to Constantine I. are 36 generations: and from Mag- 
na Graecia to the Euphrates, from Cyrene to the Euxine Sea, Grecian arts pre- 
vailed, and the inhabitants amounted to about 30,000,000. There died therefore, 
in that time and region, not less than ten thousand millions of people, all of whom 
had coins of one sort or other buried with them. The tombs were sacred and 
untouched ; and afterwards neglected, till modern curiosity or chance began to 
disclose them. The urn of Flavia Valentina, in Mr, Towley's capital collection, 
contained seven brass coins of Antoninus Pius and Eleagabalus. Such are gen- 
erally black, from being burnt with the dead. The best and freshest coins were 
used on these occasions from respect to the dead ; and hence their fine conserva- 
tion. At Syracuse a skeleton was found in a tomb, with a beautiful gold coin in 
its mouth ; and innumerable other instances might be given, for hardly is a funeral 
urn found without coins. Other incidents also conspire to furnish us with num- 
bers of ancient coins, though the above-recited circumstances be the chief cause 
of perfect conservation. In Sicily, the silver coins with the head of Proserpine 
were found in such numbers as to weigh 600 French livres or pounds. In the 
16th century, 60,000 Roman coins were fourid at Modena, thought to be a milita- 
ry chest hid after the battle of Bedriacum, when Otho was defeated by Vitellius. 
Near Brest, in the year 1760, between 20 and 30,000 Roman coins were found.' 

Yet the number of different coins preserved is not so great as might perhaps be 



G2 ARCH/KOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

expected from the above remarks. The whole number of ancient coins of dif- 
ferent impressions is estimated by Pinkerton at 80,000, and by Eckhel at 70,000; 
and as many of these differ from each other but very little, a collection of 30,000 
might lay claim, it is said, to considerable completeness. The whole number of 
Greek and Roman coins has been estimated as about 50,000, including about 3,000 
of gold, and 6,000 of silver, with 31,000 of brass or copper. 

§ 97. Upon some Grecian coins we find Phoenician characters, or 
at least such as bear much resemblance to them. The character X is 
put for the letter Z sometimes, and sometimes for S. Instead of S we 
find also the character Z. Upon the most ancient coins the 2 often has 
the form \\ , and on those of later times the form C or C. And C is 
frequently used for r, the conbination CIO for SI, and the character 
□ for O ; E is put for H (the latter being employed merely as an 
aspirate), O for OY, 2 for Z, X for K, etc. 

The inscriptions, particularly upon, the more ancient coins, are or- 
dinarily very brief and simple, containing only the names of the cities 
or princes, that struck them, and often only their initials. Upon the 
coins of the later Asiatic monarchs, the inscriptions are more full. 
They are placed sometimes around the border of the piece, sometimes 
in the centre of the reverse ; sometimes upon both sides of a figure, 
a head, vessel, or the like ; sometimes at the bottom, within a segment, 
a section line, or what is called the exergue. Inscriptions filling 
the whole of the reverse, are very rarely found on Greek coins. 

§ 98. Upon many coins, especially those of later dates, both under 
the eastern and western emperors, we find a combination of Greek 
and Latin characters. For instance we sometimes find <S instead of 
the Greek C, R instead of P, Finstead of *. There are Greek in- 
scriptions not only upon the coins of the states of Greece which were 
struck while they were in possession of their liberty, or under the 
government of Grecian masters, but also upon the coin of the Greek 
cities and provinces after their subjugation by the Romans, and like- 
wise upon the kfter coins of Sicily and Magna Graecia. This renders 
a knowledge of the Greek language the more indispensable to every 
amateur in collecting medals and coins. — The coins of Greek cities 
under the Roman dominion sometimes have on one side a Greek in- 
scription and on the other a Latin. 

§ 99. Of the works upon Numismatics, such, that is, as will serve 
for an introduction to the science of coins and medals, or contain cop- 
ies of the coins and the necessary explanations, we will mention here 
some of the principal ; including such as treat of Roman as well as 
Grecian coins. 

Ez. Spanhemii Dissertationes de praestantia et usu Numismatum antiquo- 
rum. Lond. et Amsterd. 1717. 2 Vol. M.—Jok. Eckhel Doctrina Numorurn 



MANUSCRIPTS. 63 

Veterum. Vindob. 1792. ss. 8 Vol' 4. — J. C. Rasche Lexicon Universae Rei 
Numariae Veterum. Lips, 1785. ss. 10 Vol. 8. 

The preeeeding works are the more extensive. The following treat the sub- 
ject less fully. 

J. Evelyn, on Medals Antient and Modern. Lond. 1697. Pol. — La Science 
des medailles antiques et modernes par L. Jobert, avec des rem. hist, et crit. (par 
Joseph Bimard, de La Bastie.) Par. 1739.2. Vol. 8. — T. C. Raschens Kenntuiss 
antiker Munzen, nachden Grundsatzen des P. Jobert unddes Hrn. de la Bastie, 
mit neuen Verbesserungen. Nurnb. 1778. 1779. 3 Th 8.— (Fr. Ant. Zaccaria) 
Iftituzione antiquario — numismatica o sia Introduz. alio Studio degli antiche 
Medaglie. Rom. 1772. 8. 2. Ediz. accresciuta di una lettera del P. Paciaudi. 
Venet. 1793. 8. — Erasmi Froelich Notitia Elementaris numismatum. Cum figg. 
Viennae 1758. 4. — Ejusd. (s. n. Debiel) Utilitas Rei Numariae Veteris, com- 
pendio proposita. Viennae. 1733. 8. — Ejusd. duatuor Tentamina in Re Numa- 
riaVetere. Vienn. 1737. 4.— Essay on Medals, by Pinkerton. Lond. 1789. 2 Vol. 
Very valuable.r Virtuoso's companion and coin collector's Guide — Lond. 1797. 12.- 
F Schlichlegroll, Annalen der gesammten Numismatik. Leipz. and Gothe 1804. 
1806. 2 B. 4. — By the same, Geschichte des Studiums der alter Munzkunde. Mun- 
chen 1811. 4. — C. L. Stieglitz, Archaologische Unterhaltungen. Leipz. 1820. 
8. — D. Sestini Classes generales seu moneta vetus urbium, pop. et reg. ordine 
geogr. et chronol. descripta. Edit. 2. Florent, 1821. 4. — Ackerman, Numismatic 
Manual. Lond, 1832 12. 

Of works with plates, including Greek coins, the following are among the 
most important. Hubcrti Goltzii de Re Numaria Antiqua Opera quae ex- 
tant Universa. Antwerp. 1708. 5 Vol. fol.— N. F. Haym Tesoro Britanico, 
overo Museo Numario. Lond. 1719. 20. 2 Vol. 4. — Io. lac. Gesneri Numisma- 
ta Graeca regum atque virorum illust. c. commentario. Tiguri 1738. fol. — Ejusd. 
Numismata Graeca populorum et urbium. ibid. 1739. fol. — Eiusd. Numismata 
Regum Macedoniae. ib. 1738. fol. — Recueil des medailles des Rois des peuples 
et des villes, par Mr. Pellerin, avec les Supplemens. Par. 1762. 78. 10. Vol. 4. 
— Magnan Miscellanea Numismatica. Romae 1774. 4 Vol. 4. — Milligen, 
Recueil de quelques Medailles Grecques inedites. Pa. 1812 — F. E. Mionnet, 
Description de medailles antiques, grecques et romains. Paris 1806 — 13. 6 Vol. 
8. — Supplement. Pans, 1819—22. 2 vols. — Numismatiques de Voyage der jeune 
Anacharsis, ou Medailles der beau terns de la Grece, par C. P. Laudon. Par. 
1818. 2 Vol. 8. — For other references see Sulzer's Allg. Theor, article Schau- 
muense. 

III. — Manuscripts. 

§ 100. We must consider the copies of the prose and poetical 
writings of the Greeks as among the most valuable monuments of 
their literature. By means of these we are made acquainted, not only 
with their history, but also with their whole genius and character, and 
with the most valuable models in every variety of style. It is to the 
discovery of these, that we are, in great measure, indebted for the re- 
vival of letters. 

Although most of the Greek writings extant, have already been 
published and circulated by means of the press, yet the different manu- 
scripts which are in our possession, and particularly the more ancient, 
are of much value and utility to the critic. 

§ 101. In point of antiquity, inscriptions and coins claim a supe- 
riority over manuscripts. Of the latter (if we except the Herculanean 
rolls and a few Egyptian Papyri, § 107), there does not now remain a 
single copy, made during the life of the author, or which was tran- 



64 fcRCHJEOLOGY OK CSREEK LITERATURE. 

scribed directly from the original manuscripts. The most ancient now 
existing, arc not dated further back than the sixth century; and but 
few of these can be referred to so early a date with unquestionable cer- 
tainty. We must attribute the loss of the earlier manuscripts, partly 
to the destructibility of their material, partly to the political and physi- 
cal disasters which befel Greece, and partly to the ignorance and su- 
perstition of the middle ages and the consequent contempt for these 
monuments of literature. The practice of obliteration also occasion- 
ed losses. Manuscripts still exist whose original writing was effaced 
that they might receive other compositions ; such are those termed 
codices Palimpsesti (§ 84). Some losses must also be ascribed to the 
carelessness of the first publishers, who printed directly from the 
manuscripts and thereby spoiled them, or after committing a work to 
the press, viewed the manuscript as useless. 

§ 102. Notwithstanding this destruction, and perhaps through the 
very ignorance and neglect of the owners of collections then existing, 
a large number of Greek manuscripts were preserved, especially in 
convents, abbeys and cathedrals. Some of these certainly belong to 
the middle ages, in which there were a few men of information and 
lovers of ancient literature, while others for the sake of gain employed 
themselves as copyists. Many of these manuscripts were written du- 
ring the dawn of the revival of letters, in the thirteenth, fourteenth, 
and first half of the fifteenth century, for the use of colleges and of the 
literati. Even for some time after the invention of printing, while the 
art was yet imperfect and not extensively cultivated, the practice of 
copying manuscripts was continued. 

See the work of Heeren, quoted § 76. 

§ 103. To become well acquainted with manuscripts and to fix 
their precise dates, is very difficult. Upon this point we cannot lay 
down rules, which shall be applicable in every case, and perfectly de- 
cisive. There are only some general external marks, by which the 
age of the manuscript is to be determined with any considerable de- 
gree of probability. We must form our decision by the characters 
used in writing, by their size, their spaces, the direction of the letters, 
the abbreviations and contractions, and by the whole exterior of the 
manuscript. 

In a question respecting the author of a work, or the age in which 
he lived, more reliance can be placed on the internal evidence, which 
is presented by the subject, the style, and the historical statements and 
allusions. Sometimes we find the name of the author, and the date 



MANUSCRIPTS. 65 

of the copy, at the close of the manuscript, but usually only the name 
of the transcriber. Often we may be satisfied from internal evidence, 
that a work was not composed by the reputed author, while we are 
still unable to point out the real author, or the writer of the manu- 
script. 

§ 104. We shall here limit ourselves to a mention of some of 
these external signs for the sake of example. The most ancient Greek 
manuscripts, as well as inscriptions, are written in capital letters, (lit- 
erse unciales), without any space between the words, and without signs 
of punctuation. Accents and aspirates were not introduced till the 
7th century ; the capital letters in the 8th and 9th were a little longer 
and had more inclination and slope. At this period they began to 
make contractions, and a smaller style of writing commenced. After 
the 12th century, new characters and abbreviations were introduced, 
and greater variety appeared in the forms of the letters. The best 
manner of becoming acquainted with these characteristics, is by the 
study of the manuscripts themselves. They may be learned also by 
means of the patterns, which Montfaucon has given in his Greek Palce- 
agraphy. These marks, however, it must be remembered, are not an 
invariable and infallible criterion of the age of a manuscript. Often, 
in later times, transcribers strictly imitated the ancient copies, and pre- 
served all their peculiarities unchanged. 

See B. Montfaucon, Palaeographia Graeca. Paris, 1708, Fol. — Pfeiffer, ueber 
Buecher-Handschriften(§ 53). — Mannert's Miscellanea, meist diplomatisch. In- 
halts, Nuernb. 1796,— Graeca D. Marci Biblioiheca cod. manuscript, (auct. A. 
M. Zanett. et A. Bongiovann.) Venet. 1740. Fol. 

§ 105. A very profitable use maybe made of an extensive know- 
ledge and diligent study of ancient manuscripts. They are of service 
to the critic in determining, correcting, and confirming the readings of 
printed books ; and there is often something to be gleaned even from 
the copies already examined by others. By comparing manuscripts 
we may be prepared to fill up blanks, to discover false insertions, and 
to rectify transpositions. And such an examination may give rise to 
many critical, philosophical, and literary observations. Writings may 
be found also, in searching over the libraries of convents, which have 
never been published, and which may have hitherto escaped the eye of 
the learned. But to profit by the advantages presented by this study, 
much previous knowledge of language, criticism, bibliography and 
literary history is necessary. 

§ 106. It is to the assiduous application of many votaries of classi- 
cal literature, after the revival of letters, in the discovery, examination 
and comparison of ancient manuscripts, that we are indebted for the. 

9 



GO ARCU/EOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

best editions of the Greek and Roman authors. Although their at- 
tention was confined chiefly to the criticism of the text and the settle- 
ment of readings, it was laying the foundation for all useful criticism 
upon the matter and contents, which must depend for its basis and cer- 
tainty on such previous researches. The editions thus prepared, in 
connexion with the prefaces and commentaries accompanying them, 
will serve, much better than any rules which can be given, as guides 
in similar efforts, and as suggesting'the best methods of treating this 
whole subject. 

$ 107. The following may be mentioned as among the oldest 
Greek manuscripts that are known ; the Codex Alexandrinus, the 
Codex Vaticanus, the Codex Cottonianus, and the Codex Colberti- 
nus, a manuscript of Dioscorides, preserved in the Imperial Library 
at Vienna, and another in the Library of the Augustines at Naples. 
All these manuscripts are in the uncial letter, without accent or marks 
of aspiration. — To these must be added the Herculanean Rolls, and 
the Egyptian Papyri. 

1. The Codex Alexandrinus consists of four folio Volumes, containing the 
Septuagint version of the Old Testament, with the Apochryphal books, the New 
Testament, and some additional pieces. It is preserved in the British Museum, 
at London. ' It was sent as a present to King Charles I. from Cyrillus Lucaris, 
a native of Crete, and patriarch of Constantinople, by Sir Thomas Howe, am- 
bassador from England to the Grand Seignior in the year 1628, Cyrillus brought 
it with him from Alexandria where it was probably written.' It is referred by 
some to the fourth century, but by most is considered as belonging to the sixth. 
It is written without accents or breathings, or spaces between the words, and with 
few abbreviations. An exact fac-simile of the part containing the N. Testament 
was published by Dr. Woide, Librarian of the Museum, in 1786. In 1812 a fac- 
simile of the part containing the Psalms, was published by Rev. H. H. Baber ; 
who was subsequently authorised to publish the rest of the Old Testament at the 
expense of the British Parliament. 

The Codex Vaticanus, contains the Old Testament in the Septuagint 
version, and a part of the New. It is lodged in the Vatican Library at Rome. 
It is written on parchment or vellum, in three columns on each page, with the let- 
ters all of the same size except at the beginning of a book, without any division 
of words, with but few abbreviations. Some critics have maintained that it was 
written as early as the fourth century ; but others refer it to the sixth or seventh. 

The Codex Cottonianus was brought from Philippi by two Greek bishops, who 
presented it to Henry VIII. It was placed in the Cottonian Library and a great 
part of it was consumed by fire in 1731. The fragments are deposited in the Bri- 
tish Museum, and are in a very decayed state. It is considered as the most an- 
cient manuscript of any part of the Old Testament now extant, being generally 
ascribed to the fourth century or the very beginning of the fifth. It was decorat- 
ed with numerous paintings, or illuminations. 

The Codex Colbertinus contains a part of the Septuagint. It once belonged 
to the collection called the Colbert Mss. but is now lodged in the Royal Library 
at Paris. It is thought to be a part of the same manuscript with that now in the 
Library of the Academy at Leyden, termed Codex Sarravianus. They are re- 
ferred to the fifth or sixth century. 

On the whole subject of the Greek Sacred Mss., see Home's Introd. Vol. II. P. 1. ch. n. Sect. n. 

2. The manuscript of Dioscorides in the Library at Vienna is a very curious 
monument. It was purchased at Constantinople for Maximilian II. by Busbe- 



MANUSCRIPTS. 67 

quius, who went, about 1550, an ambassador to Turkey. It is said to have been 
written by Juliana Anicia, the daughter of Flavius Anicius Olybrius who occu- 
pied the imperial throne of the west, A. D. 472. It is ornamented with minia- 
tures representing plants, birds and serpents, and the portraits of celebrated phy- 
sicians of antiquity. It is described by Lambecius ; Commentariorum de augus- 
tissima biblotheca Caesarea-Vindobonensi libri VIII. Vindob. 1665 — 1679. 8 vol. 
fol. — The other copy, once in the Library at Naples, is now in that of Vienna 
and is considered as of about the same antiquity as the former. 

See SchcBll'a Hist. Litt. Gr. L. 5. ch. VI. 

3. The Herculanean Rolls, (papyri) found in excavating Herculaneum, are 
more remarkable for their antiquity than for their real value, so far as at present 
known, although they amounted to 16 or 1700 in number. Most of them were 
too much injured to be unrolled and deciphered, many of them crumbling to dust 
under the hand of the operator. Very great interest and the most sanguine ex- 
pectations were awakened in the literary world on their first discovery. But the 
first fruits of the indefatigable toil in unrolling and deciphering were very far 
from meeting these high hopes, the treatise of Philodemus on music being of 
little value. Piaggiand Merli, Mazocchi, Sickler, and Sir Humphrey Davy 
successively applied their labors and experiments with but poor success. 

See Cramer's Nachrichten zur Geschichte der herkulanisch. Entdeckungen. Halle. 1773.— Barter* 
Briefe uber Kalabrien and Sicilien.— Herculanensium Voluminum quae supersunt. Neap. Vol. 1, 1793- 
Vol. II, 1809.— Ausonian Magazine, No. I.— Quarterly Review, Vol III. 

4. Several papyri with Greek writing on them have been found in Egypt, 
which are of more ancient date than any other known manuscripts. They ex- 
hibit the earliest use of the cursive Greek letter. 

Three are dated before Christ. The earliest was brought to Europe by M. 
Casati in 1822 and belongs to the Royal library of France. It is sixteen and a 
half feet long and eight inches deep, and contains 505 lines. Its date corresponds 
with the year 113 B. C. It is" merely a contract or deed of the sale of a portion of 
land near Ptolemais. The next in point of antiquity contains a similar contract, 
with a date corresponding to 104, B. C. It was found in a tomb, and hasexercised 
in its deciphering the care of Aug. Bockh, Phil. Buttman and Imm. Bekker. 
That which is ranked next in age, treats of the payment of certain funeral charg- 
es, and is remarkable for containing besides the Greek, an Egyptian writing in 
the same character as appears in the Rosetta Inscription, called enchorial (iyx"- 
qia.') Its date is judged to be 82. B. C. Two other papyri are described as 
written in the second century after Christ, and all the rest that are known as 
written in the fifth or later. 

See Schxll, Histoire de la Litt. Grec. L. Ch. 50.— Bceckh Erklaerung einer aegypt. Urkunde in Griech. 
Cursiv-schrift &o, Berlin 1821. 4— Journal des Savans. 1821. p 537, 1822. p 555.— Nic. Schow, Charta 
papyracea grace scripta Musei Borgiani Veletris. Rom. 1788. 4.— 

A number of papyri have also been found containing only Egyptian characters, 
enchorial or hieroglyphic. Pac-similes of several of these are given in the Atlas 
illustrating the Travels of Denon in Egypt. The same work notices a manu- 
script on cloth, the envelope or wrapper of a mummy, consisting of nineteen 
pages, separated and bordered by as many vignettes. Parts of the writing in 
these manuscripts are done in red ink. The pictures are in different colors. 

§ 108. It may be proper here to mention some of the principal 
libraries, which contain the finest collections of Greek manuscripts. 
In Italy, The king's library, and library of the Augustine convent 
at Naples. The Royal library at Turin. The Vatican library, and 
some private libraries at Rome. Cathedral library at Bologne. Library 
of St. Mark, and several private collections at Venice. That of the 
Medici at Florence contains one of the most extensive collections of 
this kind. The Ambrosian library at Milan. — In Spain, The library 
of the Escurial. — In France, The Royal or National library at Paris, 



68 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

which contains the Mss. once belonging to several other libraries.— 
In England, The libraries at Cambridge. The Bodleian library at 
Oxford. The British Museum at London.— In Germany, The im- 
perial library at Vienna. That of the elector of Bavaria at Munich. 
The library of the council or senate at Augsburg. The libraries of 
the University and Senate at Leipsic. The libraries of the Dukes at 
Weimar and Wolfenbuttel. The Royal library of Berlin. That 
of the elector of Saxony, at Dresden.— In Denmark, The Royal li- 
brary at Copenhagen.— In Holland, The University library at Ley- 
den. — In Russia, Library of the Synod at Moscow. 

The Royal Library at Paris contains 70,000 Mss. of various kinds; the Vati- 
can at Rome 30,000 ; the Ambrosian at Milan, 15,000.— Details on the subject of 
Greek Mss. may be found by consulting thefollowing works. Bern. Montfaucon, 
Recensio Bibliothecar. Cr.secarum, in quibus manuscripti codices habentur, in 
his Palaecraphia Graeca (§ 104).— Ejusd. Bibliotheca Bibliothecarum manu- 
scriptorum Nova. Par. 1739. 2 Vols. Fol.— F. Eckard, Uebersicht der Oerter, 
wo die bekanntesten griech. Sehriftsteller gelebt haben; und Grundlage zur 
Geschichte der Bibliotheken, wodurch jene in Handschriften sind erhalten wor- 
den Giessen. 1776. 8.— For some Remarks on the Libraries of Greece, whence 
Mss have been obtained, see Travels by E. D. Clarke, N. York. 1815 Vol.iv. 
append. No. 6. where is also a Catalogue of the Mss. in the Library of Patmos.— 
Cf. Class. Journal. Vol, vii. 

In the case of most of the libraries mentioned there are catalogues of the 
Mss. preserved in them. The most valuable of these catalogues are such as 
give not only the simple name and title, but also critical and historical notices of 
the character of the manuscripts, their authors, age, rarity, price &c. see, e. g. 
Catalogus Bibliothecae Bunavianse. Lips. 1750—56. 7 vols. 4.— Bondini's Cata- 
logue of Mss. in the Library of the Grand Duke at Florence. 1764—93. 11 vols. 
Fol.— Notices des Manuscrits de la Bibliotheque du Roi. Par 1787—1818. 10 
Vols. 4.— Comp. Mo/mike, Geschichte der Literatur der Griechen and Romer. 



ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 



I. — Of the sources of Roman culture. 

$ 1 09. We have no authentic history of the first inhabitants of 
Italy. The later Romans themselves knew but little in regard to 
this subject, as there did not remain any monuments of the early ages ; 
those which had been preserved at Rome having been destroyed at the 
capture and burning of that city by the Gauls, B. C. 390. This uncer- 
tainty has given rise to many fables. The Romans commonly traced 
their own descent from the Trojans, a colony of whom under Aeneas 
amalgamated with the Aborigines or most ancient inhabitants of Italy. 

Different accounts are given of the origin of the name Italy, Italia. Some 
derive it from Italus, said to be a chief who came from Arcadia, orOenotria, and 
established a colony and kingdom ; — considered by many, however, to be a fabu- 
lous personage, (Virg. Aen. 7. 178. Thuc. 6. 2.) Others derive it from the 
term tTaXbg, a calf, applied to the country from the herds of youDg cattle found in 
it by the Greeks ( Varro, de Re Rust. ii. 5. Gell. Noct. Att. xi. 1. Dion. Hal. i. 
35). — The name seems to have been first applied to the southern extremity of the 
peninsula, to the province called Calabria ulterior, and afterwards extended so as 
to include the whole land as far as the Alps (Arist. Pol. vii. 10. Schoell, Hist. 
Litt.Rom. Int. p. 4). 

The question whence Italy received its population has been much agitated. 
Two theories or systems have been strenuously defended, called the oriental and 
the northern. The former system maintains that the early inhabitants of Italy 
came from the east, from Greece, Asia Minor, Phoenicia, or Egypt, according 
to different advocates of the theory. The other system admits an eastern origin 
of all the inhabitant of Europe, but maintains that Italy received its population 
directly from the northern or Celtic tribes. — See J. Dunlop, History of Roman 
Literature. Phil. 1827. Vol I. p 21.— Schoell, Hist. Litt. Rom. Int. p 8. These 
authors give references to the principal works in defence of each theory. The 
oriental system is most generally adopted. 

'At the period, when light is first thrown by authentic documents'on the condi- 
tion of Italy we find it occupied by various tribes, which had reached different 
degrees of civilization, spoke different dialects, and disputed with each other the 
property of the lands whence they drew their subsistence.' These various 
tribes may be included under the five following classes, ranged in the order of 
their supposed antiquity ; viz. the Illyrii, including the Liburni, Siculi, and Ve- 
neti, the Iberi including the people called Sicani, the Celtae to which belonged 
those named Umbri by the Romans, the Pelasgi (Dion. Hal. i. 11. § 33) and the 
Hetrusci, Etrusci, or Tyrrheni. ( Schoell ut sup. p 13). 

The Etruscans were the most celebrated of all these nations, having attained 
to a height of prosperity and glory before the existence of Rome. The history, in- 
stitutions, and antiquities of this people have been the theme of much interesting 
discussion. See, C. O. Mueller, Die Etrusker. Bresl. 1828. 2 vols. 8 — Anthon's 
Lemp. Class. Bibl. art. Hetruria.— Edinb. Rev. Vol. 50. p. 372. Dunlop, Hist. 
Rom. Lit. Vol, I. p. 26. 



70 ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

The early history of Rome is involved perhaps, inextricably, in fabulous tradi- 
tions. For the common account of its origin see Livy, L. I. — Dion. Hal. Antiq. 
Rom. L. I. — Plut. Romulus. — For what can be urged against the credibility of 
the early Roman history, see Niebuhr, Romische Geschichte, fieri. 1831. Trans. 
Cambr. 1832. 2 Vols. 8. — L. de Beaufort sur l'incertitude de cinque premiers 
siecles de l'hist. Rom. Hague, 1750. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 110. From this it is easy to perceive, that the origin and intro- 
duction of the Latin characters, is a subject of much uncertainty. 
Some authors attribute the invention or introduction of these letters to 
the Greeks, some to the Pelasgians, some to the Phoenicians, and oth- 
ers to the Etruscans. It is most commonly ascribed to Evander, who, 
antecedently to the Trojan war, conducted into Latium a Pelasgic col- 
ony from Arcadia. The affinity and resemblance of the most ancient 
Greek characters to the Latin is unquestionable. It was probably by 
means of the colonists settling in that country from various foreign 
parts, that civilization and the art of writing was introduced into Italy 
and a common alphabet at length formed. The Pelasgi coming from 
Arcadia, and under the name of Tyrrheni, from Asia Minor, seem to 
have been the first colonists. Soon after them there arrived other 
Greek colonists, who established themselves in the lower part of Italy, 
and brought with them their religion, language and alphabet. If we 
may credit Quintilian (L. I. c. 7.), there existed at first but a smaller 
number of letters, and they differed in their form and signification from 
those afterwards used. 

See Nahmmacheri Comment, de Lit. Rom. Bruns. 1758. 8. — Comp. Dion. Hal. 
i. 36.— Liv. i. 7.— Tac. Ann. xi. U.—Plin. Hist Nat. vii. 56, 58. 

§ 111. The Greeks who established themselves in the southern 
part of Italy, always maintained their relations and an extensive com- 
merce with the other Greeks, and even preserved their language. 
From them the country which they inhabited was called Magna, Grce- 
cia. It was separated from Sicily, where Greek colonies were also 
settled, only by a small strait. From this circumstance arises the re- 
semblance found between them and the inhabitants of this island in 
their language, sciences, manners and government. These countries 
having enjoyed the advantages of a long peace, suffering nothing 
from the Romans until a late period, and their intercourse with the 
Greeks always existing, the arts and sciences among them rose to a 
very flourishing state. It is sufficient in this place merely to allude 
to the school of Pythagoras, which took the name of Italian, and that 
founded by Xenophanes, somewhat later, and called the Eleatic. 
In Magna Grsecia and Sicily resided many great men, renowned even 
at the present day, by the brilliancy of their talents, and by their 



INFLUENCE FROM GREEK COLONIES. 71 

writings; as for instance Archimedes, Diodorus, the poets Theocri- 
tus, Moschus and Bion, the orators Lysias, Gorgias and others. 

See JagemawrCs Geschichte der Kunste und Wissenschaflen in Italien. — Dun- 
lop, Hist. Rom. Lit. I. p. 49. 

§ 112. But the circumstances of the Romans, must principally 
occupy our attention here. That first and long period, which compri- 
ses all the time included between the foundation of Rome and the 
close of the first Punic war, a period of about 500 years, was very 
sterile with respect to intellectual culture ; at least it was far from be- 
ing so fertile, as might have been expected in a republic, which ad- 
vanced so rapidly to a flourishing condition, and was surrounded by 
neighbors civilized and instructed in literature and the arts. But the 
spirit of aggrandizement which controlled and guided all the intel- 
lectual and political exertions of the Romans, was in no small degree 
itself the cause. This involved them in continual war, and compelled 
them to neglect literature and science, which are the offspring of peace 
and leisure. Their whole constitution, and consequently their very 
education tended only to this end. Hence the opposition, which the 
elder Cato made to the reception of the Greek philosophers at Rome. 
Hence also the prejudice which caused the Romans to regard all 
arts and sciences, with the exception of agriculture and war, as dishon- 
orable and fit only for slaves. 

§ 113. Even in this period, however, there appear a few traces of a 
dawning cultivation. We may specify as particulars, the care which, in 
the time of Tarquin the proud, the civilian Papirius employed in 
preparing a collection of the laws ; the embassy sent to Athens about 
454 B. C. to examine the institutions of Greece, which resulted in 
the establishment of the laws of the the twelve tables; the preserva- 
tion of the national history in the pontifical books called Annales, or 
Commentarii, parts of which were written in verse, and were sung 
upon public days ; and finally the introduction, about B. C. 363, of the 
Etrurian plays, called ludi scenici, in which originated the Roman 
drama. These plays at first consisted of nothing but dancing and 
pantomine accompanying the music of the flute. 

After the Romans had extended their conquests over Italy, they be- 
gan to bestow more attention upon the arts and sciences. There were 
in Italy at this time two nations particularly, by whom the arts had 
been specially cultivated, the inhabitants of Etruria and of Magna 
Graecia. Between two and three hundred years before Christ (283 
and 266), these nations were subjected to the Romans, and were there- 



7>> ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

by brought into greater intercourse with them. The influence of this 
intercourse upon the culture of the Romans was favorable, but was 
not very great until the close of the first Punic war, B. C. 241. 

$ 1 14. The origin of the Latin language cannot be traced to any 
one primitive tongue, because Italy in the early periods was occupied 
by so many people, and it is so uncertain which of them were the 
most ancient. • Among the earliest occupants were no doubt the Celtae 
or the Pelasgi, who came from Thracia and Arcadia, and seem to have 
been of the same race as the Aborigines. Grecian colonists subsequent- 
ly planted themselves in the middle and lower part of Italy, where also 
as well as in Sicily, Phoenicians and Carthaginians afterwards 
settled, as likewise did the Gauls in the northern part of the country. 
The first foundation of the Roman tongue was probably the dialect, 
which has been termed Ausonian or Oscan (Lingua Osca). Romu- 
lus was perhaps educated among the Greeks, and seems on this ac- 
count to have introduced into his city particularly the Grecian lan- 
guage, while the native tongue, not having fixed rules and analogies of 
its own, must have been liable to arbitrary changes, and would borrow 
many peculiarities from other dialects. We find in fact in the deri- 
vation of many Latin words, and in the general structure of the lan- 
guage, frequent traces of the Greek, especially the Aeolic dialect. 
The resemblance between the Greek and Latin alphabets has already 
been mentioned. 

During the period preceding the close of the first Punic war, the 
Roman language was in no settled state. It was necessarily exposed 
to be a mixture of various idioms, from the diversity of foreigners 
who composed the early population of Rome. The influence of the 
Greek upon its formation and improvement, still visible as just suggest- 
ed, must have been much more manifest during, the earlier periods of 
the republic; when, for example, the laws of the Twelve Tables, and 
the hymns of the Salii, or Priests of Mars, were committed to writing ; 
the latter of which especially became unintelligible to the Romans in 
the golden age of their literature. Traces of the old forms of the 
language are found in fragments of the earliest poets, and also in the 
comedies of Plautus. It was not until the close of the period of which 
we have spoken, that any attention was paid to the regular settling 
of the principles and forms of the language, and not until a still later 
time that any approved author labored upon the cultivation of style. 
During all this time therefore, the language continued in a changing 
state. 



ORIGIN OF LATIN LANGUAGE. 73 

' The population of Italy being composed of various people, there were of 
course various languages and idioms in the country, as the Ombrian, Etruscan, 
Sicanian, Latin, and others. The Latin was the primitive language of the peo- 
ple of Latium, and gradually took the place of all the rest. The ancient inhab- 
itants of Latium constituted apart of the Aborigines, but this term indicates 
scarcely more than that their real origin was unknown. They are sometimes 
also called Ausonians. According to Dionysius Halicarnasseus, they were Ar- 
cadians. But it is more probable they were Illyrians, or Celtae, or rather a mix- 
ture of these two races with the Pelasgic colonists. In fact, we may see in the 
Latin language, two fundamental idioms, the Celtic, and the Greek of the Aeolic 
and Doric dialects, which nearly resembled the ancient Pelasgic. Every thing 
in the Latin which is not Greek is from the Celtae, and especially the Ombri. 
Dionysius therefore had reason for his remark that the ancient idiom of Rome 
was neither entirely Greek nor entirely barbarian. As Latium contained anci- 
ently several independent tribes, there were several dialects, among them those 
of the Osci, the Volsci, the Latini, and the Samnites. All these dialects gradu- 
ally disappeared, and were sunk in the Roman language, as the Romans became 
masters of Italy. The use of it was regarded as an acknowledgement of their su - 
premacy, and when the allies made an attempt to throw off the Roman yoke, they 
resumed their primitive languages on the money they stamped. The Julian law, 
passed shortly after, B. C. about 90, bestowing upon these states the rights of Ro- 
man citizenship, struck a mortal blow at all these idioms, as it forever banished 
them from public transactions. The Etruscan alone survived for any considera- 
ble time, being favored on account of the religious respect always affected by the 
Roman government towards the rites of the Tuscans.' 

Schoell. Hist. Litt. Rom. Int. p. 37. 

There are still extant some monuments of the language during the period pre- 
ceding the first Punic war. The earliest specimen is supposed to be as ancient 
as the time of Romulus. It is the hymn chanted by the Fratres Arvales. It is 
given by Dunlop as follows, with an English stanza conveying ' a general notion 
of the import:' 

Enos Lases juvate Ye Lares, aid us! Mars thou God of Might ! 

Neveluerve Marmar sinis incurrer in pleoris, From murrain shield the flocks, the flowers from blight, 
Satur fufere Mars : limen sali sta berber : For thee, O Mars I a feast shall be prepared ; 

Semones alternei advocapit cunctos, Salt, and a wether fr >m the herd : 

Enos Marmor juvate, Invite by turn, each Demigod of Spring ; 

Triumpe, Triumpe. Great Mars, assist us I Triumph! Triumph sing! 

The interpretation is given in Latin by Hermann as follows; Nos, Lares, ju- 
vate, neve luem, Mamuri, {name of Mars) sinis incurrere in plures. Satur fue- 
ris, Mars : limen (postremum) sali, sta, vervex : Semones alterni, jam duo capit 
cunctus. Nos Mamuri juvato. Triumpe ! Triumpe !— Others interpret it some- 
what differently. 

See Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. i. p. 41.— Schoell. Hist. Litt. Rom. Int. p. 41.— Eustace, Class. Tour 
in Italy, vol. iii. p. 416.— Comp. Hermann, Elem. Doct. Metric. L.III. C. ix. 6. 

The next specimens belong to the time of Numa, and consist in the remains 
of the Carmen Saliare, and of the Laws of Numa. Of the former, which was 
the hymn sung by the Salic priests appointed under Numa to guard the Sacred 
Shields, there remain only a few words, cited by Varro (De Ling. Lat. L. vi. 
1, 3). Of the latter, some fragments are preserved by Festus. The following is 
an example ; Sei cuips hemonem loebesom dolo sciens mortei duit pariceidad estod 
sei im imprudensse dolo malod oceisit pro capited oceisei et nateis eiius endo 
concioned arietem subicitod : interpreted thus; Si quis hominem liberum dolo 
sciens morti dederit, parricida esto: Si eum imprudens, sine dolo malo, Occide- 
nt, procapite occisiet natis ejus in cone ion em arietem subjicito. — Festus- has pre- 
served also a law ascribed to Servius Tullius, fifth King of Rome. 

After the fragments of the Regal Laws, we have no monument of the language 
until we come to the Laws of the twelve Tables, B. C. 450. It may be doubted 
whether the genuine original reading has been preserved invariably in the frag- 
ments, which are now extant. 

For specimens, see Schoell, Hist. Litt. Rom. Int. p. 45. 

The only additional monuments of the Language in the period now spoken of 
are the Duillian and Scipian Inscriptions, which will be mentioned on a subse- 
quent page (§ 133) 

On the origin and progress of the Latin language, see Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. i. p. 42 —Schoell, 

10 



74 ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

Hist Lilt. Horn. Int. p, (6, 8B.— Nicbiilir's Rom. Hist. Camb. trans. Vol. I.— Fimccjws, De Ovigine Lat. 
Ling. Tractatus. Gtessae, 1720.— De PuerltlaL. L. Tract. Marb. 17S0.— De Adolescentia L. L. Tract 
Hub. 1798. Thesa works are separate parts of a History of Latin Literature, by J. N. Funck,.of 
Rinteln, published between 1720 and 1750, In 8 vols. 4. The other parts are De Virili aetate L. L. 
Tract. Marb. 1727, 1730. 2 vols. De imminente L. L. Soneclute Tract. Marb. 1736. De vegeta L. L. 
Sencrtute, Marb. 1741. De Inert! acdecrepita L. L. Senectute Commentarlus, Lemgov. 1759. 



II. — Of the Alphabet, Writing and Books. 

§ 115. Ancient Grammarians do not altogether agree concerning 
the nature and number of the original Latin or Roman letters. Marius 
Victorious mentions the following, A, B, C, D, E, I, K, L, M, N, O, 
P, Q., R, S, T, 16 in number. Of these, Q, is not found in the Greek 
alphabet, but corresponds to the Gieek xonna (§46) : C was sometimes 
equivalent to it. V, used both as a consonant and as a vowel, was sub- 
sequently added ; originally I or O was used instead of V as a vowel, 
and instead of B as a consonant the Aeolic Digamma F was employed. 
It was in this way that F obtained its place as a letter. H, G, X, Y, 
Z, were also added to the alphabet at a later period. 

Comp. Tac. Ann. xi. 14. —On the whole subject of the Roman alphabet, see 
Port Royal Latin Grammar, B. ix. 

§ 116. The ancient orthography differed from that of later times, 
from the fact that the pronunciation was much changed. To see this 
clearly, it will only be necessary to compare with the modern ortho- 
graphy, the original of a passage in a decree of the senate respecting 
the Bacchanales, (§133) which is one of the most ancient monuments of 
Roman writing, about 186 B.C. The passage in the original form is 
as follows ; NEVE. POSTHAC. INTER. SED. CONIO VRASE. 
NEVE. COMVOVISE. NEVE. CONSPONDISE. NEVE. CON- 
PROMESISE. VELET. NEVE. aVISQVAM. FIDEM. INTER. 
SED. DEDISE. VELET. SACRA. IN. OQVOLTOD. NE. GIVIS- 
aVAM. FECISE. VELET. NEVE. IN. POPLICOD. NEVE. 
IN. PREIVATOD. NEVE. EXTRAD. VRBEM. SACRA. QVIS- 
QV AM. FECISE. VELET. In the later orthography, as follows ; 
Neve posthac inter se conjurasse, neve convovisse, neve conspondisse, 
neve compromisisse vellet, neve quisquam fidem inter se dedisse vellet 
sacra in occulto ne quisquam fecisse vellet, neve in publico, neve in 
privato, neve extra urbem sacra quisquam fecisse vellet. 

Respecting this decree, see Livy xxxix, 18.— Schoell. Hist. Lilt. Rom. Int. p. 52. 
Cf. §133. 3. — On the various changes in orthography, see Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. 
I. p. 48. — Port Royal Lat. Gram. B. ix. — Fwiccius de Pueritia Ling. Lat. c. 5. 
and de Adolescentia Ling. Lat. c. 7.- Terrascm, Hist, de la Jurisprudence Rom. p. I. 



METHOD OF WRITING. BOOKS. 75 

$ 117. Not only in ancient times, but even in the later and most 
flourishing period of their literature, the Romans wrote only in capi- 
tal letters. The small Roman letters did not come into general use 
until the beginning of the middle ages. If small letters (literae mi- 
nutae) were employed earlier, it was only a smaller size of the cap- 
itals. Among the Romans when the writers wished to take down a 
spoken discourse, or to note something in the margin, they formed ab- 
breviations (notae) by using the initial letters, or some of the prin- 
cipal letters, of the words, or particular signs for the syllables of most 
frequent occurrence, or arbitrary characters standing for whole words. 
The most remarkable characters of this class, which we meet with in 
many Latin manuscripts, are those whose invention is attributed to Tiro, 
the freedman of Cicero, after whom they are called notae Tironianae ; and 
to Annaeus Seneca. Gruter and Carpentier have collected and at- 
tempted to explain them ; this has been more completely done by Kopp 
in treating of the Tachygraphy of the ancients. , Some have imagin- 
ed, that our small numerical figures derived their origin from these char- 
acters instead of being, as is commonly believed, an invention of the 
Arabians, but there is no ground for the supposition. 

See Carpentier Alphabetum Tironianum, Par. 1747. fol. — Kopp, Palaeograph- 
ia Critica, Manheim. 1817, 4. 

§ 1 1 8. The books of the Romans, both the more ancient and those of 
later times, resembled in form and material, the books of the Greeks 
(See § 56, 57). The rolls among the Romans were called volumina ; 
the leaves composing them paginae from the word pangere (to put 
together) ; the sticks upon which they were rolled, cylindri, also ba- 
cilli, surculi ; the knobs or ornaments at the ends of the sticks, umbili- 
ci or comua ; and the edges of the rolls, frontes. In writing the first 
draft of any thing, whether in accounts or letters, the Romans common- 
ly made use of tablets covered with wax (tabulae ceratae, cerae). 
They also had books, made and folded in the same manner as ours, of 
square leaves of vellum or papyrus, which they called codices. Their 
instruments for writing were the style (stylus, graphium), and the reed 
(calamus, arundo). They used ink of several dyes or colors. And 
copyists introduced the same ornaments in writing manuscripts as 
among the Greeks. Comp. §§ 55, 58. 

See Ch. G. Schwarzii de ornamentis librorum et varia rei literariae veterum 
supellectile dissertt. antiquar. Lips. 1756. 4. 

The following are some of the Latin terms and phrases used in reference to 
the subject of books, paper, and writing. — Adversaria, note books, memorandums. 
— Autograp/ms, autography book or manuscript written by the author'sown hand; 
i. q. idiographus.—Biblus, i. q. Papyrus, the Egyptian plant ; whence our words 
Bible, andpaper. — Bibliotheca, a library, See §126.-Bibliopola,a.bookse\\er.-Capsa, 



76 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

a place for keeping books, paper, or instruments for writing, an escritoir, a ease ; 
i. q. scrinium, arcula, loculus. — Capsarius, the slave carrying the capsa for boys of 
rank to school. — Cka rta, paper; this word received various epithets, modifying 
its signification ; as Ck. aentata, polished paper, smoothed by the tooth of a boar 
or some animal; Ck. Augusta rcgia, Ck. Claudiana, very superior or fine paper; 
Ck. emporctica, wrapping paper for merchants ; Ck, macrocolla, very large paper ; 
Ck. Pergamcna,i. q. membrana, parchment, made from the skins of sheep. — Ckir- 
ographus. written with one's own hand. — Ckirograpkum, one's own signature, or 
name written by himself. A document with the names of two contracting par- 
ties thus written is called syngrapka. — Commentarii, accounts written about one's 
self; also journals, or registers, i. q. Diaria, epkemerides. — Dipktkera (Si<p&i(>a) 
sometimes used for parchment ; Diphthera Jovis, register book of Jupiter. — Di- 
ploma (i. q. libellus duplicatus, consisting of two leaves, written on one side), a 
writing conferring some peculiar right or privilege, granted by a magistrate, or 
emperor. — Epistola, a letter to one absent. The Romaus divided their letters if 
long into pages, folded them in the form of a little book, tied them round with a 
thread (lino obligare), covered the knot with wax or a kind of chalk (creta) and 
sealed it (obsignare) ; hence cpistolas resignare, solvere to open a letter. The 
name of the writer was always put first, then that of the person addressed; the 
word salutem or letter S was annexed. The letter always closed with some 
form of a good wish or prayer, called subscriptio. The date was usually added, 
sometimes the hour of the day. Letters were usually sent by a slave, called ta- 
bellarlus, there being no established post until the time of the emperors ; when its 
use was chiefly confined to the imperial service (Gibbon, Rom. Emp. Ch. ii). 
The slave or freed man employed to write letters was termed u/rnarmensis (a manu). 
— Glutinatores (i. q. librorum compactores, ^UontjYoi), slaves who glued together 
the leaves or sheets (schedae) which formed a manuscript or roll. — Liber, inner 
bark used in early times as a material for writing; hence put for book. — LibeUi, 
generally signifying imperial messages, public orders, memorials, petitions or the 
like, as these were divided into pages and folded in a small book, somewhat in our 
form ; Codicilli used in the same sense, but generally applied to a person's last 
will. Libellus memorialis, a pocket book, Lib. rationalis, account book. — Librarii 
transcribers. — Libraria (tabema int), bookseller's shop. — Literae, usually epistles, 
but often any kind of writing; hence for learning. — Minium, the vermillion used 
in marking titles and heads ; purple (coccus, purpura) was used for the same purpose ; 
also a red (rubrica). — Opistograpkus, written on both sides. — PugiUares, small 
writing tables, of oblong form, made of citron, boxwood, or ivory and 
covered with wax. The Romans usually carried such tables with them ; 
a slave (nolarius) was often employed to note down what they wished. 
— Scopus, is used to signify collectively the number of sheets of papyrus joined to- 
gether in one roll or volwmen, which was never more than twenty. Plin. xiii. |11, 
21. These sheets or leaves (plagulae, schedae), were formed by spreading two 
membranes of the papyrus (pkilyrae) one lengthwise, and another crosswise 
above it, moistening them with water of the Nile, pressing them together and 
then drying them in the sun. Sheets were made of different sizes and qualities. 
The sheets of the papyri, manuscripts lately found in Egypt, are thus prepared. 
Cf . §107. 4. — Sepia, the cuttle fish, put for ink, as the Romans sometimes used for 
writing the black matter emitted by it. — Vellum (Vitulinum) the skins of calves 
prepared as material for manuscripts. 



///. — Of the most flourishing period of Roman Literature. 

§ 1 19. The conquest of Magna Graecia, as has been mentioned, 
made the Romans more acquainted with the letters and arts of the 
Greek colonies in the south of Italy. After the first Punic war, 
and especially after the subjection of Sicily, B. C. 212, where also, 
particularly at Syracuse, Greek letters flourished, the influence of these 



IMITATION OF GREEK MODELS. 77 

subject states upon their mistress was great in respect to intellectual 
culture. Poets, orators, and grammarians from the conquered coun- 
tries removed to Rome and inspired many of her citizens with a love 
of literature. 

§ 120. From this period Roman literature made rapid and remark- 
able progress. They began more to admire poetry, especially dra- 
matic, and to study with more care the principles of their language. 
They also became acqainted with the Grecian philosophy. What 
contributed very much to this last, was the visit of three Greek phi- 
losophers, Carneades, Diogenes and Critolaus, who came to Rome on 
an embassy, B. C. 155. These men, notwithstanding the efforts 
made by Cato to shorten their stay and to prevent their teaching their 
doctrines, excited great interest in the Greek philosophy. The Ro- 
mans now also began to set more value upon the art of oratory ; to ap- 
ply themselves to historical researches, and to look upon the study 
of jurisprudence as a favorable means for improving their political 
welfare. After the taking of Carthage, and especially after the sub- 
jection of Greece, Rome enjoyed more of peace, together with the nu- 
merous advantages she had gained by her conquests; then followed the 
reign of the sciences and the fine arts, and that brilliant period, which 
is called the golden age of her literature. 

Considerations sur l'origine et les progres des belles lettres chez les Romains, 
et les causes de leur decadence, parl'Abbe Le Maine. Amst. 1750. 8. — /. H. Eber- 
hardt uber den Zustand der schtinen Wissenschaflen bei den Romern. Altona, 
1801. 8. 

§ 121. The most brilliant age of Roman literature commenced 
with the capture of Corinth and Carthage, 146. B. C. and continued 
to the death of Augustus, the first emperor , A. D. 1 4, comprising a 
period of 159 years. The progress of the Romans in the sciences 
and arts was now so great, that it has excited the admiration of pos- 
terity, and secured them a rank among the distinguished nations of an- 
tiquity second only to the Greeks. Among the causes of this remarka- 
ble advancement must be mentioned the comparative tranquillity of the 
period, the greatness of the empire, the custom of imitating the best 
Grecian models, and those changes in the Roman constitution and pol- 
icy with regard to the arts and sciences, by which they not only ob- 
tained tolerance, but enjoyed protection, respect and the most flatter- 
ing encouragement. 

§ 122. It was thus that the productions of genius came to the 
greatest perfection, that the language was enriched, and poetry took a 
novel and more brilliant form, particularly in the reign of Augustus. 



78 ARCHjEOLOCY OF ROMAN literature. 

The art of oratory presented a vast field for the intellect, and held 
a superior rank. History acquired more of dignity and interest. 
Philosophy in all its sects adopted the Grecian method of instruction, 
and received the most encouraging attention. The Mathematics, 
which hitherto had been limited to arithmetic and the elements of ge- 
ometry, obtained far greater extent and perfection. To medicine and 
jurisprudence were imparted more solidity and exactness in their ap- 
plication. This progress became still more rapid and universal, as 
these acquirements extended through every condition, and Romans of 
the highest rank, and even the rulers themselves engaged in literary 
pursuits, or at least considered it their glory to favor and encourage 
them. 

§ 123. The progress of improvement was specially manifest in 
the system of education. It was no longer limited to the bodily pow- 
ers and the art of war. Every faculty of the mind was developed 
among the Romans as among the Greeks, who were in this as in oth- 
er things their masters and models. The first instruction of the Ro- 
mans was received from Greeks, and Grecian letters and arts constitut- 
ed the principal study. Hence that evident imitation of the Greeks, 
whom however they did not servilely copy, but infused into their imita- 
tions their own spirit and genius. In the same manner as the Greeks, 
the Romans also had their contests or trials of skill in oratory, poetry 
and music, their public recitals, their professed readers, and their liter- 
ary feasts ; and the sciences were not limited to particular classes or 
professions, any more than among the Greeks. The knowledge which 
they considered suitable to every condition, and worthy of a man of 
noble birth, and of good capacity, education and manners, they call- 
ed by way of eminence artes liberates, studia humanitatis. 

See Cellarii Diss, de studiis Romanorum literariis. Hal. 1698. 4. 

§ 124. In these studies we must include the instruction given by 
the Grammarians, and Rhetoricians, who were also styled professores, 
literati, and literatores. These latter instructed not only in the ele- 
ments of the Latin and Greek language, but also in the principles of 
poetry and oratory, the principal works of which they analysed and 
explained. Of declamation, or public oratorical rehearsals, there was 
a frequent practice. Not only children and youth, but even men of 
parts and education assisted in these exercises. Besides this encour- 
agement the instructors received recompences and favors, and some- 
times even shared in the highest dignities of state. The first Gram- 
marian, who taught in Rome with success, was the Grecian Crates 
from Mallos. After him L. Plotius became one of the most celebra- 



EDUCATION. SCHOOLS. 79 

ted in that profession ; and he was the first who taught the art of ora- 
tory in the Latin language. 

§ 125. Many public schools (scholar, ludi, pergulae magistrales) 
were established in consequence of the great number of these gram- 
marians, which at length increased so that many were obliged to leave 
Rome, and spread themselves in upper Italy. One of the most cele- 
brated of the schools was that instituted at a later period by the empe- 
ror Adrian. It was held in a large edifice, called the Athenaeum, 
partly devoted also to public recitals and declamations, and was continu- 
ed under the name of Schola Romana, until the time of the first chris- 
tian emperors. There was also an establishment of the kind on the 
Capitolium. In addition to these, some temples, as that of Apollo for 
example, formed halls of assembly, for the purposes of rehearsal. 
And in the Gymnasia, there were various intellectual as well as bodily 
exercises. The methods of instruction, particularly in the study of 
philosophy, were similar to those of the Greeks. (Cf. §§ 71 — 73) 

In the temple of Apollo, built by Augustus on the Palatine hill, authors, particu- 
larly poets, used to recite their compositions, sometimes before select judges. 
They were there said to be matched or contrasted, commilti, or to contrast their 
works, opera commitlere. Hence commissiones was used to signify shewv declama- 
tions. — Tuv. vi. 435.— Suet. Aug. 45, 89. CI. 4, 53. 

The following extract from Kennett's Antiquities will give further particu- 
lars respecting the education of the Romans. 

1 For masters, in the first place, they had the Literatures, or rQafiftangal, who 
taught the children to read and write : to these they were committed about the 
age of six or seven years. Being come from under their care, they were sent to 
the grammar schools, to learn the art of speaking well, and the understanding of 
authors: or more frequently in the houses of great men, some eminent gramma- 
rian was entertained for that employment. 

It is pleasant to consider, what prudence was used in these early years to in- 
stil into the children's minds a love and inclination to the Forum, whence they 
were to expect the greatest share of their honors and preferments. For Cicero 
tells Atticus, in his second book de Legibus, that when they were boys, they used 
to learn the famous laws of the Twelve Tables by heart, in the same manner as 
they did an excellent poem. And Plutarch relates in his life of the younger 
Cato, that the very children had a play, in which they acted pleading of causes 
before the judges : accusing one another, and carrying the condemned party to 
prison. 

The masters already mentioned, together with the instructors in the several 
sorts of manly exercises, for the improving of their natural strength and force, 
do not properly deserve that name, if set in view with the rhetoricians and philos- 
ophers ; who, after that reason had displayed her faculties, and established her 
command, were employed to cultivate and adorn the advantages of nature, and to 
give the last hand towards the forming of a Roman citizen. Few persons made 
any great figure on the scene of action in their own time, or in history after- 
wards, who, besides the constant frequenting of public lectures, did not keep 
with them in the house some eminent professor of oratory or wisdom. 

At the age of seventeen years the young gentlemen, when they put on the man- 
ly gown, were brought in a solemn manner to the forum, and entered in the study 
of pleading ; not only if they designed to make this their chief profession, but 
although their inclinations lay rather to the camp. For we scarce meet with any 
famous captain who was not a good speaker, or any eminent orator, who had not 
served some time in the army. Thus it was requisite for all persons, who had 



HI ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

any thoughts of rising in the world, to make a good appearance, both at the bar, 
anil in the field ; because, if the success of their valor and conduct should ad- 
vance them to any considerable post, it would have proved almost impossible, 
without the advantage of eloquence, to maintain their authority with the senate 
and people ; or, if the force of their oratory should in time procure them the 
honorable office of praetor or consul, they would not have been in a capacity to 
undertake the government of the provinces (which fell to their share at the expi- 
ration of those employments) without some experience in military command. 

In the dialogue dc Orator ibus, we have a very good account of this admission 
of young gentlemen into the forum, and of the necessity of such a course in 
the commonwealth. 

' Among our ancestors,' says the author, ' the youth who was designed for the 
forum, and the practice of eloquence, being now furnished with the liberal arts, 
and the advantage of a domestic institution, was brought by his father or near 
relations, to the most celebrated orator in the city. Him he used constantly to 
attend, and to be always present at his performance of any kind, either in judi- 
cial matters, or in the ordinary assemblies of the people ; so that by this means be 
learned to engage in the laurels and contentions of the bar, and to approve him- 
eslf a man at arms in the wars of the pleaders.' 

To confirm the opinion of their extreme industry and perpetual study and la- 
bor, it may not seem impertinent to instance in the three common exercises of 
translating, declaiming, and reciting. 

Translation, the ancient orators of Rome looked on as a most useful, though a 
most laborious employment. All persons that applied themselves to the bar, 
proposed commonly some one orator of Greece for their constant pattern ; either 
Lysias, Hyperides, Demosthenes, or jEschines, as their genius was inclined. 
Him they continually studied, and, to render themselves absolute masters of his 
excellencies, weie always making him speak their own tongue. This Cicero, 
duintilian, and Pliny Junior, enjoin as an indispensable duly, in order to the ac- 
quiring any talent in eloquence. And the first of these great men, besides his 
many versions of the orators for his private use, obliged the public with the tran- 
lation of several parts of Plato and Xenophon in prose, and of Homer and Ara- 
tus in verse. 

As to declaiming, this was not only the main thing, at which they labored under 
the masters of rhetoric, but what they practised long after they undertook real 
causes, and had gained a considerable name in the forum. Suetonius, in his 
book of famous rhetoricians, tells us that Cicero declaimed in Greek till he was 
elected Praetor, and in Latm till near his death ; that Pompey the Great, just at 
the breaking out of the civil war, resumed his old exercise of declaiming, that 
he might the more easily be able to deal with Curio, who undertook the defence 
of Caesar's cause, in his public harangues: that Mark Antony and Augustus 
did not lay aside this custom, even when they were engaged in the siege of Mu- 
tina ; and that Nero was not only constant at his declamations, while in a pri- 
vate station, but for the first year after his advancement to the empire. 

It is worth remarking, that the subject of these old declamations was not a mere 
fanciful thesis, but a case which might be brought into the courts of judicature. 

When I speak of recitation, I intend not to insist on the public performances 
of the poets in that kind, for which purpose they commonly borrowed the house 
of some of their noblest patrons, and carried on the whole matter before a vast 
concourse of people, and with abundance of ceremony. For, considering the or- 
dinary circumstances of men of that profession, this may be thought not so much 
the effect of an industrious temper, as the necessary way of raising a name a- 
mong the wits, and getting a tolerable livelihood. 

I would mean, therefore, the rehearsal of all manner of compositions in prose 
or verse, performed by men of some rank and quality, before they obliged the 
world with their publication. This was ordinarily done in the meeting of friends 
and acquaintances, and now and then with the admission of a more numerous 
audience. The design they chiefly aimed at was the correction and improve- 
ment of the piece ; for the author, having a greater awe and concern upon him 
on these occasions than at other times, must needs take more notice of even- 
word and sentence, while he spoke them before the company, than he did in the 
composure, or in the common supervisal. Besides, he had the advantage of all 
his friends' judgments, whether intimated to him afterwards in private confe- 
rence, or tacitly declared at the recital by their looks and nods, with many other 
tokens of dislike and approbation. 



LIBRARIES. TRAVELS., 81 

The example of the younger Pliny, in this practice, is very observable, and 
the account which we have of it is given us by himself. ' I omit (says he I. 7. ep. 
17.) no way or method that may seem proper for correction. And first I take a 
strict view of what I have written, and consider thoroughly of the whole piece ; 
in the next place, I read it over to two or three friends, and soon after send it to 
others for the benefit of their observation. If I am in any doubt concerning their 
criticisms, I take in the assistance of one or two besides myself, to judge and 
debate the matter. Last of all, I recite before a greater number : and this is the 
time that I furnish myself with the severest emendations.' ' 

§ 126. Collections of books were considerably numerous at Rome. 
The first private library is said to have been that which P. Emilius 
founded B. C. 167, immediately after the Macedonian war; which, 
however, could not have been very large. More extensive was the li- 
brary which Sylla brought with him from the capture of Athens, 
which included the rich collection of Apellicon. But this did not 
equal the magnificence of the famous library of Lucullus, obtained in 
the Mithridatic war. Besides these there were several other distin- 
guished private libraries, many citizens having them at their country 
villas. The first public library was founded by Asinius Pollio, in 
the hall of the temple of Liberty, on Mount Aventine. One of the 
most celebrated was that founded by Augustus in the temple of Apollo 
on Mount Palatine. Another particularly celebrated was the Ulpine 
library founded by Trajan, and afterwards located in the Baths of 
Diocletian. There were also other public libraries, as for example, 
in the capitol, in the temple of Peace, and in a building adjoining the 
theatre of Marcellus. 

Generally libraries occupied one of the principal apartments in the 
edifices and palaces of the Romans, usually in the eastern side of the 
building. They were ornamented with paintings and with statues 
and busts of distinguished writers. The books were ranged along 
the walls in cases (armaria, capsas), which were numbered and had 
subdivisions (foruli, loculamenta, nidi). Grammarians, and Greek 
slaves or freed men were appointed for the librarians (bibliothecae, bib- 
liothecarii). 

See Heeren's Gesch, Klass. Lit. B.I. § 10. — Sllv. Lursen, de templo et biblio- 
theca Apollinis Palatini. Franequ. 1719. 8—Schoell, Hist. Litt. Gr. L. V. ch. 50. 

§ 127. To these various means of improvement we must add tra- 
vels, by which not only professed men of letters, but also persons of 
distinguished rank, extended their information and perfected their taste. 
At this time education and knowledge were no longer restricted so 
much as formerly by national prejudice. The Romans began more 
and more to appreciate the merits of foreigners, and to reap advanta- 
ges from their intercourse with them. For this reason they resorted 
to Athens, the seat of Grecian refinement. They went also to Lace- 

11 



82 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

demon, Rhodes, Eleusis, Alexandria, Mytilene, and other places. 
Cicero, Sallust, Vitruvius, Virgil, Propertius, and others thus went 
abroad for improvement. 

See G. N. Kriegk Diatribe de Veterum Romanoram peregrinationibus acade- 
raicis. Jen. 1704. 4 - 



IV. — Of the decline of Roman Literature. 

§ 128. Roman literature, from the latter part of the first century- 
after Christ, began to decline very sensibly from its height of glory and 
perfection. Its decline became, from the concurrence of many causes, 
more rapid than had been its former progress and improvement. We 
must place among these causes the loss of liberty and the triumph of 
despotism ; the little encouragement given to literature by most of the 
emperors succeeding Augustus ; the great increase of luxury and the 
consequent universal degeneracy of manners. The changes in the 
moral and political condition of Rome paralyzed the nobler motives, 
which had stimulated the citzens. Pure taste and delicate sensibility 
were gradually lost. Gaudy ornament was admired rather than real 
beauty. Affectation was substituted for nature and the subtleties of 
sophistry for true philosophy. Finally the invasions of the barbarians, 
the frequent internal commotions, the conflict of Christianity with pa- 
gan superstition (§83), the transfer of the imperial throne to Constan- 
tinople and the division of the empire consummated that fall of Roman 
literature, for Avhich so many united causes had prepared the way. 

See Meiners, Geschichte des Verfalls der Sitten und der Staatsverfassung der 
Romer, Leipz. 1782. 8. 

1. Tne decline ot Roman literature may be dated from the end of the reign of 
Augustus A. D. 14; and its history is considered as terminated with the over- 
throw of the western empire, A. D. 476. The whole time intervening is commonly 
divided into two periods, the beginning of the reign of the Antonines, A. D. 138, 
being the epoch of separation. It is by some divided into three, the first from 
Augustus to Antonines A. D. 14 — 138, the second from Antoninus to Constantine 
A. t>. 138—313, the third from Constantine to the fall of the empire A. D. 313— 
476. 

On the periods in the history of Roman literature, see P . II. 

2. Some of the Emperors after Augustus patronized letters ; and during a portion 
of the time the declension of literature was not owing to the want of imperial 
encouragement. Under Hadrian the empire flourished in peace and prosperity, 
and men of letters were honored. The reign of the Antonines was also favorable 
to literature and the arts. After the death of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus A. D. 
180, the imperial influence was much less propitious to learning. From this 
event to the reign of Constantine conspiracies, and seditions, bloodshed and de- 
vastation mark the history. Constantine is said by his biographer Eusebius to 
have been a warm patron of letters, but his reign perhaps accelerated rather 



CORRUPTION OF TASTE. 83 

than retarded the declension of Roman literature. The establishment of Christi- 
anity by him necessarily tended to encourage a new system of education, and a 
new form and spirit of literature. Julian the apostate, who received the impe- 
rial throne A. D. 361, less than 30 years after the death of Constantine, made 
violent but ineffectual efforts to restore the intellectual influence wholly to the 
pagans, absolutely prohibiting christians to teach in the public schools of Gram- 
mar and rhetoric. 

See Berington, Lit, History of the Middle Ages. B. I.— Gibbon Hist. Rom. Emp. Ch. iii. xiii. xxiii.— 
Hallam's Middle Ages B. IV. P. 1.— Corap. §81. 

3. Among the circumstances contributing to the decline of letters, especially to 
the depravation of taste, among the Romans, some have mentioned the custom of 
authors in publicly rehearsing or reciting their own productions. The desire of 
success naturally led the writer to sacrifice too much to the judgments or caprice 
of the auditors in order to secure their plaudits of approbation. 

See Schoell Hist. Litt. Rom. Voll. II. p. 251.— Gierig, Excursus de recitationibus Romanorum, in his 
edition of Pliny's Letters, Lelpz. 1802. 2 Vols. 8. 

4. The Roman language suffered from the vitiating influence of intercoursewith 
provincial strangers, who flocked to Rome. Many of these were admitted to 
the rights of citizenship and even received intooffices of honor. It was impossible, 
that the peculiarities of their respective dialects should not modify in some de- 
gree the spoken language, and the consequences might ere long appear even in the 
style of writing. The purity of the language was much impaired before the 
time of Constantine. The removal of the government from Rome to Constanti- 
nople occasioned still greater changes in it. particularly by the introduction of 
Greek and Oriental words with Latin terminations. The invasions and con- 
quests of the barbarians completed the depravation of the Roman tongue and 
laid the foundation for the new languages which took its place. 

See Schoell Vol. II. p. 255, III. 10. Gibbon Rom. Emp. ch. II.— On the transition of the Latin to the 
modern French, Italian &c. see Hallam'a Middle Ages, ch, IX. P,l.— M. Bonamy, Essay In Mem. de 
l'Acad. des Inscr. T. XXIV.— Fimck, De imminente L. L. senectute &c. as cited § 114. 

5. There were schools of learning in different parts of the Empire during 
the decline of letters. In these professors, supported at public expense, taught 
the principles of philosophy, rhetoric, and law or right. Such schools existed at 
Byzantium, Alexandria, Berytus and Milan, and at several places in Gaul, where 
letters were cultivated with much zeal, as at Augustodunum (Autun), Burde- 
gala (Bourdeaux), and Massilia (Marseilles). These schools, however, are said 
to have contributed to the corruption of taste, as the teachers were less solicitous 
to advance their pupils in real knowledge than to acquire glory from pompous 
display. At Berytus was the most famous school for the study of Roman juris- 
prudence. 

See Schoell, Hist. Litt, Rom. Vol. iii. p. 8.— Gibbon's account of the school at Berytus, Hist. Rom. 
Emp. Ch. xvii. Compare § 80. 



V. — Remains and Monuments of Roman Literature. 

§ 129. The existing monuments of Roman literature are more 
numerous than those of Grecian, and scarcely inferior in point of util- 
ity and importance. Great advantage may be derived from Roman 
inscriptions and coins, in the illustration of history, antiquities, geog- 
raphy and chronology ; and the manuscripts present much that is sub- 
servient to philology and criticism, and taste. Tbe same general re- 
marks which were made upon the written monuments of the Greeks 
(§86) may be applied to those of the Romans. 



84 ARCHEOLOGY or HUMAN literature. 

/. — Inscriptions. 

^ 130. The Grecian custom of commemorating remarkable 
events, by short inscriptions upon marble or brass, and of ornamenting 
their temples, tombs, statues and altars with them, also existed among 
the Romans. There now remains a large number of these ancient 
inscriptions, which have been collected and explained by several 
learned men. 

The most complete work of this kind is, Jani Gruteri Inscriptiones antiquae to- 
tius orbis Romani, notis Marqu. Gudii emendate, cura J. G. Graevii. Amst. 1707. 
2 torn. fol. Next to this the following are the most valuable ; /. JB. Donii, Insrip- 
tiones Antiquae, nunc primum editae, notisque illustratae etc. ab A. F. Gorio. 
Flor. 1731. fol. — Inscriptiones Antiquae, in urbibus Hetruriae, c. obs. Salvinii et 
Gorii. Flor. 1743. 3 vol. fol. — L. A. Muratorii Novus Thesaurus veterum inserip- 
tionum,in praecipuis earundemcollectionibushactenuspraetermissarum. Mediol. 
1739. 4 vol. fol. Ad Novum Thesaurum Vet. Inscrip. cl. viri L. A. Muratorii 
supplementa a Seb. Donato. Lucae, 1764. 1775. fol. — /. C. Hagerdrwchii Epistolae 
Epigraphicae. Tiguri 1747. 4. There are smaller collections of the more 
important inscriptions, as Gut. Fteetwood Inscriptionum antiquarum sylloge. 
Lond. 1691. 8. — Rotnanarum Insc. Fasciculus, cum explicatione notarum, in usum 
juventutis (auct. Comite Polcastro). Patav. 1774. 8. 

§ 131. Some of the Roman inscriptions are among the most an- 
cient monuments of the Roman language and manner of writing. 
In order to decide upon their genuine character and estimate aright 
their contents, much previous knowledge is requisite. It is especially 
necessary to understand the abbreviations, which are frequently used. 
These consisted sometimes of detached letters, which expressed a 
praenomen, or some known formula ; sometimes of the principal let- 
ters of a word, the others being omitted ; sometimes of monograms, by 
the contraction of different letters into one character ; sometimes by 
putting a single vowel enlarged for two similar ones ; and sometimes 
by the omission of some letters in the middle of a word. 

The following works- treat upon this subject ; Sertorii Ursati de notis Romano- 
rum Commentarius. Patav. 1672. fol.— J, D. Coteti Notae et Siglae Rom. Venet. 
1785. 4.— J. Cerrard Siglarium Romanum, Lond. 1792. 4.— Explicatio lit. et not. 
in antiq. Rom. monimentis occurrentium. Florentiae. 1822. 

It may proper to introduce and explain some of the more common abbreviations, 
that occur in Roman inscriptions. 

A. aedilis, annus, Aulus. — A. L. F. animo lubens fecit. — A. P. aedilitia 
potestate.— A. S. S. a sacris scriniis.— AN. V. P. M. annos vixit plus 
minus.— AVSP. S. auspicante sacrum.— (B\— B. DD. bonis deabus.— B. 
B. bene bene, i. e. optime, — B.D. S. M. bene de' semerenti. — B, G. POS. biga 
gratis posita.— (C).---C. Caius, civis, cohors, conjux.— C. C. S. curaverunt 
communi sumtu.— C. F. Caii Alius, carissima femina.— C. R. curavit refici, 
civis Romanus— C. V. P. V. D. D. communi voluntate publice votum dede- 
runt. CVNC. conjux.— (£>).— D. decuria, domo.— D. D. dono dedit, dedicavit.— 
D. L. dedit libens.— D. M. V. diis manibus votum.— D. S. P. F. C. de sua pecu- 
nia faciendum curavit. — DP. depositus.-(B).-E. erexit,ergo, expressum. — E. C. 
erigendum curavit.--E. F. egregia femina.— E. M. V. egregiae memoriae vir. 
— E. S. esuo.— EX. PR. ex praecepto.— EX. TT. SS. HH. ex testamentis supra- 
scriptorum heredum— (F).— F. fecit, nlia, Alius, flamen.— F. C. faciendum cura- 
vit.— F. F. fieri fecit, rilius familias.—F. F. fecerunt, filii, fratres.— F. H. F. fieri 
heredes fecerunt.— F. I. fieri jussit.— FR. D. frumenti dandi.~F. V. S. fecit voto 






INSCRIPTIONS. 85 

suscepto.— (i/).— H. habet, heres, honorem.— H. A. F. C. hanc aram faciendam 
curavit.— H. Q.. hie quiescit. — H. 1. 1, heredes jussu illorum. — H. S. E. hie situ? 
est. — (/).-- 1. Imperator.--I. L. F. illius liberta fecit. — I. L. H. jus liberorum ha- 
bens.— L O. M. D. Jovi optimo maximo dedicatum. — (K). — K. Caius, calendae, 
candidatus, casa, — (L).— L. legio, lustrum,— L. A. lex alia, libens animo.— L. C. 
locus concessus.— L. H. L. D. locus hie liber datus. — L. P. locus publicus. — L. S. 
M. C. locum sibi monumento eepit.— LEG. legatus. — (M). — M. magister, mater, 
monumentum.--M. A. G. S. memor animo grato solvit.— MM. memoriae.— MIL. 
IN. COH. militavit in cohorte. — (N). — N. natione, natus, nepos, numerus. — N. 
P. C. nomine proprio curavit.— (O).— O. D. S. M. optime de se merito. — O. H. 
S. S. ossa hicsitasunt.--OB. AN. obiitanno.— (P). — P. pater, patria, pontifex, 
posuit, puer. — P. C. patres conscripti, patronus coloniae s. corporis, ponendum 
curavit. — P. E. publiceerexerunt.— P. I. S.publicaimpensa sepultus. — P. P. pub- 
lice posuit, pater patriae, praefectus praetorio.— P. S. P. Q,. P. pro se proque pat- 
ria. --PR. SEN. pro sen tentia — P. V. praefectus urbi. — (Q). — Q,. quaestor, qui, 
Quintus. — Q.. A. quaestor aedilis. — Q.. D. S. S, qui dederuut supra scripta. — d, F. 
quod factum.— (J?). — R. recte, retro.— R. G. C. rei gerundae caussa. — (S). S. se- 
pulcrum, solvit, stipendium.— S. C.senatus consultum. — S. C. D. S. sibi curavit 
desuo.— S. E. T. L. sit ei terra levis.— S. L. M. solvit libens merito.— S. P. Q,. S. 
sibiposterisquesuis.— SVB. A. D. subascia dedicavit.— (T).— T. Titus, tribunus, 
tunc. — T. C. testamenti causa. — T. F. testamento fecit, Titi Alius, titulum fecit. 
— T. P. titulum posuit.— TR. PL. DESS. tribuni plebis designati — (V).— Veter- 
anus, vixit. — V. A. F. vivus aram fecit.— V. C. vir consularis, vivus curavit. — 
V. D. D. votum dedicatum. — V.F. F. vivus fieri fecit.— V. M. S. voto merito 
suscepto.— V. E. vir egregius — (X).— X. ER. decimae erogator— XV. VIR. 
SAC. FAC. quindecimvir sacris faciundis. — Cf. Port Roy. Lat. Gr. B. xi. 

§ 132. Besides the numerous advantages already mentioned, as 
derived from Roman inscriptions, this study is of service in devising 
and preparing inscriptions designed to be placed upon modern monu- 
ments. It renders one acquainted with what is called the lapidary style, 
distinguished by its brevity and simplicity. For compositions of this 
sort the Latin is usually preferred to any modern language, on account 
both of its comprehensive brevity, and also of its suitableness to the 
form and character of the monuments, which are generally constructed 
after ancient models. It is scarcely necessary to observe that in such 
cases the capital letters are used. 

A treatise very useful in the study of Roman inscriptions is, F. A. Zaccaria, Isti- 
tuzione Antiquario-lapidariaosialntroduzione alio studio delle antiche latine Is- 
crizioni. Rom. 1770. 4. Ver. 1793. 8. Cf. Heineccii Fundamentastili cultioris. 
p. 2, c. 5. 

§ 133 1 . A vast number of Roman inscriptions have been gathered; 
from the mass of ancient ruins. They differ very much from each 
other in point of utility and importance. Those of a public character 
are obviously far more valuable than such as are mere private records 
and epitaphs. With regard to their philolological worth we should 
particularly consider their antiquity. The following are among the 
most important. 

1 . The inscription upon the pedestal of the CoLumna rosbrata, a column so called 
because ornamented with beaks of ships. It was erected in honor of the Consul 
Duillius after the naval victory, which he obtained over the Carthaginians, B. C. 
261. Cf. Flor. Hist. Rom, 112. Tacitus Annal. II. 49 Plin. Nat. Hist. 34. 5. During 
the time of the second Punic war this column was struck down by lightning, Liv. 



86 ARCHEOLOGY OV ROMAN LITERATURE. 

xlii. 20, and its ruins remained for a long time concealed until in 1560 they were 
discovered, together with the pedestal, upon which is found the inscription. This 
inscription has been published and explained by several learned men. It is much 
mutilated ; Lipsius has attempted in part to fill up the blank places ; and Ciacco- 
ni entirely. It may not be the original inscription, but one placed upon the mon- 
ument on its being restored at some subsequent time. A new column is supposed 
to have been erected by the Emperor Claudius. 

See Ciacconii In Columns. Rostratae inscriptionem a se conjectura suppletam Expllcatio. Rom. 1608. 
S.— Graevil Thes. Ant. Rom. T. IV.— Gruteri Corp. Inscrlpt. CCCCIV. 1. It may be found in the editions 
of Florus by Graevius and Ducker, See also Anthon's Lemur, under C. Duillius.— Dunlop's Hist. Rom 
Lit.— Schoell Hist. Litt. Rom. Int. p. 17. 

2. The inscriptions on the tombstones of the Scipios. The epitaph of the 
Father, C. L. Scipio Barbatus, Consul B. C. 298, is probably as old as the column 
of Duillius. It was discovered in 1780 in the vault of the Scipian family, be- 
tween the Via Appia and Via Latina. It is on a handsome but plain Sarcopha- 
gus. — The epitaph of the son, Lucius Scipio, was discovered much earlier, on a 
slab which was found lying near the Porta Capena, having been detached from 
the family vault. Though later as to the date of its composition, the epitaph on 
the son bears marks of higher antiquity than that on the father. 

See Dunlop's Hist. Rom. Lit. Vol. I. p 46.— Grcevii Thesau. Ant. Rom. T. IV.— Monumenti degli Sci- 
pioni pubblicati dal Cav. F. Pimnesi. Rom., 1785. tol.—Hol/house's Illustrations of Childe Harold. 
Schoell, Hist. Litt. Rom. Int. p 46. 

3. The Inscription termed the Decree respecting the Bacchanalia, Senatus con- 
sultum de Bacchanalibus. This decree was enacted B. C. 186. Livy gives us 
the occasion and contents of it (L. xxxix. 8 — 18). By certain passages in that 
author concerning this edict, the authenticity of this monument is confirmed. 
It is engraved upon a table of bronze, which was discovered at Tirioli in 1640 in 
the province of Abruzzo in digging the foundations of a manor house. It con- 
tains the prohibition of the nocturnal celebration of the Baccanalian rites, 
throughout the Roman dominion. The tablet upon which are some fractures and 
gaps, is about a foot square, and is now in the imperial collection at Vienna. 

See Senatusconsulti de Bacchanalibus explicatio, auctore Mattheo Aegyptio (Egizio), Neap. 1729. fol. 
This dissertation is reprinted in the 7 th Vol. of Drachenborch's edition of Livy. The edict itself is 
found in Gessner's and Ernesti's edition of Livy.— See also Schoell Hist. Litt. Rom. Int. p. 52. 

4. The Monumentum Ancijranum. This consists of several inscriptions on mar- 
ble, upon the propylaeum of a temple of Augustus at Ancyra (modern Angora) 
in Galatia. They record the achievements of that Emperor. The monument 
was discovered by Busbequius in 1553. It has been much disfigured by time, or 
barbarian violence. 

See Gruteri Thes. Inscr. ccxxx.—Chishull Antiq. Asiat.— I. G. Baieri Marmoris Ancyrani historla. 
Jen. 1703. 4.— Remarques sur le monument d'Ancyre, Biblioth Choisie. T. vm.—Jac. Gronovii Memo- 
riaCossoniana, cui annexa est nov. ed. Mon. Ancyr. Ludg. B. 1695. 4. 

5 The Fasti Capitolini. These are portions of the tablets anciently placed in 
the Capitol, on which were inscribed in succession the names of the consuls and 
other magistrates, and by means of which Roman chronology is much elucidated. 
They are tablets of marble discovered in the Forum at Rome, 1547, and contain 
a list of the Consuls from the year 270 to to the year 765 after the building of 
Rome. They were in a broken state. The fragments were united by the care of 
Cardinal Alexander Farnese, and placed in the palace of the Capitol, where 
they still remain. 

See Grcevii Thes. Ant. Rom. T. xi.— J. B, Pirancsi Lapides Capitolini. Rom. 1762. fol.— Nuovi fra- 
menti dei fasti cons. Capitol, illustrati da Bartol. Borghesi. Milan 1818—1820. 4.— Verrius Flaccus has 
been supposed to be the author of the Fasti Capitolini, and they were published by Onvfrius Panvi- 
nius 1.553, underthe name of that grammarian. This mistake was occasioned by a passage in Suetonius, 
in which he mentions that Flaccus attached to a structure erected at Preneste twelve tablets of marble 
containing a Roman Calendar, Fasti kalendares. Four of these latter tables, or rather fragments of 
them, were discovered in 1770, and published by Foggini in 1779. They contain the months of January, 
March, April, and December, and cast much light on the Fasti of Ovid.— Schoell, Hist. Litt. Rom. II. p. 
60. 65. 



EXISTING MONUMENTS. 87 

II. Coins. 

§ 134. Without entering into any minute history of Roman coin- 
age, we only remark that the first coins at Rome were probably 
struck under the reign of Servius Tullius, that the more ancient coins 
were for the most part of brass, and that silver coin was not introduced 
until B. C. 269, and gold not until B. C. 207. Besides the coins used 
as the current money, there were also a great many medals and his- 
torical pieces, or medallions (missilia, numismata maximi moduli), 
distinguished from the others by the absence of the letters S. C. com- 
monly found upon the Roman coin, especially the brazen. On the 
gold and silver coins these letters are less frequently seen, and seem 
not to indicate the authority granted by the senate for the striking 
of the coin so much as for the erecting of the statues, triumphal arch- 
es and the like, which are represented on the reverses. The two prin- 
cipal divisions of the Roman coins are the Consular, struck in the 
time of the republic, called also coins of the Roman Families, and the 
Imperial, the series of which extends from Julius Caesar to Heraclius. 

The remarks in § 83, respecting the utility and entertainment connected with 
the study of coins, are applicable here. The Roman coins particularly are inter- 
esting on account of the striking personifications and symbols found on their re- 
verses. Many descriptions and allusions in the classical poets are beautifully il- 
lustrated from the figures and devices on the Roman coins. On the connection 
between poetry and medals, see Addison's treatise on Medals. 

The Consular coins include the following. 1. Brass Coins. — These consist 
chiefly of large pieces of rude workmanship without any interesting imagery. 
In all these pieces the prow of a ship is constantly the figure on the reverse, with 
very few exceptions. Sometimes, indeed, they have a shell, two heads of barley, 
a frog, an anchor, or a dog, on the reverse. 2. Silver. — Of this the denarius was 
the first and principal coin. It was stamped originally with X, denoting that the 
value was ten asses. On the reverse was Castor and Pollux, or a chariot of vic- 
tory. Afterwards the busts of various deities make their appeal ance; and in 
the seventh century of Rome the portraits of illustrious persons deceased are 
met with. 3. Gold. — Most of these are of great value. The number of these 
exceeds not 100. The aureus is the general gold coin ; but two or three gold 
semisses of families likewise occur. 

The Imperial coins include 1. Brass. — This is of three sizes, large, middle, 
and small. The first forms a most beautiful series, but very expensive. It is 
the most important of all the Roman coins, and exceeds even the gold in value. — 
The middle brass is next in value to the former; and in it are many rare and 
curious coins, particularly interesting to Britons, as elucidating the history of the 
island. — The small brass series abounds also with curious coins. They are 
scarce till the time of Valerian and Gallienus, but very common afterwards. 
2. Silver. — This series is very complete, and the cheapest of any ; especially as 
the small brass becomes a fine supplement to it ; the latter being had in plenty 
when the silver becomes scarce, and the silver being plentiful when the brass 
was scarce. 3. Gold. — The Roman imperial gold coins form a series of great 
beauty and perfection ; but on account of their great price are beyond the pur- 
chase of private persons. 4. The colonial coins. — They occur only in brass. 
On many of the coins we meet with fine representations of temples, triumphal 
arches, gods, goddesses, and illustrious persons. But coins with those represen- 
tations are by no means common ; the colonial coins till the time of Trajan bear- 
ing only a plough, or some other simple badge of a colony. Camelodunum is 
the only colony in Britain of which we have any coins. 5. The minimi. — This 
includes the smallest coins of all denominations most of which do not exceed 



88 ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

the size of a silver penny. They are the most curious of all. The reason of 
the scarcity of these small coins is probably their diminutive size ; by reason 
of which they are mostly lost. 

§ 1 35. The writing upon the Roman coin is usually the Legend, 
as is it called, on the head of the coin, or on both sides ; but there is 
sometimes an inscription more at length placed upon the reverse. 
The contents of the legend commonly point out the person whose im- 
age is impressed upon the principal side and indicate his rank ; some- 
times also a short notice of his exploits forming the inscription, is upon 
the reverse. The date of the coin is often stamped upon it either in 
whole words, or by certain letters or figures ; and likewise the names 
of the cities where it was struck ; sometimes even that of the artist, 
together with the value, particularly upon the Consular coins. In or- 
der to read and to understand all these kinds of writing, it is necessary 
to be acquainted with the peculiar abbreviations, which are employed. 

See I. C. Rasche Lexicon Abruptionum, quae in numismatibus Romanorum 
occurrunt. Noiimb. 1777, 8. 

$ 136. Much attention and caution must be exercised with regard 
to Roman as well as Grecian coins, in order to distinguish genuine 
from false, which are very numerous and of different kinds. Many 
of those offered as ancient, are struck in modern times with the ancient 
costume ; others have been stamped in express imitation of really an- 
cient coins, among which we may particularly notice those called Padu- 
ane, so celebrated on account of their good impression ; others are cast 
similar to the old coins, by means of moulds, and maybe distinguished 
by traces of the casting : others are formed by putting together two« 
ancient coins in order to obtain rare and unique pieces, which may be 
detected by a careful examination of the edges ; others are really an- 
tique, but falsified by some change in their impression, or inscription. 

See Maniere de discerner les medailles antiques de celles qui sont contrefaites 
par G. Beauvois. Paris. 1739. 4. Same, Germ. tr. by Lipsius. Dresden. 1791. 4. 

§ 137. The coins of the Romans being among the most ancient 
monuments of their manner of writing, it is proper here again (§116) 
to refer to their orthography. It is not from mistake, but from ancient 
usage, that the orthography on the old coins differs from the modern. 
We find, for example, V in place of B in the word DANWIVS ; O 
instead of V in VOLKANVS, andDIVOS ; EE for E in FEELIX ; 
II for I in VIIRTVS ; S and M suppressed at the end of words, as 
in ALBINV, CAPTV ; XS for X, in MAXSVMVS ; F instead of 
PH, as in TRIVMFVS. 



coins. 89 

It may be added that of the Consular coins, the most rare are the gol- 
den, and of the Imperial the brazen coins of Otho. 

§ 138. Besides the works already mentioned (§99) as illustrating 
the subject of ancient coins, we will cite the following which relate 
principally to Roman coins. 

Introduction al'Histoire parlaconnoissance des medailles, par Charles Patin. 
Par 1665. 12. — Histoire des Medailles, ou Introduction a la Connoissance de 
cette Science, par Charles Patin. Par. 1695. 12. — Fulv. Vrsini Familiae Ro- 
manae in antiquis numismatibusab urbe condita ad tempora D. Augusti; ed. 
Carol. Patin. Paris. 1663. fol. — I.Foy Vaillant'Nami antiqui Familiarum Ro- 
manarum. Amst. 1703. 2 Vol. fol. — Ejiisd. Numismata Imperator. Romanor. 
praestantiora, Cura T. F. Baldini. Rom. 1743. 3 "Vol. 4. Supplementum, op. Joh. 
Khell. Vindob. 1767. 4. — Ejusd. Numismata aerea Imperatorum Roman, in 
coloniis, municipiis p. Par. 1688. fol. — Adolphini Occonis Numismata Impera- 
torum Romanorum praestantiora. Mediol. 1730. fol. — Thesaurus Morellia- 
nuss. Familiarum Romanar. Numismata Omnia. Comm. illust. Sigeb . Ha- 
vercampus, Amst. 1734. 2 Vol. fol. — Ans. Bandurii Numismata Imperatorum 
Romanor. a Trajano Decio ad Palaeologos Augustos. Paris, 1718. 2 Vol. fol. 
— Supplement, ed. H. Taninius, Rom. 1791. fol. — Car. Patini Imperator. Roma- 
nor. Numismata. Argent. 1671. fol. Amst. 1696. fol. — Io. lac Gesneri Numis- 
mata Antiqua Imperatorum Romanorum latina et graeca. Tiguri 1748. fol. — 
Numismata Antiqua Familiarum Romanarum. Tiguri 1749. fol. 

§ 1 39. The most valuable collections of ancient coins are, at Pa- 
ris, in the Royal library, and the Library of St. Genevieve ; at Rome, 
in the Vatican, and the collection once belonging to Christina, queen 
of Sweden, now to the duke of Bracciano; in the British museum at 
London ; the Imperial collection at Vienna ; the Royal collection at 
Berlin ; the Duke's collection at Gotha ; the Royal collection at Stutt- 
gart ; and at Copenhagen. There are valuable catalogues of most of 
these public collections of coins. 

See KOhler Anweisung zur Reiseklugheit. Ed. Kinderling. Magdeb. 1788.8. — 
Eckhel (§ 99) Proleg. cap. XXIII. — Dictionaire des Artistes, par MeiistL—Sulzer 
All. Theor. &c. Article Anlik. V. 

Few genuine antiques have ever been brought to this country. Of ancient 
coins the Boston Athenaeum probably possesses the largest number, having about 
1400 Greek and Roman ; of which less than 200 are silver, and the rest copper or 
brazen. (Ms. Lett, of Dr. Bass, Lib. to Bost. Ath.) 

///. — Manuscripts. 

§ 140. What has been said (§§100 — 106) concerning the intrin- 
sic value, the antiquity, the preservation, and the study of Greek manu- 
scripts, is in general applicable to the Roman, and we need not here 
repeat it. The works of very many Latin writers, as well of the 
most flourishing period of Roman literature, as of later times, have 
been preserved and handed down to us by means of written copies. 
These manuscripts, however, belong not to the classical ages. Latin 
manuscripts, like most of the Greek, are not of earlier date than the 
6th century after Christ. We must generally consider those the most 

12 



90 ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

ancient, whose writing bears most resemblance to the characters found 
upon coins and inscriptions. But this criterion is not a certain one, as 
in after ages the ancient manuscripts were sometimes copied with a 
perfect imitation of their manner of writing. 

Se GaUerer, on the method of determining the age of Mss., in the Comment. 
Societ. Gcett. 8th B. — Also Schasnemann, Versuch eines vollst. Systems der Di- 
plomatik. — Pfeiffer cited § 53. 

§ 141. We must refer to a later origin the small Roman charac- 
ters, punctuation, and the contracted form of the diphthongs se and ce, 
which were originally written in full ae and oe. The letter y, from 
the seventh century, was often marked with a point, y ; on the con- 
trary, the i was written without a point until the end of the tenth cen- 
tury; afterwards it took an accent over it (thus i), which in the four- 
teenth century was changed into a point. From the small Roman let- 
ters arose, by some alterations, the Gothic and Lombard characters, 
and those of the Francs and Anglo Saxons ; as these people derived 
the art of writing chiefly from Italy. The larger portion of the an- 
cient Latin manuscripts, now in existence, belong to this age. During 
the 9th and 10th centuries more attention was paid to the beauty and 
elegance of the characters. In the 11th century enlarged letters were 
introduced, and more abbreviations, the multiplication of which in 
after timejs, and the overburdening of the letters with useless appenda- 
ges, disfigured the writing and rendered it more difficult to read. 

Fac-similes and specimens, to illustrate the different modes of writing found 
in Latin manuscripts, are given in Mabillon de Re Diplomatica. — See also WaU 
theri Lexicon Diplomaticum cum speciminibus Alphabetorum et Scripturarum. 
Goett. 1745. 3 vols, fol.— Nouveau Traite de Diplom. T. II and III. 

§ 142. Since the revival of letters, which was hastened and facili- 
tated by the discovery and study of the classical manuscripts, they have 
been carefully collected, compared, copied and published. Petrarch 
searched more than two hundred libraries, and greatly aided an early 
cultivation of Roman literature, first in Italy, and afterwards in other 
countries. We are under similar obligations to Gasparini, Poggius, 
Beatus Rhenanus, Aloysius Mocoenicus, Grynaeus, Sichard and 
others. Without doubt there still exist some treasures of this sort, 
particularly manuscripts of the middle ages, which, if not valuable on 
account of their style, may be of much importance to history, criti- 
cism and literature generally. The libraries which have been men- 
tioned (§ 108) as the principal depositories of Greek manuscripts, 
contain also a still more considerable collection of Latin manuscripts. 
The printed catalogues of some of them give notices of the manu- 
scripts. 



MANUSCRIPTS. 91 

Respecting the labors of Petrarch and others, see Heeren's Einl. zu Gesch. der 
Klass. Litteratur. — On the zeal for the discovery and study of manuscripts after 
the revival of letters, see Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de Medici, and of Leo X. — 
For an account of the general circumstances pertaining to the formation, loss 
and recovery of the 'classical Mss. of Rome,' see Dunlop's His. Rom. Litera- 
ture, Appendix. 

§ 143. The following are among the most ancient manuscripts in 
the Latin language: (a) the Gospel of Mark, in the Library of St. 
Mark at Venice, of very ancient date; (b) the Virgil of Florence, or 
the Codex Medicaeus ; (c) the Virgil of the Vatican, which seems to 
belong to thefifth century ; (d) the Terence of the Vatican, written in 
square letters, and ornamented with a large number of ancient masks ; 
and (e) the Florentine manuscript of the Pandects. 

(a) It has been asserted that the Latin Manuscript of St. Mark was written 
by that Apostle himself. ' But this is now proved to be a mere fable ; for the 
Venetian Ms. formerly made part of the Latin manuscript preserved at Friuli, 
most of which was printed by Blanchini, in his Evangeliacum Quadruplez. The 
Venice Ms. contained the first forty pages, or five quarternions of St. Mark's 
gospel ; the two last quarternions or twenty pages are preserved at Prague, 
where they were printed by M. Dobrowsky, under the title of Fragmentwm Pra- 
gense Evangelii S. Marci vulgo autographi, 1778. 4.' — See Home's Introduction 
&c. Vol. IV. P. II. ch. II. § III.— Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. xlvi.— (b) Publish- 
ed by Foggini exactly after the manuscript, Rome, 1741. 4to. — fe) Published 
by Bartoli. 1741. fol. in engraving. — {d) Printed at Urbino 1736. fol. at Rome 
1767. fol. — (e) Of this Brenkman has given a description in his Historia Pandec- 
tarum. Traj. ad Rhen. 1722. 4. 

In regard to manuscripts much information may be found in I. G. Schelhom's 
Anleitung far Bibliothekare und Archivare. Ulm. 1791. 8. 



ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 



Preliminary remarks. 

§ 144. By the word art, taken subjectively, is understood a prac- 
tical skill in producing something in agreement with certain purposes 
and rules. Taken objectively, it signifies the abstract union of those 
rules and practical principles, which are essentially useful to guide in 
the production of any designed object or work. When Nature and 
Art are placed in contradistinction, the former designates the original 
powers in the material and spiritual world and their immediate opera- 
tions, the latter the efficiency of reason by means of choice and inten- 
tion ; nature therefore is understood to operate by necessary, art by 
voluntary or arbitrary laws. A distinction is also made between Art 
and Science, the one being the theory of that, of which the other is 
the practice ; science implies the accurate knowledge of principles ; 
art is their successful application. 

§ 145. The arts are generally divided into the mechanical and 
the liberal or fine. The former have reference chiefly to the bodily, 
the latter to the intellectual powers of man. The mechanical are 
those, which are employed in producing and improving whatever is 
imprortant to the necessities or comforts and conveniences of life. 
The fine arts are such as have chiefly pleasure for their object, although 
utility is connected therewith as a secondary point ; they aim at the 
representation or imitation of moral beauty or excellence, and are ad- 
dressed to the imagination and the feelings. It is on account of this 
representation of beauty and this immediate reference to the emotions 
of the mind, that they are termed the fine or the beautiful arts. They 
are Poetry, Oratory, Music, Dancing, Drama, Painting, Engraving, 
Lithoglyphy, Sculpture, and Architecture, which last may include Gar- 
dening usually treated as a separate art. 

§ 146. These are all addressed to feeling and imagination, but do 
not all exert their influence in the same way and by the same means. 
Such of them as effect their object by means of visible images or re- 
semblances are called often the plastic arts; from this class are ex- 
eluded poetry, oratory, music, and for the most part dancing and dra- 



AKTS OF DESIGN. 93 

ma. The modes of forming these images or representations of visi- 
ble objects are various ; the image may be formed entire, or in demi- 
relief or bas-relief, or in depression, or on a plane surface. The art 
of designing may be considered as a common foundation for this whole 
class, since they are employed wholly in representing the forms or ac- 
tions of material bodies, which are distinguished for regularity, or 
peculiar fitness, or moral beauty or force, and which are therefore 
worthy of the artist's skill. On this account they are termed by some 
the arts of design. 

§ 147. The forms, which are represented, are not merely such as 
actually exist in nature, but also such as are wholly ideal, or of a mix- 
ed character, partly imaginary and partly real. Art likewise often 
employs this imitation of material forms to express purely intellectual 
and spiritual conceptions. This object is effected in part by exhibit- 
ing emotions of the soul through bodily gestures, attitudes, and ac- 
tions. It is effected also by symbolical or allegorical images and com- 
binations, which have in no small degree ennobled the plastic arts, and 
elevated them above their original limits. Perspicuity, appropriate- 
ness, liveliness, judicious discrimination and accuracy are the essen- 
tial traits in such allegorical pieces. 

For moie full remarks respecting allegory In the arts of design, and references 
10 authors, see Sulzer's Allgemeine Theorieder schcenen Kflnste. Article, Alle- 
goric. 

§ 148. A sensibility and taste for art is necessary not only to the 
artist in order to practice successfully, but also to the observer or cri- 
tic in order to judge properly. There must be a capacity or adapted- 
ness easily to perceive the beautiful, and to experience peculiar pleasure 
therein. Some elementary and correct natural feeling is therefore pre- 
supposed ; but by a frequent exercise of this feeling, a careful observa- 
tion of works of art, and the study and application of rules, the capaci- 
ty is easily enlarged and improved. Sensibility to the beautiful, deli- 
cacy of feeling, and correctness of judgment are the most prominent 
characteristics of that taste for art, which the artist must unite, and 
carefully cultivate in common with his genius and skill in execution. 

§ 149. The name of connoisseur belongs only to him, who is 
qualified to examine and criticise works of art according to their whole 
actual merits, and to estimate and explain on true principles their com- 
parative value. For this a superficial knowledge is not sufficient ; 
it requires an intimate acquaintance with the nature and essence of 
the arts, with all their principles both mechanical and aesthelical, with 



94 AKUHJUULotiY 01'' AKi'. 

their history, and with their chief productions. Good taste, familiarity 
with the best performances, and studious reflection, therefore, are in- 
dispensable to a connoisseur in art. The mere amateur needs only 
an unperverted lively susceptibility to the impression made by works 
of art, and a prevailing attachment for them, which traits, however, 
if properly cultivated may form him into a connoisseur. Docti ratio- 
nem artis intelligunt, indocti voluptatem. Quint 

§ 150. The history of art is obviously useful to the artist and to 
the critic. By it we learn the first origin of art among the people of 
early antiquity, its subsequent advancement, among the Greeks, Etru- 
rians, and Romans, its decline with the wane of those nations, its com- 
plete prostration in the middle ages, its restoration and in some respects 
far greater advancement in modern times. The very perfection of 
modern art makes the study of the fine arts and their history advan- 
tageous and even necessary to every one, who engages in literature 
and the studies required by common utility. Abundant occasion will 
be found by every man, for the application of this knowledge, so that 
he may turn to good account all the instruction and pleasure derived 
by him from it. 

§ 151. The monuments of the plastic arts remaining to us from an- 
cient times, are called in general antiques, although by that term, es- 
pecially when the kindred idea of classical excellence is associated 
with it, we understand chiefly the performances of the most flourish- 
ing periods of ancient art. These pieces are admired particularly for 
the beauty of their forms ; for the just and happy representation of 
the human figure, especially the head ; and for the dignity and emotion 
which is thrown into their expression, and at the same time united 
with a most attractive grace. In general it may be said, that the ar- 
tists of antiquity guided themselves by an ideal based and formed upon 
real nature, rather than by any actual models ever presented in life. 
Hence the careful study of antiques is of great service to the artist and 
the general critic and scholar, especially if it be connected with suit- 
uble attention to language, history, mythology, and antiquities in gen- 
eral. 

See Sulzer, Allg. Theor. &c. Article Antik. 

§ 152. Most of the now remaining works of the plastic art of 
antiquity are such as either were actually designed to commemorate 
particular remarkable persons, objects, actions and occasions, or may 
serve that purpose as to us. Of course to obtain a full understanding 
of them, to look at these monuments in a right point of view, to dis- 
cover their meaning and perceive their whole beauty, we need the ac- 



SCULPTURE. 95 

cessary knowledge just mentioned above. In this view, also, an ac- 
quaintance with the history of art, in its different periods and changes, 
and with the modes of conception and execution of the old artists, will 
appear very important. And every thing of this sort will be more 
useful and instructive, if attention be paid at the same time to the es- 
thetic character of the works, that is, to their comparative excellence 
considered as happy imitations, and as operating on the taste and 
feelings. 

The term aesthetic is not familiar in our language. It is formed from the Greek 
dii&tittxog, from which also the corresponding German term aestketisch, is deriv- 
ed. The latter is thus defined by Sulzer (Allg. Theor. der Schcenen Kunste*, 
' that peculiarity or property of a thing by which it is an object of feeling [ai'oij- 
oig] and therefore suited to be introduced in a work of the fine arts.' The Ger- 
man noun Aesthetik (aesthetics) is defined in the same work as ' the philosophy of 
the fine arts, or the science which deduces the general theory and the rules of 
the fine arts from the nature of taste.' The words are certainly very convenient 
in English, and have an obvious meaning which is expressed by no other terms. 

There are many works on the topics and principles belonging to the science of 
Aesthetics. — Aesthetica, seu doctrina boni gustus, ex Philosophia pulchri deducta 
in scientias et artes amceniores, auct. Georg. Szerdahaley, Bud. 1779. 2 vol. 8.— 
Saggio sulbuon gusto nelle belle arti, ove si spiegano gl'elementi della Estetica, 
di G. Jagemann. Fir. 1771. 8. — Reflexions critiques sur la Poesie et la Peinture, 
par VAbbe Dvbos (Cf. § 26). — Les beaux arts reduitsaune meme principe, par 
Ch. Batteaux. Par. 1753. 12. In Germ, with additions by J. Ad. ScMegel. Leipz. 
1770. 2 vol. 8. — The Polite Arts, or a Dissertation on Poetry, Painting, Musick, 
Architecture and Eloquence. Lond. 1749. 12.— Elements of Criticism (by H. 
Home, Lord Kaimes) Lond. 1785. 2 vol. 8.— Essay on Taste by Alex. Gerard. 
Edinb. 1780. 8. — Essays on the Nature und Principles of Taste, by Archibald Ali- 
son. Ediab. 1811. 8. Boston, 1812.— Joh. Christ. Konlg, Philosophie der schonen 
Kunste. Nurnb. 1784. 8.— Aesthetic, oder allgemeine Theorie der schonen 
Kunste und Wissenschaften, von Ph. Gang, Salzb. 1785. 8.— Critik der Urtheils- 
kraft. von Imm. Kant. Berl. 1790. 8. 

§ 153. To give something of this knowledge, although only in 
general and elementary principles, is the object of what follows under 
the title of Archaeology of Art. It will be limited to the plastic arts, 
and will excluse Engraving and Gardening, as the former was unknown 
to the ancients, and the latter was not ranked by them either in prac- 
tice or theory among the fine arts. Sculpture, Lithoglyphy, Painting, 
and Architecture will be noticed. Their history, especially among the 
Greeks and Romans will be presented, the most celebrated artists in 
each period named and characterised, and the chief monuments point- 
ed out, with such remarks on their character as may aid a right un- 
derstanding of their worth. The notices must necessarily be brief. 



/. — Sculpture. 

$ 154. This term is used in a sense more comprehensive than its 
etymological meaning. We include under it, the formation of images 



96 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

of visible objects, not only out of hard substances by means of the 
chisel and graver, but also out of soft substances, and out of melted 
metals. In precise discrimination the first of these arts is properly 
sculpture, yi.vq>i\, scviptura ; the second is more exactly the art of 
moulding, nXaaTixii, figlina ; and the third, the art of casting, toqsv- 
«*iji statuaria. The German word Bildnerkunst includes the whole, 
and is employed by Luther in translating the Hebrew phrase (2 
Chron. 3. 10), which is rendered in the English version image-work. 

The figures are either formed entire so as to be seen on all sides 
(neoHpaprj, ins Runde), or only prominent from a plane surface (tiqoo- 
rvna, dvdylvcpay Those of the former kind are termed Statues ; 
the others are called in general Bas-reliefs, although they are distin- 
guished in minute description, by terms indicating the degree of their 
prominence from the plane. Figures formed by depression, or hol- 
lowing below the level, were termed by the Greeks Sidylvcpa. 

Respecting the ars toreulice, see Excurs. ad Plin. Nat. Hist. xxxv. 34, in 
Biblioth. Classic. Lat. Par. 1830. 

§ 155. In the introduction to this Archaeology (§§8 — 1 1) we spoke 
in general, of the origin of the arts. Here it is sufficient to remark, 
that the art of forming images belongs to the highest antiquity, and prob- 
ably was the earliest of the arts which we call plastic, if we except archi- 
tecture, which at first was merely mechanical. Although the principles 
of the art of drawing are of the greatest service in image- work, and in 
reality lie at its foundation, yet the art of drawing was probably of later 
origin; for it requires a higher effort of abstraction and reflection to give 
a representation by sketching mere outlines on a fixed plane, than by 
forming an entire image. Accident, and perhaps the caprice of nature, 
which not unfrequently presents the appearance of artificial figures in 
trees, stones, and the like, might lead men to this art. The first at- 
tempts, it is probable, were to form likenesses of the human body. 

$ 156. The particular circumstances of the origin of this art are 
not made known to us by any historical account. Neither the invent- 
or, the people among whom it arose, nor the first mode of its exercise, 
can with certainty be determined. We may, however, reasonably 
conjecture, from the usual progress of the human mind, and the histo- 
ry of other arts, that in this also there was a gradual advancement from 
the more easy and simple performances to the more difficult. It is 
therefore probable that the softer materials, as earths, clays, and the 
like, were employed before the harder, as wood, stone, and metals. Of 
the early existence of some branches of the art we have evidence in 
the writings of Moses. 

See Exodus xxxvi, 36, 38. Deut. xxix, 16, 17. Gen. xxxi, 19, 30. 



MATERIALS USED IN SCULPTURE. 97 

§ 157. The first works must have been quite rude, as the artists 
were deficient both in the theory of designing and in mechanical skill, 
and were also destitute of the necessary instruments. Accordingly 
we find that the most ancient figures of men and gods were scarcely 
any thing more than pillars or blocks, with the upper extremity formed 
into a sort of knob, or rounded, to represent the head. Such was the 
very ancient image of the goddess Cybele brought to Rome, from Pes- 
inus in Phrygia. Gradually the other principal parts of the body 
were more distinctly formed, at first however only indicated by lines 
afterwards made more full and complete, yet not marked by significant 
action and attitude, but stiff, angular and forced. This improvement 
was ascribed among the Greeks to Dasdalus, who was on that account 
said to have formed living statues, whose name was applied by the 
early Greeks to distinguished productions of art. 

' In the primitive ages, objects rude and unfashioned, as we learn 
from history, were adored as representing the divinities of Greece. Even to 
the time of Pausanias, stones and trunks of trees, rough and unformed by art, 
were preserved in the temples ; and though replaced by forms almost divine, still 
regarded with peculiar veneration, as the ancient images of the deities. As skill 
improved, these signs began to assume more determinate similitude; and from a 
square column, the first stage, by slow gradations something approaching to a resem- 
blance of the human figure was fashioned. These efforts at sculpture long continu- 
ed extremely imperfect. The extremities seem not to have been even attempted ; 
the arms were not separated from the body, nor the limbs from each other, but, 
like the folds of the drapery, stiffly indicated by deep lines drawn on the surface. 
Such appears to have been the general state of the art immediately prior to the 
. period when it can first be traced, as cultivated with some degree of success in 
any particular place. This occurs about twelve centuries before Christ.' 

§ 158. Before noticing further the progress of the art of sculpture, 
it will be useful to mention some things respecting the materials em- 
ployed, and the different methods practised among the ancients. The 
substances used were evidently very various. Originally, as has been 
suggested, soft and pliant substances seem to have been chosen, and 
the images made by moulding or embossing. This perhaps might 
originate in the common art of pottery, which itself may have been 
suggested by covering culinary vessels with earth or lime, and observ- 
ing the hardness imparted by the fire. Clay, gypsum, and wax were 
the principal soft materials employed, not only in the earliest, but in 
the most flourishing periods, by the Greeks, Tuscans, and Romans ; 
and for forming entire statues as well as busts, bas-reliefs, and models. 
Models thus prepared [nqonlaa^ma, ngoTVTra) were used by the ar- 
tists for patterns to guide them in working upon harder materials. 

§ 159. Of the hard substances used in the art, wood, ivory, mar- 
ble and bronze were the chief. At first, wood was commonly prefer- 
red on account of its being easily wrought, especially for the sculpture 

13 



98 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

of larg-c figures, utensils, and ornaments of various kinds. In the 
choice of wood for the purpose, regard was paid to its solidity, dura- 
bility and color. Ebony, cypress and cedar had the preference ; yet 
citron-wood, acanthus, maple, box, poplar and oak, and even more 
common sorts of wood were sometimes employed. Not unfrequently 
in the choice of the wood there was a reference to the supposed char- 
acter of the divinity to be represented, as was the case also in the use 
of other materials. In the island of Naxus, for example, there was 
a statue of Bacchus formed out of the vine. Pluto was commonly 
imaged in ebony or black marble. 

§ 160. The most celehrated ancient sculptors often made use of 
ivory, on account of its whiteness and smooth surface, not merely for 
small figures, but also for large ones, and even for colossal statues, 
which were sometimes formed of ivory and gold united. Of this sort 
were the two most famous statues of antiquity, the Jupiter Olympus, 
and the Minerva, of Phidias. Bas-reliefs and various utensils were 
also formed of ivory either alone, or with other substances connected 
with it for ornament. The artists appear to have used no instrument 
for turning, but merely a chisel with a free hand. In the large stat- 
ues formed of this substance, the inner part consisted of dry solid wood, 
to which the ivory was attached and fastened in regular portions, and 
probably after the requisite chiseling had in part been performed. 
Very few monuments of this kind are preserved, because ivory so 
readily calcines in the earth and decays. 

See Heyne, on the ivory of the ancients, and images made of it, in N. Bihlioth. 
der schon. Wiss. Bd. xv.—Hirt, in Bottiger's Amalthea. Bd. 1. — Quatremere de 
Qnincy Le Jupiter Olympien. Paris. 1815. fol. 

§ 161. Marble was the noblest and most valued material for sculp- 
ture. There were several species, differing in color, solidity, and lus- 
tre. Among the most celebrated kinds, were the Pentelican, the Pari- 
an, the Lydian, the Alabandian. Porphyry, basalt, and granite were 
also often used in works of art, especially among the Egyptians. 
The marble was not always polished. The larger statues were 
often composed of several pieces, sometimes of different marble. 
There were works too, of which only certain parts were marble, as 
for example, the celebrated Minerva of Phidias, of which, particularly, 
the pupils of the eyes were marble (Xidivoi) according to a passage in 
Pluto ('Innlaa fielt,wv). Sometimes the marble statues, after comple- 
tion, were washed over with a thin transparent varnish, partly in order 
to give them a softer appearance and a milder lustre. The cement, by 



KINDS OF STATUES. 99 

which the different pieces of marble were united, the Greeks called 
l.uQoY.6Vka. 

See Blasii Cdryophili (Biagio Garofalo) de antiquis marmoribus opusculum. 
Traj. ad Rh. 1743. 4. — Respecting the modern names of ancient varieties of 
marble and other circumstances pertaining to them, see Ferber's Briefe aus 
Walschland (Letters from Italy). Prag 1773. 8. — Mineralogie des Anciens, par 
Louis de Launay. Bruxell.— 1803. 2 vol 12. s. 

§ 162. The bronze employed in the statues of the ancients con- 
sisted of a mixture of several metals, in definite proportions, although 
not always the same. The principal ingredient was copper, of which 
there was usually for statuary one hundred pounds united with an 
eighth part of lead or tin. In forming the mixture there was very 
often a regard to the color arising from it, and its suitableness for the 
image to be made. The best kinds of brass or bronze were that of 
Delos, and that of iEgina. The most valued was the orichalcum 
('oQsixuXxog,) not the modern brass, but a natural product of that 
name, unknown to us. The precise manner in which the metals were 
wrought into images is not well understood ; works of this kind were 
formed not only by casting, in which case the chisel was afterwards 
applied to give perfection, but likewise by driving or pressing under 
the hammer. Many brazen statues, although the accounts are often 
exaggerated, were of extraordinary size and truly colossal ; as for ex- 
ample, the celebrated statue of the god of the sun, placed at the en- 
trance of the harbor of Rhodes, 105 feet in height. Sometimes stat- 
ues of brass were gilded in whole or in part, and usually they were 
varnished to protect them from the atmosphere and moisture. Even 
of the precious metals, silver and gold, the ancients sometimes formed 
entire statues ; they were, however, hollow, like those in brass. 

See Hiri, in Bottiger's Amalthea (Musee de l'antiquite figurde), Dresd. 1824. 
Plin. Nat. Hist. 1. xxxiv. 4. 5. 18.— Launay, cited § 161. 

§ 1 63. Statues were classified and named variously according to size, 
costume and attitude. The largest were termed colossal (xoloacreii) 
surpassing always the human dimensions ; next to these were the stat- 
ues of gods and heroes, of a size between six and eight feet ; then 
those corresponding to actual life (aydX/iona e'wovixd, lao/zsTQTjru, 
statuae iconic®) ; and finally those smaller than life, of which such 
as were very small went by the name of sigilla. 

In reference to costume, the Romans called such as had a Grecian 
dress palliatce, those in the Roman to gala, those with the military 
garb faludatce, chlamydatce, loricatce, and such as were veiled velatce. 

In attitude there was still greater variety, as the figures might be 
either standing, sitting, reclining, or lying at rest, or in action, &c. 
There was also a distinction between simple statues, and composites 



100 ARCHJEOLOGV OF ART. 

or groups, consisting of several figures. Groups, where the parts 
were entwined or interwoven with each other, were called sympleg- 
mata (ovprWy/uato). 

See Essai bistorique de l'usage de statues chez anciens, par le Comte de Omsco. 
BruxelK-s 170S. 1. 

§ 164. Busts likewise, almost as frequently as entire figures, were 
formed by the ancient artists. They were called by the Greeks ngo- 
xo/uit, by the Romans imagines, sometimes thoraces. They were lo- 
cated, in honor of gods, heroes, philosophers, and other distinguished 
men, in public places, such as theatres, prytanea, gymnasia, galleries, 
libraries and the like. The bust was chiefly used to represent de- 
ceased persons. At Rome the Patricians used to place in their halls 
the busts of their ancestors (Polyb. vi. 51. Plin. xxxv. 2). Like stat- 
ues, busts were of various sizes. They differed also in respect to the 
portion of the frame included, taking in sometimes the whole breast, 
sometimes just the shoulders, and sometimes merely the head. On 
their supports or pedestals the character or exploits of the person 
represented were often inscribed. When busts were formed in relief 
on shields, they were termed imagines clypeatce. 

See Gurlill's Versuch ttber die Bastenkunde. Magdeb. 1800. 4. 

§ 165. There was a peculiar kind of statue or bust to which was 
given the name of Hermes, 'Egfirjg. It consisted of a mere head, or 
head and breast, or at most head and chest, and a quadrangular pillar 
or one terminating in a point, which served as a support. It derived 
its name either from the god Hermes, Mercury, whose image general- 
ly appeared on this kind of erection, yet not always, or perhaps, as 
probably, from the word 'Egfia designating the quadrangular pillar sus- 
taining the image ; Suidas explains the phrase 'egfiaiog lidog by the 
word TETqdywvog. These representations were placed by the high- 
ways and streets, in gardens, and among the Greeks in front of tem- 
ples and dwelling houses. Human likenesses were formed sometimes 
in this manner ; generally however the images represented some deity 
presiding over gardens and fields. The Romans employed them to point 
out the boundaries of lands, and on that account called them termini. 
Sometimes the attributes of the god were indicated on the work ; some- 
times there were inscriptions, of which, however, such as may have been 
preserved are not all genuine. They very seldom had any representa- 
tion of costume. The head and pedestal were not always of the same 
material. Two heads were occasionally united on one pillar ; as for 
instance, in the 'EQ[io.di\vr h Mercury and Minerva united, the 



BAS-RELIEF. MOSAIC. 101 

' EQfiijQccxlrjg, Mercury and Hercules, and 'Eq/uotiuv, Mercury and 
Pan. 

§ 166. The ancient artists made a vast number of has reliefs 
^sxTvna, tiqootvttcc, ' avdylvya). These works may he said to hold an 
intermediate place between sculpture and painting, in as much as they 
present a plane for their ground, and have their figures formed, more 
or less prominent, by the chisel or by embossing. The most common 
material was marble or brass. The Etrurians made use also of clay 
hardened by fire. The subjects represented by such pieces were drawn 
from mythology, history, allegory and other sources, according to the 
imagination of the artist. The purposes for which they were devised 
were'exceedingly numerous ; they often were separate tablets, constitut- 
ing independent works ; and very often they were formed upon shields, 
helmets, tripods, altars, drinking cups, and other vessels and utensils, 
tombs, urns and funeral lamps, arches, and generally upon large struc- 
tures, particularly the fronts of buildings. In explaining the meaning 
of these devices there is need of much caution and much knowledge 
of literature and art ; it is the more difficult, because in many instan- 
ces the works are in a mutilated, or altered state. 

§ 167. Among the varieties of image-work practiced by the an- 
cients must be mentioned that which is called Mosaic (/uovoeiov, opus 
musivum, tesselatum, vermiculatum), which was very common, and 
carried to great perfection. It has its name from its elegance and 
grace (fiovoa). It consists of figures curiously formed by pieces, in 
different colors, of clay, glass, marble, or precious stones and pearls, 
with which they used to ornament their floors and walls. Separate 
tablets or ornamental pieces were also formed in the same way. The 
pieces of which this kind of work is composed are so small, that 
sometimes one hundred and fifty are found in the space of a square 
inch. The art was most in vogue in the time of the Emperor Clau- 
dius, and one of most distinguished artists in it was Sosus. 

See Jo. Ciampini Vetera monumenta, in quibus praieipue opera musiva ill us- 
trantur. Rom. 1690. 99. 2 vol. fol. — Fnrietti Liber de musivis (with plates). Rom. 
1752. i.—Gurlitl, uber die Mosaik. Magd. 1798. 4. 

§ 168. Some of the works of the ancient sculptors have inscrip- 
tions upon them, presenting the name of the artist or explaining the 
work itself. On the statue of Hercules Farnese, for instance, are the 
words, rAYKwN ABHNAIOC EnOIEI- on the Gladiator Borghese 
ATACIAC J0CI6E0Y E&ECIOC ETIOIEI ; on a Roman statue of 
the goddess Hope, a AQVILIVS DIONYSIVS. ET NONIA 



102 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

JVW'STINA SPEM RESTITVERVNT. Such inscriptions are 
placed sometimes on the pedestal, and sometimes on the drapery or other 
parts ol the statue. Butthty are not always genuine, being frequent- 
ly of recent origin, as is thought to be the case with the first of the 
above mentioned. In judging of them there is need therefore of much 
antiquarian skill and research and a careful application of historical 
and mythological learning. 

A tine specimen of this critital scrutiny is found in Lcssing's Laokoon, a work 
of great value to those who study the arts. There is a French translation by 
Vanderbourg. 

$ 169. Although we have no historical account of the origin of 
the art of sculpture, as has been suggested, yet it is certain that the 
Egyptians were in possession of it at a very early period. On this 
account its invention is ascribed to them by some ancient writers. 
The Egyptians were not deficient in the mechanical part of sculpture.* 
Yet their general mode of thinking, their prevalent taste, the peculiar 
character of their civilization, and especially the nature of their re- 
ligion were unfavorable to the advancement of this art, and hindered 
its attaining among them any true and beautiful perfection. We find 
in their design, as well as in their whole execution, a barrenness and 
uniformity that appears very unnatural. Owing to the prevalence of 
animal worship in Egypt, figures of animals were the most frequent 
and most successful performances of their artists, among whom Mem- 
non is perhaps most celebrated. 

See Ricerche sopria la scultura presso gli Egiziani, di Giamb. Brocchi, 
Venez. 1792— Bottiger's Andeutungen &c. uber Archajologie. Dresden loOb.— 
Voyage dans la basse et la haute Egypte par Dentm. Par. 1802. 2 vol. f ol. (with 
plates) . Description de l'Egypte. Par. 1809—1818. 9 vol. fol. (with plates) 
Of this work there is also a more recent edition.— In Beck's Grundriss der Archa- 
ologie Leipz. 1816. is an account of the artists among ancient nations, and of the 
remaining monuments, and mention ot the works pertaining to the subject — Res- 
pecting Memnon, consult Anthon's Lempriere. 

§ 170. In the history of Egyptian art a distinction must be made 
between the old and the later style. The former appears in the earli- 
est monuments down to the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, 525 B. C. 
The latter*belongs to a subsequent period, in which the Persians and 
Greeks held supremacy in the land. Accordingly there is a differ- 
ence between these works, whichmay be designated respectively the Old 
Egyptian, the Persian-Egyptian, the Grecian-Egyptian, and the Ro- 
man imitations of the Egyptian manner. The uniformity and stiffness 
are much greater in the old style ; yet the later performances are defi- 
cient in beauty of design and execution, in cases where there is no 
drapery as well as in others. There are also works, discovered in Italy, 



ORIENTAL SCULPTURE. 103 

in Egyptian taste and manner, which are not really of Egyptian ori- 
gin, but were made by later Greeks, in Rome, especially under the 
reign of Hadrian. 

See History of Sculpture, Painting and Architecture by J. S. Memes, L. L. D. (p. 
18, Am. Ed. Bost. 1834). — The period preceding the time of Cambyses is consid- 
ered by Memes as the only period of real Egyptian sculpture. Of its character 
there are left two sources of judging, viz. vestiges of ancient grandeur yet exist- 
ing on their native site, and numerous specimens in European cabinets. These 
remains may be classed under three divisions ; 1. Colossal figures. 2. Figures 
about the natural size single or in groups. 3. Hieroglyphical and Historical 
relievos. The colossal remains are very numerous. Some are figures of men ; 
others of animals, chiefly the sphinx. The dimensions extend from twelve to 
seventy cubits in height. The largest now known are two in the Memnonium at 
Thebes, one of which, from inscriptions still legible, would appear to be the famous 
sounding statue of Memnon. Of figures about the natural size there are also 
many remains. Many are found in the excavations of Philoe, Elephantis, Silsilis, 
and at El Malook in the tombs of the Theban Kings. These excavations are often 
suites of magnificent chambers hewn from the hard and white calcareous rock. 
A singular peculiarity marks these statues ; a pilaster runs up behind each the 
whole height, not only when the statue is connected with the surface of a wall, 
but also when it is wholly detached. Relievos are found in great abundance, oc- 
cupyingoflenthe entire walls of the temples. In these there is much skill in the me- 
chanical workmanship, but they are very deficient in merit as performances of art; 
proportion and perspective seem to have been utterly unknown. 

In the formation of these works four kinds of materials are employed ; one 
soft, a species of sandstone ; and three very hard, viz. a calcareous rock, out of 
which the tombs, with their sculptures, are hewn, basalt or trap, of various shades 
from black to dark grey, the constituent generally of the smaller statues, and 
granite, more commonly of the species named rubescens. Colossal figures are 
uniformly of granite, in which also is a large portion of the relievos. Statues of 
wood have been discovered by modern travellers. Metal appears to have been 
sparingly used ; at least only very small figures have been found, of a composi- 
tion similar to the bronze of modern times. In the tombs small images of por- 
celain and terracotta are frequent. 

§ 171. Among the other ancient nations of southern and eastern 
countries sculpture did not receive so much attention, and our knowl- 
edge of their use of the art is derived from historical testimony rather 
than from any existing monuments. The art was evidently esteemed by 
the Hebrews, but chiefly as an auxiliary and ornament to architecture ; 
of this we have evidence in the temple of Solomon, in the construction 
of which, however, Phoenician artists were chiefly employed. The 
commerce and wealth of the Phoenicians were favorable to the arts, but 
there exists no genuine and proper statue as a specimen of their sculp- 
ture ; the same is true respecting the Persians and Parthians, who 
were advanced to a considerable degree of civilization, and whose 
views of propriety required that the figures should be clothed in some 
sort of drapery ; such monuments as we have, however, in the sculp- 
tured architectural ornaments which have been preserved, give us no 
occasion to mourn our loss. 

On the general character of the sculptured monuments of the eastern nations, 
see Heeren's Ideen itber die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel der vor- 
nehmsten Volker der alten Welt.— Hock's Veteris Mediae et Persiae Monu- 
menta. Gott. 1818. 4.— Cf. Memes Hist. &c. p. 32. 



104 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

& I7'2. The Etrurians or Etruscans are more worthy of notice in 
the history of thisart. In a very early period they occupied the up- 
per part of Italy, and attended much to sculpture. With them the 
art seems to have been of native origin, not introduced or acquired 
from Egypt, although their intercourse with Egypt and with Greece 
no doubt contributed to the improvement of their arts. Five periods 
may be pointed out in the history of Etruscan art, the first character- 
ised by a rude and uncultivated state, the second by works in the Gre- 
cian and Pelasgic style, the third by works bearing an Egyptian and 
mythological stamp, the fourth by a higher degree of excellence yet 
confined within the limits of the older Grecian fictions, the fifth by a 
still fuller perfection according to the more refined models of the 
Greeks. 

See Hey tie's Versuch einernahem Bestimmung der Klassen und Zeiten fiir 
die Etr. KunstwerkeinN. Bibli. d. sch. Wiss. B. XIX. XX— Saggio di Lingua 
Etrusca e di altre anliche d'ltalia, &e. (da L. Lanzi) Rom. 1789. 3 vol. 8. — Mon- 
uroeati Etruschi, illustraii epubblicati dal Cav. F. Inghirami. Fiesole. 1820. 

§ 173. There are many remains of Etruscan art, although their 
resemblance to Grecian performances often makes it difficult to decide 
their true origin. That Grecian artists had a great share of agency 
in Tuscan works is evident from inscriptions and other monuments. 
Independent of a large number of statues in hronze and marble, there 
are many works in half relief, which are, not without grounds, consid- 
ered Etruscan remains. There is also a great variety of vases, re- 
markable both for the beauty of their form and for the paintings on 
them, which have been called Tuscan and Campanian, but may be with 
more probability considered as old Grecian, and as monuments of 
Greek colonies, which were in the vicinity of Cuma, Naples and 
Nola. Learned men and amateurs have taken much pains in collect- 
ing, portraying, and describing these remains. The most beautiful 
collection of the kind is that made by Wm. Hamilton ; it is now in 
the British Museum, London. 

An account of this collection was published by Chevalier d'Hancarville, with 
the title, A collection of Etruscan, Greek and Roman Antiquities &c. Naples 
1766—76. 4 vol. fol. — A later work is, Recueil des Gravures des Vases antiques, 
tirees du Cabinet de M. le Chev. d'Hamilton, gravees par Tischbein. Naples 1793. 
3 vol. fol.— See also A. F. Gorii Museum Etruscum. Flor. 1737. 2 vol. fol.— 
J. B. Passerii Picturae Etruscorum in vasculis &c. Rom. 1767—75. 3 vols, fol.— 
Peintures des Vases antiques, vulgairement appellees Etrusques, gravees par 
Clener, accompagnees d'explications par Millin. Paris 1808. 2 vol. Fol.-Peintures 
antiques de vases grecs de la collection de Sir J. Coghill, publiees par J. Mil- 
hngen. Rom. 1817. Fol. — Lanzi, De Vasi antichi dipinte vulgarmente chiamata 
Etruschi. 1801. 8. with Plates.— Wedgewood and Bentley have made imitations 
of several of these vases, in terra cotta, among which the vase of Barberini, or 
the Portland Vase, as it is also called, is the most memorable. See VVedgewood's 
Description of the Portland Vase. Lond. 1790. 4— Des Graf. Von VeUheim 
Abhandlung iiberdie Barberim-jetzt Portland-Vase. Helmst. 1791. 8. 



ETRUSCAN REMAINS. 105 

Many of the remains of Etruscan art have been found in repositories for the 
dead, in which the people were accustomed to inter with the body various articles 
of metal and clay. At Volaterrae (Volterra) were vast sepulchral chambers. 
Similar structures have been discov ered in the vicinity of Viterbo. In these 
sepulchres are found urns of stone or of baked clay, about two feet in height, 
which contained the ashes of bodies after burning. Painted Vases also are found 
in the same repositories ; likewise the engraved paterae. The latter are numer- 
ous and curious. They are shallow dishes of brass or bronze, with a rim slight- 
ly raised, and a handle. On the bottom inside there is usually engraved some 
mythological subject, of simple design, expressed in a few bold lines. The use 
of these vessels is not known. Some have considered them as employed in sa- 
crificing, others as designed for mirrors. — Meme's History of Sculpture &c. p. 71. 
— Anthon's Lemp. under Hetruria. — Inghirami cited § 172. 

' The Portland Vase was discovered in the tomb of Alexander Severus and is 
believed to be the work of Grecian genius. It is a semi-transparent urn, of a 
deep blue color, with brilliant opaque white ornaments upon it in bas-relief, cut 
by the lapidary in the same manner as the antique cameos on colored grounds. 
Mr. Parks states ' that several of the nobility and gentry, being desirous to pos- 
sess a copy of this beautiful specimen of ancient art, engaged Mr. Wedgewood 
to attempt an imitation of it ; and he actually produced a vase of porcelain which 
for elegance was considered fully equal to the original.' The height of the vase 
is ten inches, its diameter at the broadest part only six inches. It has two curi- 
ously wrought handles one on each side. The sculpture is in the greatest perfec- 
tion ; the figures full of grace and expression; every stroke as fine, sharp and 
perfect, as any drawn by a pencil.' 

The Warwick Vase also may properly be mentioned in this place. ' It is a 
monument of Grecian art ; the production of Lysippus, statuary to Alexander 
the Great. It was dug up in Adrian's Villa, at Tivoli, and was sent to England 
by Sir Wm. Hamilton, in 1774. It is of sculptured marble, adorned with ele- 
gant figures in high relief; vine leaves, tendrils, fruit and stems forming the rim 
and handles.' — See Article on Porcelain and Earthenware in Amer. Journal of 
Science and Arts. Vol. xxvi. p. 243. with drawings of the two vases. 

§ 173. The highest rank in the history of ancient art unquestion- 
ably belongs to the Greeks. The first idea of image-work among 
them was without doubt derived from abroad, from the Egyptians 
more probably than from the Phoenicians', perhaps in some degree from 
both. The opinion, that their earliest notions came from the Egyp- 
tians, agrees well with the whole character of their mythology, the 
fountain and source of their arts, and with the style of their more an- 
cient performances. But at length they surpassed all other nations. 
Many favorable circumstances combined to promote the advancement 
of sculpture in Greece ; the influence of a delightful climate upon 
physical and moral education, the constant views of beauty not only 
in the various natural scenery, but especially in the human form as 
produced among the Greeks, their peculiar religion involving so much 
of poetry and imagination and yet so addressed to the senses, the high 
honor and rewards bestowed upon artists, the various uses and appli- 
cations of sculpture, and the flourishing condition of the other imita- 
tive arts and of letters in general. 

See Gurlitt's Einleitung in das Studium der Antike.— -An Enquiry into the 
causes of the extraordinary excellency of ancient Greece in the Arts. Lond. 
1767. 8.— Wi7icke'.mann, Hist, de l'Art &c. Liv. iv. ch. 1. 

14 



10G ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

$ 1 74. The exact time of the rise of this art in Greece cannot be 
decided, nor so much as the name of the first artist. Some mention 
Dibutades, others Rhcecus and Theodoras, as inventers of the art of 
moulding, or of working in soft wax, and in brass. Daedalus, who 
lived three generations before the Trojan war, was celebrated as the 
first improver of the plastic art among the Greeks. It was undoubt- 
edly practised at a very early period, and even in the time of the Tro- 
jan war, or at least the age of Homer, had gained a remarkable de- 
gree of cultivation. Here, as among other nations, the first attempts 
in the art were rude and imperfect (§ 157). It is however too hasty 
a conclusion, if one assigns to the earliest times any piece of rude and 
unfinished workmanship, with no other proof or evidence, since such 
works might come from the hands of poor artists of a later period, or 
receive their rude appearance from design. 

' Concerning Daedalus, the first of the Athenian sculptors, doubtful or fabulous 
accounts have reached us ; but a careful investigation of circumstances proves, 
that of whatsoever country a native, he had rendered himself renowned by the 
exercise of his skill at the court of Minos before settling in Attica. The facts 
attending his arrival there, and the history of his previous labors, enable us to 
fix dates, and to trace the true source of improvement in Grecian art at this par- 
ticular era. Of the early establishments of the Greeks planted in the isles of 
the iEgean, which even preceded the mother country in the acquisition of wealth 
and intelligence, the Doric colony of Crete enjoyed, from a very early period, 
the happiness and consequent power of settled government. External advantag- 
es of situation first invited the access, while domestic institutions secured the 
benefits, of ancient and uninterrupted intercourse with Egypt. Hence the laws 
and the arts of the Cretans. With the former, the Athenian hero, Theseus, 
wished to transplant the latter also; and while he gave to his countrymen a sim- 
ilar system of policy, he did not fail to secure the co-operation of one whose 
knowledge might yield powerful aid in humanizing a rude people by adding new 
dignity to the objects of national veneration. Accordingly Daedalus, accompa- 
nying the conqueror of the Minotaur to Athens, fixes there the commencement 
of an improved style, 1234 years before the Christian era. 

The performances of Daedalus were chiefly in wood, of which no fewer than 
nine, of large dimensions, are described as existinginthe second century, which, 
notwithstanding the injuries of fourteen hundred years, and the imperfections 
of early taste, seemed, in the words of Pausanias, to possess something of divine 
expression. Their author, as reported by Diodorus, improved upon ancient art, 
so as to give vivacity to the attitude, and more animated expression to the counte- 
nance. Hence we are not to understand, with some, that Daedalus introduced 
sculpture into Greece, nor even into Attica ; but simply that he was the first to 
form something like a school of art, and whose works first excited the admiration 
of his own rude age, while they were deemed worthy of notice even in more en- 
lightened times. Indeed the details preserved in the classic writers, that he raised 
the arms in varied position from the flanks, and opened the eyes, before narrow 
and blinking, sufficiently prove the extent of preceding art.' (Memes.) 

It has however been doubted whether Daedalus ever had an actual existence, 
some supposing a mere mythic personage meant, whose name was intended for 
any .eminent artificer.— Hirt, Geschichte der Baukunst.— Heyne, ad Horn. II. 18. 

$ 175. In presenting a historical view of the progress and char- 
acter of the art in Greece, and of the age of the principal produc- 
tions and their authors, four periods have been pointed out. The first 
includes the duration of the ancient style of execution, extending to 



GRECIAN SCULPTURE. 107 

Phidias, who lived about 450 B. C. The second reaches from this 
artist to the time of Alexander the Great about 340 B. C. and may be 
characterised as the period of the grand style. The third, that of the 
beautiful style, and the most flourishing period, commencing with 
Praxiteles extends to the rise of the Imperial Power of Rome. The 
fourth includes the efforts of Grecian art under the Emperors, and is 
the period of its fall. But this whole division is too arbitrary and in- 
definite, and the source whence it was derived, the sketch of Pliny, 
is not sufficiently exact and distinct. 

See Plin. Hist. Nat. L. xxxiv, xxxvi.— Heyne^s Abh. ueber die Kunsterpocnen 
bei Plinius, in Sammlung antiquar. Aufs. St. I. — also by same., Artium inter 
Graecos tempora, in Opusc. Acad. V. 5. — Thiersch ueber die Epochen der bild. 
Kunst unter den Griechen. Munchen 1816. 1819. 4. — Winkelmann. Hist, de 1' Art 
&c. Liv. vi. ch. 6. — Essai sur le classement chronologique des seulpteurs 
Grecs les plus celebres, par T. B. Emeric-David Par. 1806. republished in ap- 
pend, to the Nat. Hist, of Pliny, in Biblioth. Class. Lat. Par. 1830. This essay 
names in chronological order the principal Greek sculptors and the works 
wrought by them. 

§ 176. The character of the Grecian sculpture in the first age was 
originally that incompleteness and want of fitness and agreeableness 
in design and performance, which has already been mentioned. Sub- 
sequently there appeared more of truth and accuracy in the sketch 
and outline, while there was still a severity or stiffness, which was 
much deficient in expression as well as beauty. There are many re- 
mains of Grecian art, which are commonly assigned to this period, 
some of them correctly ; yet, as has been suggested, it is difficult to 
distinguish performances of some inferior artists of later times, from 
works belonging really to the earliest age. Endceus, Smilis, Dipce- 
nus, Scyllis, Agelladas, Dionysius of Argos, and Mys, were the prin- 
cipal sculptors of this period. 

§ 177. With the growing prosperity of the Grecian States, the 
arts, and especially sculpture, steadily advanced. Among the means 
of improvement were the schools of art, for the instruction of young 
artists both in painting and sculpture, which were established at Sicy- 
on, Corinth, and iEgina. The first of these was the most eminent, 
founded by Dipoenus and Scyllis, and numbering among its pupils 
Aristocles, and subsequently other celebrated painters and sculptors. 
Corinth on account of its favorable situation became early one of the 
most powerful of the Grecian cities ; Cleanthes was one of the most 
ancient artists there. The school of JEgina., also, seems to have been 
early established, and the island gained much celebrity from its arts ; 
Callo, Glaucias, Simon, and Anaxagoras were distinguished in this 
school. The flourishing condition of these cities, in consequence of 



108 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

commerce and navigation, made them eligible places for the establish- 
ment of such schools of art. 

§ 178. The occasions for the execution and use of statues in Greece 
were very frequent and various. Not only were the temples of the 
gods ornamented with their statues and with sculptured representa- 
tions of their mythological history, but works of this kind were re- 
quired in great number for public squares and places, for private dwel- 
lings, gardens, country seats, walks, and for architectural ornament in 
general. The portico at Athens, receiving its name Poecile from its 
variety of ornaments, was crowded with statues. To heroes, wise 
men, poets and victors, statues were erected out of gratitude and re- 
spect, to princes often out of flattery. Thus did the statuary always 
find encouragement and reward for the exercise of his art, and for 
the application of all his talents, which were quickened and stimulated 
the more by emulation. 

See De l'Usage des statues, chez les Anciens ; Essai Historique, Brux. 1768. 
4. 

§ 179. Hence in the second period, reaching from Phidias to Prax- 
iteles or the time of Alexander, the art of sculpture obtained much 
higher excellence in Greece than among other nations. Its character- 
istic at this period was loftiness and grandeur in style ; yet this was 
accompanied with more or less of that want of softness and ease, that 
marked the works of preceding artists. There was a very rigid obser- 
vance of outward proportion. The expression in gesture and attitude 
was bold and significant rather than captivating and pleasing. Phidias 
was the first and the most distinguished artist. His statues of Minerva 
and Jupiter Olympus were among the most celebrated works of anti- 
quity, although known to us only by the unanimous praise of so many 
writers. Besides Phidias, among the celebrated were Alcamenes, 
Agoracritus, Polycletes, Myron and Scopas ; the latter however, more 
properly belongs to the next period. 

& L. Vcdkel ueber d. grossen Tempel und die statue des Jupiters zuOlympia. 
Leipz. 1794. 8.— T. Ph. Siebenkees ueber den Tempel und die Bildsaule d. Jup. zu 
Ol. Nuernb. 1795. 8. — E. H. Tcslken, de Phidiae Jove Olympic- observationes. 
Gott. 1812. 8.— E. Falconet, Sur deux Oeuvrages de Phidias, in his works, Lau- 
sanne, 1781. 6 vols. 8. 

§ 180. Sculpture, together with the rest of the fine arts, attained 
the highest excellence, not far from the time of Alexander. In the 
period marked by the beautiful or elegant style, a peculiar grace was 
united with the accuracy and noble expression already acquired. 
This grace appeared both in a higher refinement in the design or 



SCULPTURE AMONG THE ROMANS. 109 

conception, and greater ease in gesture, attitude and action. A dis- 
tinction may be made between the majestic grace which is conspicu- 
ous in the statues of the gods, belonging to this period, and that which 
is merely beautiful ; the latter again may be distinguished from an in- 
ferior and lighter sort exhibited in comparatively trifling performan- 
ces. Praxiteles, Lysippus, Chares and Laches were the most emi- 
nent sculptors of this period. 

§ 181. Gradually Grecian art declined from its high excellence, 
and finally ceased. The causes are obvious ; the prevalence of luxu- 
ry and consequent corruption of taste and morals ; the internal chang- 
es and commotions and the infringements upon civil liberty from the 
time of Alexander, and its final loss after the subjection of Greece to 
the Romans. There were however in this period some skillful artists, 
as Arcesilaus, Pasiteles and Cleomenes ; and the plastic arts remained 
in credit in some of the cities of Asia and Sicily. 

See F. Jacobs nber den Reichthum der Griechen in plastischen Kunstwerken. 
Mtlnchen 1808. 4. 

§ 182. On the subjection of the Greeks their arts passed, as it were, 
into the hands of the Romans, by whom however the arts were hon- 
ored and furnished with opportunities for their employment, rather 
than actually acquired and practised. Inearly periods of the republic, 
distinguished merit was rewarded Avith statues. After the second 
Punic war, a great number of splendid works of sculpture were 
brought to Rome from captured cities, Syracuse, Capua, Corinth, Car- 
thage, also from Etruria and Egypt. Likewise Grecian artists 
flocked to Rome, and there produced new works. With the advance- 
ment of wealth the Romans devoted greater and greater expense to 
the ornamenting of their temples, their public and private buildings, 
their gardens and manors, until at length there was a most extravagant 
and luxurious indulgence. 

Edm. Figrelii de statuis illustrium Romanorum liber singularis. Holmiae 
1756. 8. — Lipsii Admiranda s. de magnitudine Romana libri iv. Antw. 1637. 
fol. — Rycquii de Capitolio Rom. commentarius. L. B. 1696. 8. — Sillig, Catalogus 
artificum Graecorum et Romanorum. Dresd. 1827. 

§ 183. The Capitolium, particularly thetemple of Jupiter included 
in it, the Comitium and the Rostra, were in a special manner adorned 
with statues. Inspectors were appointed (tutelarii, aeditui), whose 
business was to guard the edifices thus ornamented from injury and 
plunder, a duty afterwards assigned to a particular magistrate. The 
senate alone could authorize the erection of statues, and the censors 



110 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

corrected abases. Hence is found sometimes on Roman statues the 
inscription, Ex Senatus Dccrelo, E Decurionum Decreto. Statues 
were erected in the colonies and free cities. The buildings and public 
places of Rome were adorned by the first emperors with a great num- 
ber of works of sculpture, most of which however were prepared by- 
Grecian artists. 

§ 184. In the last half of the second century after Christ there 
was an obvious decline of good taste in sculpture, and soon after the 
middle of the third, the art was wholly prostrated, through political 
disasters and other conspiring influences. Esteem for the art and its 
productions was lost, and many unfavorable circumstances happened, 
so that a number of the most valuable works of sculpture were muti- 
lated, buried in ruins, or entirely destroyed. This resulted partly 
from the warlike character of the tribes that invaded Italy, partly from 
the avarice and rapacity of some of the later Roman emperors, from 
frequent earthquakes or conflagrations, from the repeated capture and 
sacking of Rome and Constantinople, and from a mistaken zeal of 
many christians against the preservation of heathen idols and mon- 
uments. 

See-FioriZfo'sGeschichteder Malerei. B. I. p. 11. 

§ 185. Notwithstanding all this ruin, many monuments of sculp- 
ture, and some of them of high excellence, have been preserved. 
Since the revival of the fine arts, which commenced in Italy, the last 
seat of ancient sculpture, these monuments have been diligently sought 
out, collected and described. Yet most of them have suffered from 
time or accident, and very few are wholly free from mutilations. 
There have been attempts to remedy these injuries by rejoining and 
repairing, but without sufficient judgement or skill. For such at- 
tempts require not only mechanical dexterity, but a very correct ap- 
prehension of the exact design of the original artist, and especially a 
capacity to adopt perfectly his manner and style. No modern has 
been more successful in labors of this sort, than Cavaceppi. 

See Raccolta d'aatiche statue etc. resta urate da B. Cavaceppi. Rom. 1768-72. 
rfvol. b ol.— Abh. xiber Restaur, von Kunstwerken, in Propylaen, II. 1. p. 92.— 

v^iqaq "i 1 f ntatl0Iles de statuis acquis mutilatis, recenuori manu refectis. 
V it. loUo. sqq. 4. 

k 186. Of the great number of valuable monuments of ancient 
sculpture we shall mention here only some of the most celebrated, 
such among them as deserve the first rank. 

1. The splendid Group of Laocoon in the Belvedere .of the Vatican 



MONUMENTS OF SCULPTURE. Ill 

at Rome. It is larger than life, wrought of white marhle, not wholly- 
finished on the hack. (S. Virg . Aen. II. 201— 225.— Plin. Nat. Hist, 
xxxvi. 4). It consists of three principal figures, the Father and his 
two sons, writhing in the coil of two huge serpents. This was found 
in the year 1506 among the ruins of the Baths of Titus, and probably 
belongs to the times of the first emperors. The expression of ex- 
treme agony in the features, and muscles of the whole body, especial- 
ly of Laocoon, the struggle to break the dreadful grasp, the cry of 
distress indicated by the mouth, the anxious, entreating look of the 
sons fixed on their father, are among the striking excellencies which 
mark this extraordinary performance. 

Critics however differ in opinion respecting the real design of the 
artist as to the expression and degree of the anguish of the Father. 

Heyne's antiquar. Aufs. St. 2.— Propylaen I. — Hirt in d. Horen v. 1797, — Win- 
kelmann'sWeike. vi. 1. — Lessing's Laocoon, §5. — T. B. Emeric- David Essai 
cited § 175. 

2. The Group of Niobe and her children. Her children being 
slain by Apollo and Diana, the mother through grief was changed into 
stone (Ovid. Met. VI. 148—312. Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 4). This 
work has marks of the lofty style, and is perhaps from the hands of 
Scopas. It consists of five figures. It was discovered in 1583, and is 
still in the Duke's collection at Florence, where the figures are mere- 
ly placed by the side of each other, as their proper arrangement in a 
group is difficult to discover, and even their original connection is not 
fully proved. There is an uncommonly elevated and tragic expres- 
sion in all the figures and great variety in the combination. 

Angelo Fabroni Diss, sulle Stat, appartenenti alia favola di Niobe. Firenze. 
1779 Fol. — Meyer in Propylaen. II. and Bottiger's Amalthea (Musee de l'antiqui- 
le figuree) Dresden 1824. 1. — Winckelmann, VI. 1. — On the moral of -the Lao- 
coon and Niobe, see remarks in The Philosophy of Travelling by T. Johnson, M. 
D. (p. 118 Am. ed. N. York 1831). 

3. The Farnese Bull, the largest of all ancient groups. It consists 
of a bull, two youth larger than life, Zethus and Amphion, and three 
smaller figures, two of which are taken for Dirce and Antiope, repre- 
sented upon a rock. The rock and figures are 12 Parisian feet in 
height, and 9 1 -2 in width. This group was found about the middle 
of the sixteenth century, and lodged in the palace Farnese at Rome, 
and afterwards placed in public at Naples. Many parts of it are mod- 
ern ; of course the expression is defective. Pliny speaks of a simi- 
lar work of art, perhaps it is the very same. 

Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. i— Heyne's Antiquar. Aufs. St 2.—]Rehfues, Neapel. Th. 
3. — Winckelmann. VI. 1. 



11>2 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

4. The Apollo Belvedere, one of the most celebrated of ancient sta- 
uos, on account of the perfection of art diplayed in it. It is an ideal 
of youthful beauty and vigor. It seems to represent Apollo just af- 
ter discharging his arrow at the serpent Python, and indicates in its 
expression a noble satisfaction and assurance of victory. It was 
found at Antium in 1503. It was purchased by Pope Julius II. then 
a cardinal, and placed in the part of the Vatican called Belvedere. 
The legs and hands have received modern repairs. 

Hirt's Bilderbuch, I. p. 32.— Winckelmann's Werke VI. 1. 

5. The Venus de Medici. It is in the grand duke's gallery at Flor- 
ence. It is of pure white marble, and the height of the statue but lit- 
tle over five feet. On the pedestal appears the name of Cleomenes as 
the sculptor, but the inscription is modern. The design of the artist 
was to represent Venus either as just coming from the bath, on the 
point of dressing herself, taken by surprize, and full of virgin mod- 
esty, or as appearing before Paris for his judgment in the contest 
with Juno and Minerva for the prize of beauty. This statue must be 
distinguished from the Cnidian Venus of Praxiteles, of which we 
possess only copies. 

R. Levezow ueber die Frage, ob die mediceische Venus ein Bild der knidishen 
von Praxiteles sei. Berlin 1808.— Winckelmann. VI. 2.—Heyne's Antiq. Aufs. 
St. 1. — Johnson's Philosophy of Travelling, p 121. 

t 

6. The Hercules Famese, formerly in the Palace Farnese at Rome, 
now at Naples. It is a colossal statue, almost three times as large as 
nature, of beautiful Parian marble. The feet were at first missing, 
and others were substituted by della Porta with such art, that the or- 
iginal ones, being subsequently found, were only placed by the side of 
the statue. The inscription names Glycon as the artist, whom, how- 
ever, no antient writer mentions. One admires in this work, the firm, 
vigorous, powerful body, although in repose, resting against the club. 

Winckelm. VI. l.—Dupaty, Voyages d'ltalie. 

7. The antique work called the Torso, in the Belvedere at Rome. 
It consists merely of the body or trunk, of white marble, executed in 
a very superior manner. On account of its size and appearance of 
muscular strength it is commonly taken for the body of a statue of Her- 
cules. It has been called the Torso of Michad Angelo, because he 
particularly admired and studied it. 

See Winckelmanris "Werke, VI. 1. 

8. The Gladiator Borghese, formerly in the villa Borghese at Rome, 



MONUMENTS OF SCULPTURE. 113 

now in the Royal Museum of Paris. This is the representation of a 
hero or warrior, who seems to be defending himself against a cavalier. 
In the opinion of Heyne it belonged to a group. Connoiseurs in art 
do not agree respecting its design. It is a beautiful and noble figure, 
of manly age, athletic, with the muscles in strong tension, yet not 
over-straine'd or unnatural. The inscription on it ascribes the work to 
Agasias of Ephesus, who is nqt mentioned by any ancient writer, but 
certainly must have belonged to the period of the highest perfection of 
Grecian art. 

See Heyne's Antiq. Aufs. St. 2. — Winckelm. VI. 1. — Anthon's Lemp. Agasias. 
— Comp."§168. 

9. The Dying Gladiator (Gladiator deficiens) in the Campidoglio 
at Rome. He lies upon a shield, supported by his right hand, with a 
collar upon his neck, and seems to be exerting his utmost strength to 
rise. Some parts of the figure are modern, but admirably wrought, 
and ascribed to Michasl Angelo. 

See Heyne's Aufs. St. 2. — Winckelmann's "Werke, VI. 

10. Antinous, a very beautiful statue in the Belvedere at Rome. It 
has been considered, although without grounds, as a representation of 
Antinous, the favorite of Hadrian. Winckelmann took it for a statute 
of Meleager, or some other young hero, and admired very much its 
head. It is now quite commonly viewed as a Mercury. 

Levezow ueber den Antinous, dargestellt in den Kunstdenkmalern des Alter- 
thums, Berlin. 1808. 4. — Winckelmann, VI. 1. — Bottiger's Andeutungen. , 

11. A Flora, formerly in the Palace Farnese at Rome (thence 
called the Flora Farnese), now at Naples. The body only is ancient; 
the rest is modern by della Porta ; whence it is not certain that this 
statue originally represented Flora. Winckelmann considered it as 
intended for a Muse. Its principal merit is in its drapery, which is re- 
garded as the best of all ancient statues. It is nearly as large as the 
Hercules Farnese, yet its whole expression is feminine. 

See Winckelmamm 's Werke, IV. 

12. Marcus Aurelius, an equestrian statue, of gilded metal, in the 
square of the modern capitol at Rome. It is much larger than life. 
It retains now but few traces of the gilding, but is otherwise in good 
preservation. Its effect is increased by the pedestal on which it was 
elevated by Michael Angelo. The horse particularly is admired, 

15 



t 



lit ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

seeming actually to move forward, and exhibiting, generally, fine 
proportions. , 

Observations sur la Statue de Marc-Aurele, par Falconet. Amst. 1771. 
Winckelmaim, VI. 

13. The statue of Pallas, found in 1797 in the vicinity of Velletri 
and brought to Paris, where it is lodged in the Royal Museum. 

The Description of the Museum of Napoleon contains a representation of it. 
An account of it is given by Fernow, in N. D. Mercur, v. J. 1798, 

§ 187. Among the valuable remains of antiquity are many busts, 
which, aside from the skill and beauty in their execution, afford much 
pleasure and utility by preserving the features of celebrated persons. 
The correctness of these likenesses is not certain, especially as in 
many cases they have undergone the process of restoration by modern 
hands. Many also exhibit no distinct characteristics, to enable us to 
decide any thing as to the persons they represent. The uncertain 
character of the inscriptions has already been mentioned ; and some- 
times the head and pedestal do not belong together. It may be too 
that the portrait is the mere fancy of the artist. 

Among the most distinguished and authentic are those of Homer, 
Socrates, Plato, Alexander the Great, Scipio, Julius Caesar, and others 
found in the collections of statuary about to be mentioned. There is 
the largest number in the Capitol at Rome ; engravings of these may 
be found in the work styled Museo Capitolino (§ 191). 

See GwliU's Versuch ueber Buestenkunde. Magdeb 1800. 4. 

§ 188. There likewise remains a multitude of works in relief, ei- 
ther in whole pieces, or fragments, on edifices, columns, shields, hel- 
mets, tripods, tombs, altars &c. Vases and drinking utensils, urns 
and funereal lamps, are often found in antiquarian collections, many 
of distinguished excellence as works of art. It would be too long to 
enumerate the monuments adorned with relief, even the most celebrated; 
and we only mention the triumphal arches still existing at Rome, erected 
by the emperors Titus, Septimius Severus, Constantine, and the col- 
umns of Trajan and Antoninus Marcus. 

See Li Bassirilievi antichi di Roma, incisi da Tom. Piroli, colle illustrazioni 
di Giorgio Zoega. Rom. 1808. 2 Vol. Fol. (Translated into German by welcker 
Giessen, 1811.— References in SuUer's Allg. Theorie, article, Flaches Sckaitz- 
werk. 

§ 189. Of the remains of mosaic work, the most beautiful is that 
found at Tivoli, representing four doves around the rim of a vase. The 



COLLECTIONS OF SCULPTURE. 115 

largest is that called the Mosaic ofPraeneste having once been the 
floor of the temple of Fortune in that place. It represents an Egyptian 
festival. It is now in the Palace Barberini, built upon the ruins of the 
temple just named, in the village now bearing the name Palestrina. 
Other works of this kind have heen discovered in modern times. 

See Visconti, Osservazioni su due Musaici Antichi Istoriati (Plates). Parm. 
1787. 4. Giwfttttiber die Mosaik. Magdeb. 1798. 4. —Explication de la Mosatque 
de Palestrine, par M. VAbbb Barthelemy, Paris. 1760. 4.— Cf. § 167.— Sulzer's 
Allg. Theorie, Article Mosaische. 

§ 190. Many collections have been made of remains of ancient 
Sculpture. The following are the most celebrated public collections. 

In Italy we find the greatest number and the most valuable remains, 
particularly at Rome, in the Vatican ; in the Museum of the Capitol ; 
in the palaces, Barberini, Mattei, Massimi ; in the Villas, Albani, 
Ludovisi, Pamfili, and Medici : at Florence in the Gallery of the 
Grand Duke and the palace Pitti : at Naples in the Royal Museum : 
at Portici, in the Museum of Antiquities, where are collected the re- 
mains discovered at Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae : at Venice in 
the fore-hall of St Mark's Library. 

In France the most important collection of the kind is in the Royal 
Museum, at Paris. This collection was greatly augmented after the 
French war in Italy , 1796, by master pieces of art brought from 
Rome and other cities of Italy, and from Netherlands and Germany. 
But on the victory of the allied powers over Buonaparte in 1815, 
these plundered treasures were restored to the places, whence they 
had been taken. Nevertheless the collection in the Royal Museum is 
still one of the richest in Europe. 

In England the chief is in the British Museum, London, where 
are the valuable monuments brought from Greece by Lord Elgin in 
1814 and purchased by Parliament for the Museum. — Interesting 
remains of bas-reliefs are seen in the Arundelian collection, at Ox- 
ford. — Valuable works of ancient art are in possession of rich indi- 
viduals ; among the most distinguished are those belonging to the 
Duke of Pembroke's Collection. 

In Germany, there is a collection at Vienna,, in the Imperial Mu- 
seum, particularly rich in Vases ; at Munich in the saloon of the Pal- 
ace, and the Glyptothek, where are particularly noticeable the Aegi- 
netan sculptures, discovered in 1811; at Dresden in what is called 
the Japanese Palace (a beautiful collection) ; at Charlottenburgh in 
the Royal Mansion, near Berlin ; at Sans-Souci, in the edifice erected 

by Frederic If of Prusssia by the name of Temple of Antiques. 



ll() ARCHJKOLOGY OF ART. 

Farther particulars respecting these collections may be drawn from works of 
Topography and Travels. See, e. g. in reference to Italy, Keyssler, Volkmann 
willi I he additions of Bernmtilli, Count Stolberg, the voyage picturesque by Co- 
chin, letters of Dupaty, &c. A very instructive work, both in relation to this 
point, and in the formation of taste in general, is that of Ramdohr, entitled, 
Ueber Malerei and Bildhauerei in Rom. Leipz. 1799. 3 Vol. 8.— See also, John- 
son's Philosophy of Travelling. N. York. 1831. 8. — Eustace's Classical Tour in 
Italy. — Some account of the collections in Rome, and the places where they are 
lodged, may be found in Descrizione di Roma Moderna formata nuovamente 
con le Autorita del Cardinal Bar onio, &c. Rom. 1697. — For other references see 
Suiter's Allg. Theorie &c. Vol. 1. p. 188. 

Scarcely ariy of the genuine remains of ancient art have been brought to this 
country. In the Boston- Alheneum, are two or three antique bas-reliefs, But 
copies and casts in plaster may serve as substitutes. The Institution just named 
besides a number of busts and other antiques, has also in plaster casts, some of 
the most valued monuments of ancient sculpture, as the Laocoon, Apollo Belve- 
dere, Venus de Medici, The Torso, Anlinous, Gladiator Borghese, &c. (Ms. Lett, 
of Dr. Bass). — The Academy of Fine Arts, at Philadelphia, has also some an- 
tiques, and a number of copies and casts of celebrated pieces. 

§ 191. In order to give those, who cannot visit in person these 
remains of ancient art, some visible representation of them, drawings 
and plates have been published, which are usually accompanied with 
descriptions and critical remarks. Some of the principal of these 
works may be mentioned. 

Raccoltadi Statue antiche e modern e da Domen. de Rossi, colle sposizioni di 
Paolo Alessandro Maffci. Roma 1704. fol. m. — II Museo Capitolino — Museum 
Capitolinum (ed. Boltari, Foggini. et Guerci). Roma 1750—83. 4 Vols. fol. — 
Museum Florentinum, c. obss. H. F. Gorii. Flor. 1731—42. 6 Vols, fol.— Gorii 
Museum Etruscum. Flor. 1737. 3 Vols, fol.— Raccolta delle antiche statue nell' 
Antisala della libreria di S. Marco, illustr. da A. M. Zanetti. Venez. 1740—43. 
2 Vols. fol. — L. Begeri Thesaurus Brandeburgicus selectus. Colon. March. 
1696—1701. 3 Vols. fol. — Veterum illustrium Philosophorum, Poetarum, Rheto- 
rum et Oratorum Imagines, a L. P. Bellorio illustratee, Rom. 1685. fol.— Admi- 
randa Romanarum Antiquitatum ac veteris Sculptures Vestigia, a Petro Sancto 
Bartolo delineata c. n. /. P. Bellorii. Rom. 1699. fol.— Recueil des Antiquites 
Egyptiennes, Etrusques, Grecques et Romaines, par Mr. le Comte de Caylus. 
Paris. 1752—67. 7 Vols. 4.— Monumenti antichi inediti, spiegati ed illustrati da 
Giov. Winckelmann. Roma 1767. 2 Vols. fol. m— II Museo Pio-Clementino, 
descrittoda Giamb. (ed. Ennio Gluirino) Visconti. Roma 1782—1807. 7 Vols, fol.— 
Les plus beaux Monuments de Roma anc. dess. et gr. (par Barbault) Paris, 
1762. fol.— Gallerie du Musee Napoleon, publiee par Filhol et redigee par 
LavalUe. Paris. 1802— 1815. 10 Vols. 8. -Landon Gallerie completejdu Musee 
Napoleon. Paris. 64 livraisons. 4. — 

Description historique et critique des statues, bas-reliefs, etc. du Musee Royal, 
avec des dissertations sur les arts et les antiquites, par A. Lenoir. Par. 1820. 8. 
An English Translation by J. Griffiths.— Musee des Antiques, dessine et grave, 
par P. Bouillon. Paris. 1826. 3 Vols, fol.— Augusteum, Dresden's antike Denkma- 
ler enthaltend, von W. G. Becker. Leipz. 1804—11. 3 Vol. fol— A Description 
of the Antiquities and Curiosities in Wilton house illustrated with xxv Engrav- 
ings of the Capital Statues, Bustos and Relievos, by J. Kennedy. Salisb. 1769. 4.— 
Aecles Pcmbrochianse, or a Critical Account of the Statues &c. at Wilton 
house, by Richardson. Lond. 1774. 8.— One of the best works of its kind is J. J. 
f-Toi <•? Staluae antiqusc Eeri incisse, delineata? ab Edm. Bouchardon. Norimb. 
a ii rru ~ ^Krcte, Handbuch d. philol. Bilcherkunde, Vol. 2. p. 331.— Sulzer 
AUg. ineor. Vol 1. p. 188.— The following maybe added, Dallaway's Statuary 
and bculpture of the Ancients. Svo.—Flaxman's Lectures on Sculpture with 
Plates. 8vo.— Specimens of Ancient Sculpture. (Lond.) Imp. fol.— Visconti and 
Mongcz Iconographie Ancienne. This splendid work owes its existence to 
JMapoleon, and was executed at the puplic expense. It contains portraits of cele- 



ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 117 

brated personages of Greece and Rome, drawn from ancient statues, busts, med- 
als &c. See a notice in the Rcvu .E?icy. Vol. xxvi. p. 427. 



II. — Lilhoglyphy, or Engraving on Gems. 

$ 192. Engraving upon such materials as metals, ivory, shells, 
crystals and gems is a particular application of the general art of 
image-work. It is done either by elevating the figures above the sur- 
face of the material used, or depressing them below. Gems, or pre- 
cious stones (lidov, gemmae), are most commonly employed for this 
purpose, and the art has thence been called Lithoglypby (Xidoylvyia). 

As the stones engraved were very frequently inserted in rings for 
the fingers, the art was also termed by the Greeks daxrvli,oykv<plci. 

The great variety of objects represented by it, the beauty and per- 
fection of the workmanship, and the extensive utility of it in relation 
to literature, render this art particularly worthy of notice. 

See Sulzer's Allgem. Theorie &c. Vol ii. p. 386. 

§ 193. At a very early period probably men became acquainted with 
gems, and in the same way it is likely as with metals, by the subver- 
sion or abrasion of the soil in which they existed. Even the imper- 
fect lustre of the rude gem might attract attention, and accident might 
first suggest the idea of increasing the lustre by friction. It needed 
but a glance at a fractured gem to perceive that it would be rendered 
brighter and more beautiful by removing the exterior surface or rough- 
ness. This was perhaps originally done by rubbing two stones to- 
gether, since, as is known, almost every precious stone may be pol- 
ished by its own powder. The evidence of this early acquaintance 
with gems will be given below (§ 199). 

§ 194. A particular knowledge of the nature, formation, and di- 
visions of the precious stones belongs properly to the naturalist. Yet 
the artist and amateur cannot wholly dispense with this knowledge 
in order that they may judge of the real substance of gems, although 
the design and execution of the engraving are their principal object 
of attention. 

As to the classification of gems the mineralogical systems dif- 
fer in principles, some distinguishing the stones by their elementary 
parts, others by their degree of density and transparency, or by their 
colors. The two last methods are not sufficiently exact, as they are 
not based on essential and exclusive characteristics. 



118 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

Finally hardness, lustre, transparency, and beauty of color are the 
most important peculiarities and recommendations of a gem. 

See F. B. Brilckmann's Abhandlung von Edelsteinen. Braunschw. 1773. and 
Beitrilge to the same, Braunschw. 1778 and 1783. — Also Ernesti Archaeologia 
literaria, ed. Martini. — For a better view of the nature of gems, see Traite ele- 
ment, de Mineralogie, par F. S. Beudant. Paris. 1830, vol. i. p. 704. Cf. Diction- 
naire classique d'Histoire Naturelle, par Audouin &c. Paris, 1828. T. iii. p. 542. 

§ 195. Without going into a full enumeration of all the kinds of 
precious stones, we shall mention those which are worthy of notice 
on account of their use in lithoglyphy. 

The Diamond (dddfiag, adamas) with the ancients held the first 
rank among precious stones on account of its brilliancy, hardness, 
and transparency. Yet it is not certain that they employed it for en- 
gravings. Even the polishing of it seems to have been unknown to 
them, or the art was lost and discovered again about 1476 by Louis 
de Berguen of Brixen. 

The Ruby (nvqundg, carbunculus) approaches the Diamond in 
hardness and often surpasses it in lustre. The Romans named differ- 
ent varieties of this gem rubacellus, palassius, spinellus. Pliny (37. 
29.) mentions lychnis as a sort of ruby. 

The Emerald probably had its name (smaragdus, afidgaydog de- 
rived from juof^aWw) from its peculiar gloss. On account of, its 
beautiful green, both agreeable and salutary to the eyes of the artist, 
it was frequently used in lithoglyphy. The ancients seem to have in- 
cluded under the term smaragdus all gems of a green color, and 
especially the dark Beryl called by jewellers the aquamarine. The 
smaragdites was merely a variety of green marble, which although 
often called smaragdus, must be distinguished from the emerald. 

The Sapphire (odn<peiQog, sapphirus, also xvuvdg, cyanus), of a beau- 
tiful sky-blue color, was esteemed nearly equal to the Diamond. That, 
which had mingled with it tinges of gold, was called chrysoprase 
{XQvaonqaoog). 

The name of Beryl (^gvXlog, beryllus) was given to all transpa- 
rent stones of a pale or sea green. The Chrysoberyl was of a yel- 
lowish hue. 

The Jacinth or Hyacinth (tidxt,vdog) is a deep red, often an orange 
color. The stone of violet hue, to which the ancients gave also the 
same name, seems to have been rather a species of Amethyst. 

The Amethyst (d/usdvatog), violet colored in different degrees and 
shades, was much sought for by ancient artists. A variety of this 
gem, held in particular estimation, they termed noudequg, or avrsowg, 
and the gem of Venus (gemma Veneris). 

The Agate (d%djt]g) received its name from the river Achates in 



GEMS. VASA MURR1NA. 119 

Sicily, where the stone was first found. Agates are of various 
shades in transparency and color. The agate-onyx, with a white sur- 
face and another color beneath was often employed for engraving in 
relief, the surface of the stone being used for the figure. There are 
numerous sorts. 

The Carnelian is so called from its color resembling that of flesh 
{carnis). It belongs to the class of agates. It was very frequently 
used for purposes of engraving, on account of the ease with which it 
could be wrought. 

The Sardine or Sardius (odqdivog, adgdiog, sarda) is likewise red 
and of the same kind as the Carnelian. It is used for seals and sig- 
nets very much, because it is so readily detached from the wax. The 
term Sarda was a common name for every kind of Carnelian. 

The Opal ('ondlfoog, opalus) is ordinarily white, but occurs with 
other colors. It was much esteemed by the ancients. 

The Jasper ( iuanig, iaspis) presents various colors, red, green, 
brown, gray, which sometimes appear simple, and sometimes mingled. 
For lithoglyphy the latter kind was preferred, particularly that with 
red spots upon a green ground, which was also called heliotropia. 

The Onyx (owl) took its name from its whitish red color resembling 
the nails of the hand. That which presents veins of red was termed 
Sardonyx. A kind of marble of similar color was also termed onyx 
or onychitis, and otherwise alabaster. 

The Crystal (xqvatalXog, crystallus) was so called from its resem- 
blance in form to ice (xgvog, xQvaida)). Ancient artists made much use 
of it both in lithoglyphy, and for drinking vessels on which devices 
were to be sculptured. 

In reference to the accounts given of precious stones by ancient writers, par- 
ticularly by Pliny, the 37th Book of whose Natural History is devoted to this 
topic, it must not be forgotten that the names and characteristics therein given do 
not always belong to the very stones which bear those names in modern sci- 
ence. Many of the ancient gems must be distinguished from such as have the 
same names now, but different characteristics. The smallest points of variance 
were sufficient with the ancients to secure to a precious stone a new name. See 
L. de Launay's Tableau de Comparaison de la Mineralogie des Anciens avec 
celle des Modernes, in his Mineralogie des Anciens. Brux. 1803. 

Several precious stones are enumerated in Exodus (xxviii. 17 — 20), by the 
Septuagint thus, OaqSior, xanat,iov, OuaQuydog, av6(>ati, Oanipeiqog, I'aanig, Xiyvqiov, 
hxax^g, hfisdvoTog, xQvooldog, finqvlXiov, Mx<-ov. The list in Rev. xxi contains 
also ^aixjjiwr, aaqSow'g, xQvaonQaoog , vaxirdog. See Epiphanius de xii Gemmis 
&c. on the xii gems in the breast-plate of Aaron. — Gessner, Corollarium to the 
treatise of Epiphanius. 

Some have included among the gems the Murra, or mwrhinum, mentioned by 
Pliny, of which were made the vessels (vasa murrina) so much valued by the 
Romans. But as to the nature of this substance there have been many conjec- 
tures, of which the most probable seems to be, that it was a kind of porcelain. 
' The vases were in such esteem at Rome, in the first ages of the christian era, that 
two of them were bought by one of the emperors at the price of 300 sestertium, 
more than £2000 sterling each. A cup capable of holding three sextarii f4 1-2 



120 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

pints) was sold for seventy talents ; and a dish for three hundred, a talent being 
equal to £180 English.' (Amer. Journ. of Science and Art. Vol xxvi. p. 236). — 
See Graf von Veltheim, Abhandlung fiber die Vasa murrina. Hehnst. 1791.8. — 
Gwlitt, fiber die Gemmenkunde. Magdeb. 1798. i.—Roloff, Uber die Murrinisch- 
enQefaesse der Alten, in Museum der Alterthumswissenschaft herausg. von 
Wolf and liullmawn (Bd. ii).—Launaij, Mineral, des Anciens. I. p. 85. 

§ 196. On these gems the figures were formed either in depres- 
sion below the surface, or in relief above. Those of the first kind 
were called by the ancients, gemma diaglyphicce, insculptce ; by the 
Italians intagli, by the French gravures en creux. Those of the oth- 
er kind were called gemma ectypce, anaglyphies, exsculptce ; the 
modern term is cameo. This word was formed, it may be, from the 
union of two, viz. gemma, onychia, as it originally was applied only 
to gems of onyx having two colors, the figure in relief being formed 
of the upper color and the other appearing in the ground. Or it may 
have come from the name of a shell, Came, which is found on the 
coast of Trapani in Sicily, and which has various figures on it in a 
sort of relief. Where the figure is formed below the surface of the 
gem, the depression is "of different degrees, according to the perspec- 
tive. Sometimes the surface of the gem receives a swelling form 
like that of a shield, to enable the artist to express the prominent parts 
more naturally and without curtailment and preserve a more accurate 
perspective. 

§ 197. The ohjects represented upon engraved and sculptured 
gems are very various. Often the figures transmit and preserve the 
memory of particular persons, remarkable events, civil and religious 
rites and customs, or other matters worthy of notice. Sometimes the 
whole is an arbitrary device of the artist, combining and exhibiting 
mythical, allegorical, and imaginary objects. Frequently we find 
merely heads, of gods, heroes or distinguished personages, either 
singly, or one after another (capita jugata), or facing each other 
(adversa) or turned the opposite way (aversa). The heads usually 
appear in profile. In discovering and explaining the design, it is use- 
ful to compare the pieces with coins and other gems. 

§ 198. Upon many gems are found figures in full length, either 
single or grouped. There, are for example, full figures of gods with 
various costumes, and appendages. Frequently mythical and alle- 
gorical representations are united. Many times the engravings illus- 
trate points of history and antiquities. Festivals, sacrifices, bacchanals, 
feats in hunting and the like are often presented. There are gems 
also with inscriptions, which usually give the name of the artist, but 
not with certainty, because the inscription is so often made subse- 



gem-engraving; Egyptian. 121 

quently to the time of the engraving. Some gems also bear in large 
letters the names of the persons who caused them to be engraved. 

Occasionally the inscription contains the words of some sacred, or 
■votive formula; scarcely ever an explanation of the subject represented. 

See Fr.de Ficoroni Gemmae antiquse literatae. Rom. 1757. 4. 

§ 199. The history of this art has its different periods, and prin- 
cipal changes and characteristics in reference to origin, progress and 
decline, in common with sculpture or image work in general. Like 
the whole plastic art, it depends much on design, and its advancement 
and fall are connected with the same causes. Its progress presents 
the same varieties of style, the rude, the more cultivated, and the ele- 
gant. It is probable, that soon after the discovery of precious stones 
men began to etch upon them, at first, perhaps mere characters or sim- 
ple signs. The Bible gives the earliest notices of the art, in the pre- 
cious stones of the Ephod and the Breast-plate of Aaron (Exod. xxviii. 
17-22), on which were inscribed the names of the twelve tribes of 
Israel. Gems and precious stones are spoken of at a still earlier pe- 
riod (Gen. ii. 12. Job. xxviii. 6. 16-19. Comp. Lev. xxvi. 1). 

§ 200. The Israelites without doubt derived the art from the 
Egyptians, among whom it had been long known, and had been pro- 
moted by their superstitious ideas respecting the wonderful efficacy of 
such stones in the preservation of health, In this view they were 
marked with hieroglyphic characters, and used as talismans, or amu- 
lets. Many of these stones yet exist, especially of a convex form like 
that of the beetle, termed Scarabai (xagafiog) ; however, many of 
them were wrought at a later period, after the time of Christ, to which 
more recent class belong also those called by the name of Abraxas. 

See J. J. Bellermann's drei Progr. tlber die Gemmen mit dem Abraxas- 
Bilde, und zwei Progr. iiber den Scarabaeen-Gemmen. Berl. 1817. 

The word Abraxas, being interpreted according to the numerical force of its 
corresponding Greek letters, o (9 q a £ a g, signifies 365, the number of days in 
the year. It is said to have been fabricated by Basilides, who maintained that 
there were so many heavens, or by some one of the sect called Gnostics. The 
engraved stones designated by this name are supposed to have proceeded from 
the followers of this sect and to have been designed as a sort of amulets or talis- 
mans. Great numbers of them are preserved in the cabinets of Europe. Mont- 
faucon divides them into 7 classes ; 1. those with the head of a cock usually 
joined with a human trunk with the legs ending in two serpents ; 2. those with the 
head or body of a lion, having often the inscription Mithras ; 3. those having the 
inscription or the figure Serapls ■ 4. those having Anubus, or scarabasi, serpents or 
sphinxes; 5. those having human figures with or without wings ; 6. those having 
inscriptions without figures ; 7. those having unusual or monstrous figures. The 
term Abraxas, sometimes written Abrasax, is found only on a few. — The mystic 
word ABPACAJAVPA is supposed to have come from the same sect. An 
amulet was formed by writing these letters in such a way that they should make 
an inverted cone or triangle with the whole word at the base and the letter A at 

16 



122 ARGH7E0L0GY OF ART. 

thenpex; which was done by beginning the word one place farther to the right 
m each successive line and also cutting off at each time one letter from the 
end. This was employed as a charm for the cure of a fever. — See Mowtfaiicon, 
L'Autiquile expliquee. Tom. ii. p 353 (Part. 2. Liv. 3) — Joa. Macarii Abraxas 
s. Apistopistus ; antiquaria disquisitio de Gemmis Basilidianis. Antv. 1657. 4.— 
P. C Jablonsky, De Nominis Abraxas vera significatione, in the Miscell. Lips. 
?iov. (Bd. 7. Th. 1). 

We may mention here a class of engraved stones, sometimes called Socratic, 
having heads of various animals connected with the form or feet of a cock, or 
other devices, among which is found a head resembling Socrat.es. — See Sulzer, 
Allg. Theorie &e. vol. ii. p. 399. — Joa. Chifletii Socrates, s. de Gemmis ejus im- 
agine caslatis Judicium. Antv. 16G2. 4. — Middleton's Antiq. Tab. xxi. sect. 10. cf. 
Doddridge, Family Expositor. Note on Rev. iv. 7. (p. 913. Am. Ed. Amherst 
1833). 

§ 20 1 . Still among the Egyptians, lithoglyphy, like the other plas- 
tic arts, and on account of the same hindrances (§ 169), never reached 
any distinguished excellence or perfection. Stones and gems, adorn- 
ed with figures in relief, were much less common among them than 
among the Greeks and Romans, with whom a greater degree of 
luxury in general favored the exercise of this art in particular. 

§ 202. Among the Ethiopians, Persians, and other nations of 
Asia and Africa, this art must have heen known in very ancient times, 
because their sculptured stones are mentioned by the ancient Greek and 
Roman writers. Persian gems are still in existence of various kinds. 
But the Etrurians were more remarkable. They either borrowed the 
art from the Egyptians.or very soon became imitators of the Egyp- 
tian manner and like them wrought gems in the form of the scara- 
basus or beetle. They carried their skill in execution much further, 
but not to the point of Grecian excellence. We probably have re- 
maining but few sculptured gems, really Etruscan ; most of those so 
called are probably of Grecian origin ; at least the evidence that they 
are Tuscan is very unsatisfactory. 

§ 203. Whether the Greeks borrowed this art from Egypt can- 
not be decided any more certainly than the exact time when they be- 
came acquainted with it That it existed in Egypt at an earlier period 
is unquestionable ; but that the Greeks must therefore have borrowed 
it from that country by no means follows. Probably it arose among 
them as did sculpture. It seems to have been known in the time of 
the Trojan war, although Pliny expresses doubt on the point. This 
writer and others mention, as the most ancient remarkable gem among 
the Greeks, that belonging to the signet of Polycrates, king of Samos. 
It was an emerald or sardonyx on which was carved a lyre. Accor- 
ding to tradition, this jewel, having been thrown by the king into the 
sea to avoid an accident that threatened him, was brought back by a 
fish that was served at his table. The artist who wrought it, was 



GEM-ENGRAVING J GREEK AND ROMAN. 123 

Theodoras of Samos, who flourished about 530 years before Christ. 
The art was at that time quite imperfect, but afterwards advanced rap- 
idly, and reached its highest perfection about the time of Alexander. 

§ 204. In this flourishing time, no graver of gems equaled Pyr- 
goteles in celebrity. While Apelles alone was allowed by Alexander 
to paint his likeness, and Lysippus alone to carve his statue, Pyrgo- 
teles was the only one permitted to sketch his miniature on the pre- 
cious stone. In the same period lived also Sostratus, whose name is 
inscribed on some of the most beautiful gems still existing. Some- 
what later, although it is not certain precisely of Avhat time, were 
Apollonides and Cronius, artists of nearly equal celebrity. Many 
other names of Grecian lithoglyphists occur both on existing ancient 
gems and in ancients writers. Not much reliance however is to be 
placed on the inscriptions (§ 198). Some of these names are, Aga- 
thangelus, Agathopus, Aulus, Alpheus, Arethon, Epitynchanus, Albi- 
us, Evodus, Mycon, Admon, Aetion, Anteros, Goeus, Pamphylus, 
Philemon, Sosocles, Tryphon, &c. 

See Bibliotheque glyptographique par Chr. Theoph.de Murr. Dres. 1804. F— - 
Dissertatio glyptographica &c. auet. Fr. Vettori. R. 1739. 4. — Memorie degli an- 
tichi incisori, chi scolpirono i loro nome in Gemme e Camei. Opera di D. A. 
Bracci. Fir. 1784. fol. 

§ 205. The Romans possessed this art only as the conquerors 
and lords of Greece. Engraved gems were highly valued among 
them, and were bought at exorbitant prices. Yet they can claim no 
proper merit for the advancement of this art, because all, who were 
most distinguished in it among them, were Greeks by birth. Of these 
Dioscorides and Solon, in the time of Augustus, were the best. Gems 
which are engraved in the proper Roman manner, and such are rec- 
ognised by the costume, are not valued so highly as the Grecian. 

It is to be remarked that this art fell at the same time and from the 
same causes, with the other arts. In the middle ages, however, li- 
thoglyphy was not wholly neglected, since to this period belong the 
stones already mentioned (§ 199) as passing under the name Abraxas, 
and designed for magical purposes. 

§ 206. The use of sculptured stones with the ancients was two- 
fold, for seals, and for ornaments ; in both cases it was common to 
make of them rings. The early use of gems for such purposes is 
evident from the passages of scripture already referred to (^ 199). 
For seals the figure was generally cut below the surface of the stone, 
but formed in relief when the stone was designed merely for ornament. 
The ancients made collections of gems, which they termed dactylio- 



124 ARCHJEOLOGV OF ART. 

//n<(r(8axTvlio6^xai^ from daxTiifoog a ring ; artists who wrought these 
gems were from the same circumstance called damvlioyUcpoi. Pliny 
(37. 5) mentions several such collections, and among them that of 
Mithridates, which was brought to Rome to the Capitol by Pompey. 
Julius Ca;sar placed six different collections in the temple of Venus 
Genitrix, and Marcel] us, son of Octavia, one in the temple of Apollo. 
It is however probable that these collections were composed, at least in 
considerable part, of gems not engraved or sculptured. 

On the use of engraved gems for seals and rings, see references in Sulzer's 
Allg. Theorie, vol. ii. p. 394. — Traite des pierres gravees &c. par P. Jean Ma- 
riette. Paris, 1750. 2 Vols. fol. 

§ 207, Respecting the mechanical operations in this art among 
the ancients we are not well informed. They seem to have been sim- 
ilar to the methods of modern artists, except that the ancients perhaps 
had some unknown way of giving to their works their high degree of 
delicacy, completeness and finish. For the ancient gems are certainly 
marked by these excellencies, united with singular beauty of design, 
taste in arrangement, variety in subject and illustration, and truth in 
expression. They are also characterised by a peculiar purity and pol- 
ish, and great fullness and freedom in the sculpture. 

Traite de la methode antique de graver en pierres fines, comparee avec la 
methode moderne, par Laur. Natter. — Engl. Trans. Lond. 1754. fol. with plates. 

\ 208. Yet fixed and infallible criteria cannot be given for dis- 
tinguishing ancient from modern gems or spurious from genuine 
antiques, since modern artists have approached very near the perfec- 
tion of the ancient, and have surpassed those of a secondary rank. 
The discriminating eye and judgment of the connoisseur are formed 
perhaps more by practice, than by any general rules ; attention how- 
ever must be paid to notice the material of the gem, the manner and 
air of the etching, the nature of the polish, and frequently to consider 
and compare various circumstances in history and antiquities. 

See Von Vettheim, Sammlung einiger Aufsatze. Helmst. 1800. 2 Th. 8.— On 
the modes of producing fictitious gems, see Encyclopedia, Edinburgh, or Bri- 
tannica, under Gems. 

$ 209. The study of ancient gems is recommended by its mani- 
fold utility. Aside from the aids to literature and taste which, it af- 
fords in common with the study of antiquities in general, it has an 
advantage from the greater number and variety and the better preser- 
vation of gems, than of monuments of the plastic arts. This gives 
them a preference even before coins, whose impressions, notwithstand- 



PASTES AND CASTS OF ENGRAVED GEMS. 125 

ing any beauty in them, by no means equal the engravings of the bet- 
ter Greek gems. A frequent examination of them may form the 
mind to a quick sense and correct judgment of the beautiful, enrich 
the fancy of the poet and artist, and familiarise the student with the 
conceptions and the spirit of ancient genius. 

See Klotz, ueber den Nutzen und Gebrauch der geschnittenen Steine und 
ihrer Abdrucke. Altenb. 1768. 8. 

§ 210. These remains of ancient art have been rendered much 
more extensively useful from the ease, with which they are multiplied 
by means of imitations. Imitations in glass are the most valuable, 
because in color, lustre, and translucency they can be made so nearly 
like the originals, that it is at first even difficult to distinguish them. 
Something similar was the Vitrum Obsidianum of the ancients. 
Much less valuable are impressions in sulphur and in wax although 
the latter have an advantage in the facility of execution. Very useful 
for taking casts and impressions of this sort is the material invented 
by Prof. Lippert at Dresden, of a fine white substance. Another 
useful material for the purpose was invented by Wedgewood and Bent- 
ley in England, a dark composition formed partly of a sort of por- 
celain earth. 

The impressions of Lippert amounted to 3000 in number, of which 
each thousand was sold separately. The pastes of Tassie of Lon- 
don have acquired great celebrity. His collection of impressions of 
ancient and modern gems amounted to 15,000. 

Respecting the substance termed Obsidianum., see Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 67. — 
Laimay, Mineralogie des Anciens, Vol. I. p. 361. — Comte de Caylus, Mem. de 
l'Acad. des Inscript. Tom. xxx. p. 457. ■■ 

The art of multiplying copies of gems by means of impressions on colored 
glass, or the vitrified substance called paste, is interesting not only to artists and 
antiquaries but also to men of taste. It is of considerable antiquity, perhaps 
practised by the Greeks ; it is mentioned in a work by Heraclius, in the 9th cen- 
tury, De coloribus et artibus Romanorum, and is supposed to be alluded to by 
Pliny, Nat. Hist. 1. xxxvi. c. 26. See Encycl. Brit, under Gems, and Mariette, 
cited § 205, Vol, l.p. 93. — The casts of Lippert show the work perhaps to 
better advantage than sulphurs, but are liable to be injured by rubbing. The 
first thousand of [his series were arranged and described by Prof. Christ of 
Leipsic, and the second and third thousand by Prof. Heyne at Goettingen, in 
a Latin Catalogue (Leipsic, 1755 — 63. 4.) ; a more particular account is given 
by Lippert himself, in German, in his Dactyliothek, Leipz, 1767. 2 Vols. 4. 
and the Supplement. — Wedgewood's impressions are much valued. ' His imita- 
tions of Jasper, by which cameos, and white figures in relief, are raised on a 
colored ground are exquisitely beautiful.' (Silliman's Journal. Vol. xxvi. p. 
244). A Catalogue of the casts of Wedgewood and Bentley was published at 
London, 1790. 8. — James Tassie was a native of Glasgow, resident at London. 
His glass pastes were brought into greater notoriety by the jewellers, who in- 
serted them in seals, rings and other ornaments. An account of his numerous 
impressions was published under the title, A descriptive Catalogue of a general 
collection of ancient and modem Gems, — cast in colored pastes, white enamel 
and sulphur by J. Tassie, — arranged and described by R. F. Raspe,— and illus- 



IJJ6 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

trated with Copperplates, to which is prefixed an introduction on the various 
uses of this collection, the origin of the art of engraving on stones, and the pro- 
gress of pastes. Lond. 1791. 2 Vols. 4. 

Copies of coins and medals are also multiplied by means of casts in sulphur 
and other substances. Such e. g. are the copies of the medals struck in com- 
memoration of events in the life of Buonaparte, a series of 160 pieces; the casts 
form a suite of 185 pieces including several reverses. Comp. Sulzer's Allg. 
Theorie, articles, Abdrucke, Abgusse, Paste. 

§211. CSf the great number of existing ancient gems only a few 
will be named, of such as are the most celebrated. Of this class are 
the following ; the signet of Michael Angelo (cachet de Michel Ange) 
as it is called, in the Royal Museum at Paris, a carnelian, on which 
is represented with masterly skill an Athenian festival, or as some 
think, the training of Bacchus : — a very beautiful Medusa's head 
upon a chalcedony, formerly in the Strozzi collection at Rome, now 
in possession of the Baron von Schellersheim : — the head of Socra- 
tes on a carnelian in the collection Von Mark at Harlem : — Bacchus 
and Ariadne upon a red Jasper in the collection of the Grand Duke at 
Florence : — the heads of Augustus, Maecenas, Diomedes, and Hercu- 
les, inscribed with the name Dioscorides: — a'head of Alexander a 
cameo in Sardonyx, with an inscription scarcely genuine of the name 
Pyrgoteles. 

Among the largest gems remaining are, an onyx in the Imperial 
collection at Vienna, on which is exhibited the Apotheosis of Augus- 
tus and Livia ; the so called Mantuan Vessel, formed of onyx, in 
possession of the family of the Duke of Brunswick ; the Barberini 
or Portland vase already mentioned (§ 1 73). 

See Gwrlitt, tlber die Gemmenkunde, cited (§ 195) p. 23. Winckelmann, His- 
toire &c. L. iv. c. vii. sect. 67. — K. A. Bottiger tlber die Aechtheit und das Vater- 
land der antiken Onyx-Kameen von ausserordentlicher Grosse. Leipz. 1796. 8. 
— Bees Cyclopaedia, Gems engraved. 

It has been remarked that the seal of Michael Angelo affords a notable in- 
stance of the errors and controversies of antiquarians. ' By one the subject is 
supposed to be Alexander the Great represented as Bacchus ; by another, it is 
thought a religious procession of the Athenians, and there are others, who sup- 
pose it simply a vintage, or sacrificial rites relative to the conquest of India. 
But it is said to be proved, that instead of being an antique, this gem was en- 
graved by an intimate friend of Angelo himself. It was bought by the keeper 
of the cabinet of Henry IV of France for 800 crowns, ' and Louis XIV having 
afterwards acquired it frequently wore it as a ring.' (New Edinb. Encyc.) 

§ 212. The most celebrated collections of ancient gems are, the 
Grand Duke's at Florence, which contains 3000 ;— those of the fami- 
lies of Barberini and Odeschalchi at Rome, the latter of which form- 
erly belonged to Christina queen of Sweden ; — the royal Cabinet or 
Museum at Paris; — the collection formerly belonging to the Duke of 
Orleans now at Petersburg : — some private collections in London, 
particularly those of the Duke of Devonshire and Count Carlisle;— 
the Imperial Cabinet at Vienna ;— the collection of the King of Pru- 



PAINTING. 127 

sia, of which the gems formerly belonging to Baron de Stosch forms 
the most valuable part. 

See Gurlitt, as before cited.— On the Cabinet of the Grand Duke see Johnson's 
Philos. of Travelling, p. 118. 

Casts of ancient gems or medals are found in the Libraries or Museums of 
most public Institutions. The Boston Atheneum has several cases. 

§ 213. Engravings and Plates are a useful help in attaining a 
knowledge of sculptured gems. Various works containing plates and 
descriptions of the most remarkable specimens, with historical and 
critical observations have been published. The following are some 
of the principal. 

Gemme antiche figurate, date in luce da Domen. de' Rossi, colle sposizioni del 
P. A. Maffei. Roma 1707-1709. 4 Vols. 4.— A. F. Gorii Museum Florentinum. 
Flor. 1731. 32, fol. T. I. II. — Abr. Gorlai Dactyliotheca, c n. lac. Gronovii. 
Lngd. B. 1695. 1707. 2 Vols. 4. — Gemmae antiques cselatae, scalptorum nomini- 
bus insignitae — delineata? et aeri incisa? per Bern. Picart. Selegit et commentario 
illustravii Phil, ale Stosch. Amst. 1724. fol. — Recueil dej pierres antiques (de la 
collection de Mr. de Gravella) par Mr. Mariette. Par. 1735 37. 2 Vols. 4.— 
Recueil de pierres grav6es (en creux) du Cabinet du Roi, publie par Mr. Mariette. 
Par 1750. 2 Vols. fol. —Descriptions de pierres gravees du feu Mr. le Baron de 
Stosch- par Mr. l'Abbe Winckelmann. Flor. 1760. 4. — Description de principa- 
ls pierres gravees du Cabinet du Due d' Orleans (par de la Chaud et le Blond). 
Par. 1780.84. 2 Vols, fol.— In Germ. Trans, by J. G. Jacobi. Zurich. 1796. 4.— 
Amadutii Novus Thesaurus Gemmarum Veterum, 2 Vols. Rom. 1783. fol. — 
Choix des Pierres gravees du Cabinet Imperial des Antiques, representees en 
40 Planches, decrites et expliquees par J. Eckhel. Vienne 1788. 4.^-Pierres gravees 
inedites, tirees des plus celebres Cabinets de l'Europe, publiees et expliquees par 
A. L. Millin Par. 1817. 2 Vols. 8. — Antiquities explained, being a collection of 
figured Gems, illustrated by descriptions from the Classics, by George Ogle. 
London. 1737. 4.— Of works on the theory of this art, its history, and progress, 
the following may be mentioned. — Theophrasti Eresii neql Xi&viv (lip.iov, in his 
Opp. ex ed. Dan. Heinsii. L. B. 1613. fol. ; also in I. de Laet, de Gemmis et Lap- 
idibus libri II. Lug. Bat. 1647. 8. ; in English, with remarks by I. Hill. Lond. 
1748. ; and in German, with the remarks of Hill and a treatise on the ancient 
art of Engraving on gems, by A. H. Baumgartner. Nornb. 177. 8. — Discorides 
ttiqi v'Zys laTQtxijg, 5th Book. — Pliny, Natural History, 37th Book. — Jo. Kirch- 
manni de Annulis liber singularis. L. B. 1672. 12. — Anselmi Boetii (de Boot) 
Gemmarum et Lapidum Historia. aucta ab Adr. Tollio. L. B. 1647. 8. — P. I. Ma- 
riette cited §206. — L. Natter cited §207. — Introduction a FEtude des Pierres 
gravees, par A. L. Millin, 1796. 8. — Gurlitt, Uber die Gemmenkunde. Magdeb. 
1798. 4. — See also Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, article, Geschittene Sleine. 



Ill: — Painting. 

§ 214. Painting, as a fine art (yQaquxij, ^wy^aqptxTj), is the repre- 
sentation of visible objects upon a plane surface by means of figure 
and color. It is not confined however to the mere exhibition of ma- 
terial bodies and forms; but expresses also their invisible powers and 



128 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

immaterial and spiritual nature and affections, by gestures, attitudes, 
and the like. It also employs the form of sensible objects allegorical- 
ly to signify things very different from what actually meets the eye 
($ 147). 

The real foundation of painting is laid in the art of designing, 
that is, representing objects on a plane by lines and strokes, by the ad- 
vancement of which in correctness and beauty the progress of paint- 
ing must be forwarded, almost as a matter of course. 

§ 215. It has been already remarked ($ 155) that the art of de- 
signing, or sketching, although itis of so great importance as a foun- 
dation and help to all the plastic arts, is yet probably of later origin. 
So the art of coloring merely was doubtless of earlier origin than 
painting, properly speaking, that is, the filling up of an outline 
sketched designedly, with colors suitably chosen and applied. Yet 
the art of designing and painting existed, beyond all question in a 
very early period, although we cannot determine exactly when, or in 
what nation, it originated. It is still a controverted question whether 
it existed in Greece at the time of the Trojan war ; and the negative 
is certainly quite probable. This however would not imply that it 
did not then exist in other countries. 

§ 216. The Egyptians were acquainted with this art earlier than 
the Greeks, although not so much earlier as according to Pliny (Nat. 
Hist. 35. 5) they claimed. Sketching or design seems to have become 
common among them quite early. Originally the art was chiefly 
temple-painting, and we must distinguish between that which is found 
upon the walls of edifices, and that upon mummies and papyrus rolls. 
Painting remained very imperfect in Egypt, as did the plastic arts in 
general. The artists applied their colors in uniform tints, without 
shading or contrast. Some paintings found in Egypt seem to be an 
exception to this remark, but they were probably executed in the time 
of the Ptolemies by Grecian artists. 

That painting, or at least the art of coloring, existed early among 
the Chaldeans and Israelites is indicated by passages in the Bible. 
Ezek. xxiii. 14. viii. 10. Comp. Numb, xxxiii. 52. 

' Egyptian painting seldom, if ever, attempts more than an outline of the object, 
as seen m profile, such as would be obtained by its shadow. To this rude but al- 
ways well-proportioned draught, colors are applied, simply and without mixture 
° r P 160 "^' or the slightest indication of light and shade. The process appears 
to have been, first, the preparation of the ground in white ; next, the outline was 
nrmly traced in black; and, lastly, the flat colors were applied. The Egyptian 
artists employed six pigments, mixed up with a gummy liquid, namely, white, 
DiacKrect, blue, yellow, and green : the three first always earthy, the remaining 



PAINTING AMONG THE EGYPTIANS. 129 

vegetable, or at least frequently transparent. The specimens from which we 
derive these facts, are the painted shrouds and cases of mummies, and the still 
more perfect examples on the walls of the tombs. It can furnish no evidence 
of extraordinary experience or practice, that these paintings still retain their 
color clear and fresh. The circumstance merely shows the aridity of the cli- 
mate, and that the coloring matters were prepared and applied pure and without 
admixture.' 

§ 217. According to the common tradition of antiquity, which 
agrees well with the natural probability of the case, painting or rath- 
er designing took its rise originally from the tracing of the shadows 
of objects upon a wall and marking the outline with carbon or chalk. 
Ardices of Corinth, and Telephon of Sicyon are said to have been 
the first who, by drawing the inner parts, presented something more 
than the outline, and indicated light and shade. The earliest Greek 
pictures were drawn with a single color, and are thence termed f*ov- 
oxQ(i>fiona ; a red color was chiefly used, perhaps because it resembled 
that of flesh in the human body. The first that employed various 
colors appears to have been Bularchus, who lived in the time of Can- 
daules, King of Lydia, about 720 B. C. 

See Caylus, Dissertations rel. a l'histoire et a l'art. — Ramdohr, uber Malerei 
und Bildhauerei in Rom. B. 2. p. 17C. 

1 The first painting on record is the battle of Magnete by Bularchus, and pur- 
chased by Candaules, King of Lydia, for its weight in gold, or as some say, a 
quantity of gold coins equal to the extent of its surface. This establishes the 
first era of the art in Greece.' (Memes, History of Sculpture, Painting &c. p. 120). 

§ 218. The succeeding Greek painters used only four principal 
colors, white, yellow, red and black, which are called by Pliny 
(35. 32) Melinum, Atticum, Sinopis Pontica and Atramentum. Of 
the real nature of these pigments, and of the modes of mixing and 
preserving them we know but little. Oil colors appear not to have 
been known to the ancients ; they always used water colors, to which, 
especially to black, they sometimes added vinegar. They also, espe- 
cially in paintings upon plaster or in fresco, made use of a sort of var- 
nish of wax to increase the brightness and durability of the colors. 
Both these objects Apelles effected by means of a fine black varnish 
which none could imitate. 

See Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxv. 5— 42.— .F. W. Doering Progr. de coloribus Vete- 
rum. Goth. 1788. 4. — Stieglitz uber d. Malerfarben der Griech. und Rom. Lpz. 
1817. 8. — Winckelmann Histoire &c. L. iv. Ch. 8. sect. 31. 

' In the pictures at Naples and Rome, is greater variety of coloring than, from 
some passages in their writings, has been allowed to the ancients. And, indeed, 
unless Pliny be supposed to point out a distinction in this respect between the 
practice of the earlier and later painters, he contradicts himself; for in all, he 
enumerates no less than five different whites, three yellows, nine reds or purples, 
two blues, one of which is indigo, two greens, and one black, which also appears 
to be a generic expression, including bitumen, charcoal, ivory, or lamp-black, 
mentioned with probably others.' (Memes, p. 128.) 

17 



130 AKCH/EOLOC.Y OF ART. 

$ 219. Single pieces of painting were usually executed upon 
wood, and therefore called nivaxsg, tabula. The wood of the larch 
tree (larix) was preferred on account of its durability and its not be- 
ing liable to warp out of shape. They painted more rarely upon lin- 
en cloth; as in the colossal picture of Nero mentioned by Pliny. 
The most common kind of painting was that upon plaster ; which is 
now called fresco-painting; this was executed upon a moist as well 
as upon a dry ground. In this last mode of painting the colors were 
probably laid on with a peculiar sort of glue or size, since in many 
pieces of this kind that have been found, they are so well fixed and 
preserved, that a wet sponge or cloth may be drawn over them with- 
out injury. Previous to the paintings the walls received a double 
coating, and the surface was carefully polished. Drawing on marble 
and ivory was more rare. 

See Rode et Rcirn, de la Peinture chez les Anciens (in Winckelmann's His- 
toire &c. Paris. 1803. vol. iii. p. 59, 137.) 

The terms nival; and mvaxtov seem to have been, applied to any material on 
which a picture was drawn. The easel, or frame to which the material was 
fixed, while the artistwas painting, was called by the Greeks oxoi^ag ; yoayig and 
imoyoaiptg signified the style and pencil; xQwfiara and (p&Qpaxa the colors; 
lilxvBog the box in which they are kept. Eixwv signified a, portrait or likeness as 
well as statue; a mere sketch was termed vxcoyQmp/i ; the art of sketching or de- 
signing, axiayqaifia. 

§ 220. There was a kind of painting peculiar to ancient times, 
called encaustic, which we know only by the imperfect description of 
Pliny (35. 41), who speaks of three methods of it. The first consist- 
ed, it seems, in mingling wax with the colors, and laying them on by 
means of fire and certain instruments called cauteria (xavTrfQia). 
The second was employed upon ivory, and called usatqwgig, because 
the outline was cut in the ivory by a pointed graver (xegrgov, verucu- 
lum), and the colors afterwards applied. The third seems to have 
been a process of laying on melted wax by means of a brush. A 
fourth kind, used in painting upon walls, is mentioned by Vitruvius 
(B. 7. C. 9). Men of science and artists have attempted to discover 
an.d restore this art. 

See Saggi sul ristabilimento dell' antica arte de'Greci e de'Romani pittori, da 
Don Vincenzo Requeno. Parma 1787. 2 Vols. 8. In French, Rome 1786.— Botti- 
ger's Geschichte der Enkaustik der Alten, in Journal des Luxus und der Moden. 
V ' a' l ™-—? ulzer ' s Allg. Theorie, Vol. II. p. 59.— Respecting the peculiar 
mode of painting on glass which was common among the ancients, we know 
little.— See Le VieU,Vz.n de la peinture sur verre, Paris 1774, fol. (Trans, into 
Germ. Nurnb. 1780. — For a historical account of the attempts to restore this 
paintmg, see Fiorillo's Klein. Schrift. artistisch. Inhalts.— Cf. Sulzer's Allg. 
Theorie, Article Glasmahlerey. 

The peculiar mode of representing visible objects termed Mosaic-work, is 
s° me t™es included under th e head of paintmg. It has already been spoken of 
(§107). bee also M. de Vielle Essai sur la Peinture en Mosalque.— Some copies 



PAINTING AMONG THE GREEKS. 131 

of Mosaic ornaments are found in Montfaucon L' Antiquite expliquce, and R. 
Stuart, Dictionary of Architecture. — On the origin of Mosaic, Cf. E. D. Clarke's 
Travels, p. ii. sect. ii. ch. 3 (p. 58. vol. iii. N. Y. 1815). 

§ 221. Our judgment respecting the merit of the ancients in 
painting we derive in a great degree from the unanimous encomiums 
of their writers. We infer it also from their known excellence in 
other arts, which are kindred to it, and, like it, essentially connected 
with the art of designing. From the few imperfect and badly pre- 
served specimens of ancient painting ever seen by the moderns no 
valid arguments can be drawn. Many questions therefore respecting 
the subject of ancient painting remain unsettled, as for example, 
whether the artists understood perspective. Their greatest attention 
seems to have been given to coloring. 

See Caylus, cited § 2ll.—Fiorillo, on the Perspective of the Ancients (in kl. 
Sch. cited § 220).— Memes, History of Sculpture &c. p 127.— Cf. Swlzer's. Allg. 
Theorie. Vol. III. p. 686. 

§ 222. Among the Greeks there were schools of painting as well 
as of sculpture. The four most celebrated were at Sicyon, Corinth, 
Rhodes, and Athens. Hence there were different styles and tastes in 
the art, the Asiatic and the Helladic, the Ionian, Sicyonian and Attic ; 
the three last being, however, modifications of the second. Sicyon 
especially was looked upon as the native land and nursery of the best 
painters. But paintings were not by any means so numerous in Greece 
as were works of sculpture. 

The most flourishing period of the art was about the time of Alex- 
ander. Some of the most celebrated masters were Polygnotus, Apol- 
lodorus, Zeuxis, Parrhasius, Timanthes, Eupompus, Pamphylus, 
Apelles, and Protogenes. 

See, respecting these artists, BOttiger's Ideen zur Archaologie der Malerei. 
Dresd. 1811.8. 

The history of painting among the Greeks is divided by Memes into four periods. 
The first terminated with Bularchus, B. C. 720, whose battle-piece has been men- 
tioned (§ 217). The second period extends from Bularchus to Zeuxis, about 400 
B. C. Polygnotus was one of the most eminent in this period ; his pictures were 
admired by Pliny at the distance of six hundred years. Towards the close of 
this period the pencil is said to have been first used by Apollodorus of Athens 
the instructer of Zeuxis. The third commences with Zeuxis and ends with 
Apelles, who flourished about 330 B. C. In this period great improvement was 
made, in which the genius of Zeuxis opened and led the way. Parrhasius, Ti- 
manthes, Eupompus, and Pamphylus the master of Apelles are named among 
the distinguished painters of this era. The fourth period is dated from the time 
of Apelles. This age witnessed the full glory and decline of the art. Apelles 
is said to have united the excellences which had been separately exhibited in his 
predecessors. His Venus Anadyomene , which was ' long afterwards purchased 
by Augustus for one hundred talents, or £20,000 sterling, was esteemed the most 
faultless creation of the Grecian pencil, the most perfect example of that simple 
yet unapproachable grace of expression, of symmetry of form, and exquisite 
finish, in which may be summed up the the distinctive beauties of his genius.' 



132 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

Protogenes Of Rhodes, a contemporary of Apelles, was next to him in merit. 
Nicias of Athens was a reputable painter. Later were Nicomachus, jPasius 
ami others with whom the art began to decline. 

Respecting the comparative numbers of paintings and statues in Greece the 
following statement is in point. ' Pausanias mentions the names of one hun- 
dred and sixty nine sculptors, and only fifteen painters; while after three cent- 
uries of spoliation he found in Greece three thousand statues, not one of them a 
copy, he describes only one hundred and thirty one paintings.' 

It may be also worthy of remark that the Greeks preferred busts to portraits, 
and this branch of painting does not seem to have been so much cultivated as 
others. ' While Pausanias enumerates eighty eight masterpieces of history, he 
mentions only half the number of portraits, which he had seen in his travels 
through Greece, in the second century.' — See Memes, p. 120, ss. Cf. M. Heyne, 
Sur les causes de la perfection & laquelle l'art parvint chez les Grees, et sur les 
epoques qu'il paroit avoir eu chez ce peuple (in Winckelmarm's Histoire &c). 

§ 223. In Italy painting was early cultivated. Evidence of its 
advancement is given by those rich vases, which have already been 
mentioned (§ 173), which are generally termed Etruscan, but are 
probably the work chiefly of Grecian artists. It may be remarked, 
that the color which fills up the figures, mostly red, or black, was the 
proper ground color of these vessels, and that the color of the sur- 
rounding space was laid on afterwards. It is possible that these 
paintings are copied from larger pictures of the best Greek masters, 
and so may furnish us some means of judging of the conceptions and 
devices of those artists. 

See BOttiger's griech. Vasengemalde. — J. Christie's Disquisitions on the Paint- 
ed Greek Vases. 

$ 224. At Rome also, in early times, there were various paintings. 
But after the subjugation of the Grecian territories they were more 
numerous and more valuable. The Romans however did not labor 
to signalize themselves in this art, but were contented with possess- 
ing the best pieces of Grecian painters, some of whom resided at 
Rome, particularly under the first Emperors. Yet Pliny has record- 
ed the names of several native artists, as Pacuvius, Fabius, Turpilius 
and Quintus Pedius. 

§ 225. But painting, like the sister arts, ere long declined and 
finally became almost extinct, from various causes ; the irruptions of 
the northern tribes, the dominions of the Goths and Lombards, the 
controversy of the iconoclasts in the eighth century, the general cor- 
ruption of taste, and the general want of knowledge and refinement. 
The art was not wholly lost, but the uses made of it, and the perform- 
ances actually produced by it were such as tended only to bring it 
into greater neglect. 

See Fiorillo's Geschichte der zeichnenden Kiinste. Cf. § 184. 



REMAINS OF ANCIENT PAINTING. 133 

§ 226. After the revival of the arts much curiosity was awakened 
respecting the monuments of ancient painting. A considerable num- 
ber, which were concealed in ruined buildings, tombs, and the like, or 
had remained unnoticed, were sought out, and by means of plates and 
copies a knowledge of them was communicated to amateurs of the 
art. 

Among these monuments are the pictures found on the pyramid of 
C. Cestius, of the time of Augustus ; some paintings on the walls of 
the palace and baths of Titus, of which some are preserved in the 
Escurial at Madrid ; some antique paintings preserved at Rome, in 
the palaces Massimi and Barberini, and particularly the piece called 
the Aldobrandine festival, formerly in" the Villa Aldobrandini, now 
in the pope's collection. We may mention as among the most remark- 
able the pictures found in the tomb of the Nasos in the year 1675. 
Many remains of ancient painting were discovered at Herculaneum, 
Pompeii and Stabiae, which are still preserved in the Museum at Por- 
tici. They are above a thousand in number, most of them upon dry 
plaster or chalk, but some upon a moist ground, or proper fresco- 
paintings. Many of them, by being exposed to the light and air, lost 
their colors. Others were mutilated and injured in detaching them 
from the walls, before a safe and successful method was discovered. 

Respecting the tomb of Cestius, see Deserizione di Roma Antica con le Auto- 
rita di Panvinio, Nordini, &c. Rom. 1697. — Winckelmann Histoire &c. L. iv. c. 
8. § 13 Note.— Johnson's Phil, of Travel, p. 178.— Hist. crit. de la Pyr. de C. 
Cestius, par I'Abbe Rive. Paris 1790. — For an explanation of the Aldobrandine 
festival, see BOttiger's archaologiscbe Ausdeutungen &c. Dresd. 1810. 4. — 
Winckelmann, Histoire &c. L. iv. c. 8. § 8. — Of the pictures in the tomb of the 
Nasos, with others, plates were published} by Bartoli and Bellori, with the title, 
Picturae antiquae Cryptarum Romanarum et sepulchri Nasonum. Rom. 1738 [it. 
1750, 1791). Cf. Graevii Thes. Ant. Rom. T. xii. p. 1021, and Winckelmann 
Histoire &c. L. iv. c. 10. § 8. L. vi. c. 6. § 13. 

On the paintings discovered at Herculaneum there is a stately work ; Le Pit- 
ture antiche d' Ercolano — con qualche spiegazioni (di Pasqualo Carcani). Na- 
poli. 1757 sqq. 5 vols. Fol. It is part of the work styled Antichita di Ercola- 
no (§ 240). — On the Monuments of ancient painting see also Winckelmann 's 
Histoire &c. L. iv. c. 8. — There are some notices of paintings found at Pompeii, 
in the work slyled t Pompeii, republ. from Eng. edit. Boston, 1833. with wood cuts. 

§ 227. It will be proper to mention here some of the works that 
treat of the painting of the ancients. 

Franc. Junii de Pictura Veterum Libri. III. Roterod. 1694. fol. in German 
Trans. Breslau. 1777. 8. — Histoire de la peinture ancienne, extraite de 1' histoire 
naturelle de Pline (par Mr. Burand), Lond. 1725. fol. — Geo. Trumbull'sTTea- 
tise on ancient Painting. Lond. 1740. fol. with 50 engravings of ancient paint- 
ings. — History of painting among the Greeks, in J. J. Rambach's Versuch einer 
pragmatisher Litterarhistorie. Halle. 1770. 8.— Riem, uber die Malerei der Al- 
ten. Berl. 1787. 4. ; cf. Winckelmann, Histoire de V Art. (Paris 1803. T. II. 2eP. 
p. 59).— C. A. BOttiger's Ideen zur Archaologie der Malerei. Dresd. 1801. 8. — J. 
J. Grund Malerei der Griechen. Dresd. 1810. 2 vols. 8.— There is a valuable but 
rare work, from the zeal of Count Caylus; Recueil des peintures antiques, imi- 



134 ' ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. 

tees fiddlemenl pom les coulsurs el poui le dessein, d J apres les desseins colories 
faitspar P. S. Bartoti. Paris 1757 (improved 1781) fol.— See Svizer's Allg. 
Theorie, An. Mahierey, 



IV. — Architecture. 

§ 228. Architecture may be contemplated in two different points 
of view, as a mechanic art, or as 3. fine art. In the latter view it is 
to be considered here ; that is, so far as the general rules of taste are 
applicable to it, and it has not mere utility, comfort or durability, but 
rather beauty and pleasure, for its object. Order, symmetry, noble 
simplicity, fair proportions and agreeable forms are the chief peculiar- 
ities that are requisite to render a building a work of taste, and are 
points to which the artist and the observer must turn their attention. 

§ 229. In its origin architecture was only a mechanic art, and 
scarcely deserved that name, i It commenced in the first periods of hu- 
man society, as men must have immediately felt the need of defence 
against the heat of the sun, the violence of storms, and the attacks of 
wild beasts. The writings of Moses (Gen. iv. 17. xi. 4.) present the 
earliest notices of it in the residence of Cain, and the tower of Babel. 
The dwellings of men, after they were dispersed and lived in an un- 
settled state, were at first, it is likely, caves and clefts of rocks, and 
then huts and cabins, rudely constructed, according to the nature of 
the climate and the genius of the occupants, of reed, cane, boughs, 
bark, mud, clay, and the like. 

' There are,' says Memes, ' three grand causes of structure and form in 
Architecture, three leading principles, which not only originated the primeval 
elements of design, but which to a great degree, have governed alt the subse- 
quent combinations of these. This influence extends not merely to the essen- 
tials of stability, equilibrium, and strength, but has suggested the system of or- 
nament. These master dispositions are first, the purpose, secondly, the material 
of Architecture, and^thirdly, the climate.' 

§ 230. In early times wood seems to have been most commonly 
used for the purpose. But the use of this in building presupposes the 
invention of various instruments and tools, which probably were made 
of stone, earlier than of metal (§ 10). Edifices of stone were of later or- 
igin, as the construction of such demands a greater advance in knowl- 
edge. We learn from Moses (Ex. i. 14. v. 7—14) that in his times 
burnt bricks were common in Egypt. How early hewn stone, mor- 
tar and gypsum were employed in building cannot be determined. 



EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 135 

Several auxiliaries seem evidently prerequisite, as, for example, ma- 
chines for collecting the materials, and for working metals, especial- 
ly iron. 

■§ 231. It was in the east, and particularly in Egypt, that archi- 
tecture first reached any considerable improvement, and this was in 
respect of solidity and grandeur rather than beauty. The Egyptians 
in their most celebrated works of this art seem to have intended to 
awaken the wonder of the latest posterity, rather than to gratify the 
taste of the connoisseur. In Egypt, a country destitute of wood, ap- 
pears to have been the earliest and most frequent use of stone, which 
the people could easily transport upon their canals, from inexhausti- 
ble quarries. 

Their most famous structure was the Labyrinth, of extraordinary 
extent, situated near lake Moeris, the work of twelve Egyptian kings. 
Their pyramids and obelisks too, which were probably designed both 
for monumental erections and for display, are ever remarkable for 
grandeur and solidity. 

See, De origine etusu obeliscorum, auctore Zoega. Rom. 1797. Fol. — Grobert, 
Description des Pyramids de Ghize. Par. 1800. (Trans, into Germ. Gera 1808.) — 
Clark's Travels in Greece, Egypt &c. — De l'architecture egyptienne, par Qua- 
tremire de Quincy. Par. 1803. 4. 18 plates. — Belzoni, Narrative of the operations 
and recent discoveries within the pyramids, temples, tombs &c. in Egypt and 
Nubia, Lond. 1820. 

The influence of the material in modifying the style of architecture is exhib- 
ited in the existing Egyptian structures. ' In wooden erections the supporting 
members may be much fewer and less massive than in structures of stone ; be- 
cause in the former, the horizontal or supported parts are both lighter and will 
carry an incumbent weight as a roof over a wider interval than in the latter. 
It is apparent also that in constructing edifices of stone, whether of the perpen- 
dicular or horizontal members, the dimensions would be greater than in eleva- 
tions of wood; and in the case of columnar structures, that the altitude in pro- 
portion to the diameter would be far less in stone than in timber supports. 
Hence the two grand characteristics of a massive or solemn, and light or airy 
architecture.' We see the former exhibited in the ponderous members of the 
mysterious edifices of Egypt. These characteristics appear the more striking 
when we contrast them with structures of that part of Asia which was the scene 
of the events recorded in the sacred Scriptures. Here wood was abundant, 
and was much employed in the most important buildings. In the Temple of 
Solomon, for example, cedar wood was the chief material both for roof and col- 
umns, that is, both for supported and supporting members. And generally, the 
temples of this region ' were more spacious, but less durable than those of Egypt, 
with fewer upright supports'. Hence Sampson brought down the whole fabric 
of the House of Dagon,by overturning only two columns, which would have 
produced but a very partial effect in an edifice constructed on the plan of the 
Egyptian temple, where pillar stands crowded behind pillar, in range beyond 
range to give support to the ponderous architrave. — It is obvious that the style 
may have a different modification, when different materials are combined in the 
same structure, as was evidently the case in the buildings of Persepolis. The 
marble columns were connected by cross-beams of wood and probably supported 
a roof of light structure, and they are accordingly loftier, further apart and fewer 
in number, than in Egyptian buildings. (Memes p. 233 ss.) 

Climate will exert some influence on architecture, chiefly however upon the 
external arrangements ; as buildings will be contrived, according to the latitude, 
to admit or exclude the sun, to give shelter from cold, or secure against heat, or 
merely to afford covering and shade without regard to either extremes. 



13G ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

The purpose of a building, or use for which it was designed, would necessari- 
ly, in an early stage of ortas well as in a later, in a great measure determine 
both the magnitude and the form. The purpose or design of structure is the 
Inundation of a division of Architecture into three general kinds, or grand 
branches, Civil, Military and Naval. The two latter, which treat of ships, 
castles, towers, forts and the like, come not into consideration among the line arts. 
The former is subdivided according to its various purposes into Sacred, Monu- 
mental, Municipal and Domestic. 

Sacred architecture appears among the earliest efforts of the present race of 
man. ' The first impress of his existence left upon the soil, yet moist from the 
waters of the deluge, was the erection of an altar ; and the noblest evidence of 
his most accomplished skill has been a temple,' 

Monumental architecture is also of very early origin. Pillars of stone and 
mounds of earth are the primitive records both of life and death. Mounds or 
barrows have been used for monumental purposes throughout the globe. The 
pyramids of Egypt and India may be considered as mounds of higher art and 
more durable materials. Columns and triumphal arches area species of monu- 
mental structures. 

Under the head of Municipal architecture may be included all public build- 
ings more specially connected with the civil and social affairs of men ; as, e. g. 
halls of legislation and justice, baths, theatres and the like. 

Domestic architecture refers particularly to the dwellings of individuals, 
whether palaces, manors, villas, or common houses. 

§ 230. In Asia Minor architecture must have made considerable 
advances by the time of Homer. Of this there is evidence from the 
descriptions he gives of buildings in both his epic poems, even if we 
allow much for poetic ornament and exaggeration. As examples, 
notice the description of the palace of Priam at Troy (II. vi. 243), and 
of Paris (II. vi. 313), and especially the palace of Alcinous king of 
Phsacia (Od. vii. 85), and that of Ulysses in several passages of the 
Odyssey. The manner also, in which Homer, in these poems and 
in the hymns, speaks of temples, seems to presuppose a construction 
of such edifices by no means rude. 

On the condition of domestic architecture as exhibited in the Iliad and Odys- 
sey, see Memes, History &c. p. 252. Cf. Mailer's Hist, and Ant. of Doric Race 
B. iv. ch. 1. 

$ 233. Yet the art was very far from the perfection, which it af- 
terwards attained among the Greeks. With them, its most flourish- 
ing period may be dated from about the middle of the fifth century be- 
fore Christ. During about a century succeeding this date, or between 
the time of Pericles and Alexander, there were erected in Greece, 
and particularly at Athens, a vast number of superb edifices of vari- 
ous kinds, temples, palaces, theatres, gymnasia, porticos &c. Re- 
ligion, policy, emulation, luxury, all united to encourage and advance 
architecture, which the Greeks were the first to raise fully to the rank 
of a fine art. It was however chiefly upon public buildings that they 
bestowed their care. Private dwellings, even those of the more cele- 
brated personages, and in the most flourishing period of the art, were 
comparatively simple and free from ornaments. 



architecture; Grecian. 137 

For a historical view of Grecian architecture, consult, Mem.es, p. 248. — New 
Edinb. Encyclopaed. Art. Civil Architecture. — On the origin of Grecian architec- 
ture comp. Chateaubriand, Travels in Greece, &c. trans, by F. Schoberl. (p. 354. 
Am. Ed. N. York, 1814. 

§ 234. The countless multitude of divinities occasioned an im- 
mense demand for terrifies ; and those consecrated to a particular deity- 
were, both in number and magnificence, proportionate to his supposed 
dignity and importance. These structures were, in general, not de- 
signed to receive within them assemblies of worshipers, but to form 
as it were habitations and memorials of their appropriate gods. 
Hence they were often small in size. They were usually raised so 
as to be entered by an ascent of steps, ornamented with statues, and 
with pillars erected completely around them, or at least in their front. 
From this last circumstance, relating to the pillars, temples among 
the Greeks received different and distinguishing appellations, e. g. 
neqimeqog, dinxsqog, nqoatvlog &c. according as the pillars were dif- 
ferently arranged. The porch or space in front was called ngovaog. 
In the Dorian temples, the doors were brought to a point at the top, 
and generally, it was by these openings alone that light was admitted ; 
they were commonly lighted also by lamps within. The interior 
was adorned, on the covering and on the walls, with the ornaments 
both of architecture and of sculpture. 

The whole temple was frequently surrounded by an enclosed court (ntQipoXos), 
which often included a grove, statues, and buildings appertaining to the temple. 
Temples were classed by Vitruvius in seven kinds according to the different dis- 
position of their columns. These kinds are represented and explained in Big- 
elow's Elements of Technology, Boston. 1829. p. 136. Cf. Pompeii (cited § 226) p. 
104. 

Among temples most celebrated for their extent and magnificence were, that 
of Diana at Ephesus, those of Apollo at Delphi and Miletus, of Jupiter at Athens 
and Olympia, of Minerva or the Parthenon at Athens. The dimensions of the 
temple of Diana at Ephesus were 425 feet by 220, of Jupiter at Athens 354 by 171, 
of Apollo Didymaeus at Miletus 303 by 164. 

See, Temples anciens et modernes, par UAbbe May. Par. 1774. 2 torn. 8. — 
Stieglitz, Archaologie der Baukunst der Alten. Leipz. 1792. 8. — Hirt's Beschreib- 
ung des Tempels der Diana zu Ephesus. Berlin. 1809. 4. — R. Stuart's Diction- 
ary of Architecture, Word Temple. — For notice of Greek temples, which still 
exist, New Edinb. Encycl. article Civil Architecture. 

§ 235. The ancient theatres were structures of vast extent, some- 
times wholly built of marble. They had on one side the form of a 
semicircle with its ends somewhat prolonged, and on the other side 
the ends were united by a building passing directly across from one 
to the other. The Greek theatre was divided into three principal 
parts. One was the stage or scene (ax^if) in the part extending 
across the semicircle ; this was appropriated to the actors. A second 

18 



[S8 ARCH*;ni,ocy of art. 

was the partoccupied by the spectators, who sat in concentric rows 
(f dwha, ordines) around the semicircle ; this part strictly speaking 
was the theatre (6dcnQov, called also xodov, cavea). The third was 
between these two, and called the orchestra (o^'crr^a), being the part 
assigned to the choir of mimes, singers, and dancers. The seats for 
spectators rose behind each other in regular succession ; they were 
often however divided into two or three compartments, according to 
the size of the building, by means of wide passages (dia^wfiaTa,pra- 
cinctiones) running the whole length oi the seats and concentric with 
them. There were likewise openings or stair -ways (xUfiaxeg) pass- 
ing like radii to the semicircle, transversly to the seats. These free 
spaces facilitated the distribution of the audience. The several por- 
tions or compartments of seats between them (xegxideg) resembled 
wedges in shape, and were called cunei by the Romans. The mag- 
istrates and distinguished persons took the lowest seats, in the portion 
(called fiovlevtwov) nearest the stage. The successive rows of seats 
were, by a definite arrangement, appropriated to other citizens, to youth, 
whose part was called ecpyfiixov, to strangers, &c. Outside of the 
whole part occupied by the spectators there was usually a portico. 

The edifices called Odea, designed for the exhibitions (§ 65) of 
musicians, poets and artists, were constructed in a manner similar 
to theatres. The most celebrated was that of Pericles (' SlSelov) at 
Athens. 

The Greeks usually constructed their theatres on the side of a hill ; and when 
the nature of the place allowed, as atChscronea, Argos and other places, many of 
the seats were cut out of the solid rock. The principal instances now known of 
theatres built on a plain are those of Mantinea and Megalopolis. As to the 
size of Greek theatres, it is asserted that the theatre of Bacchus at Athens was 
capable of containing 30,000 persons. The theatre at Epidaurus is 366 feet in 
diameter ; those at Argos and Sparta were about 500. 

For a more full description of Greek theatres, see Stuart's Dictionary of Archi- 
tecture.— Antkon's Lempriere.— Pompeii (cited § 226) p. 213. — H. Ch. Genelli, das 
Theater zu Athen, hinsichtlich auf Architectur, Scenerie und Darstellungskunst. 
Berl. 1818. 4.— For notices of remains of particular theatres, consult Clarke's 
Travels, Gell's Itinerary, Dodwell's Class. Tour &c. § 242.— Respecting the Odea, 
see Martini, cited § 65. 

§ 236. The Gymnasia, or schools for bodily exercises, first in- 
troduced at Lacedaemon, became afterwards common in the Greek 
cities, and were adopted among the Romans. They consisted of sev- 
eral buildings, or particular parts, united together; as the porches 
(ffroa't), with seats (eSedgai) and side-rooms, which were chiefly de- 
signed for intellectual entertainments; the iyrrfeZov, the place where 
the youth attended to preparatory exercises ; the room for undressing, 
xmqUsiov, yvfivaffTilQiov, used also perhaps as the oq>aiQt,OTri(>t,ov for 
exercise with the ball ; ihedlemT>iQ<.ov, or elaiodeaiov, for anointing 



81 



architecture; the orders. 139 

the wrestlers ; the nuluiarqa, the place of wrestling particularly, and 
of other exercises ; the axddiov, the %voxoi, and other parts. The 
principal Gymnasia at Athens were that of the Lyceum, that of the 
Cynosarges, and that of the Academy (§ 74). 

See Bartkelemy's Anacharsis, ch. viii. — Potter's Archaeol. Graec. B. I. ch. viii. 
Stieglitz Archaeologie der Baukunst. Weimar. 1801,— The details are derived 
from Vitruvius, de Architectura (5th B). 

§ 237. Porticos (atocli, porticus) were very common and impor- 
tant works of Greek and Roman architecture, and were constructed 
either alone by themselves, or in connection with other buildings, tem- 
ples, theatres, baths, market-places and the like. They served at the 
same time for protection against the sun and rain, for secure and con- 
venient public promenades, for common places of resort where friends 
might meet, and philosophers, especially the Peripatetics, imparted in- 
struction. They consisted of columns or pillars, with greater or less 
spaces between them (intercolumnia), where statues were often fixed, 
while the interior was decorated with paintings. They were not al- 
ways covered above, but were generally long and spacious. There 
was one at Rome a thousand paces in length, and thence termed Por- 
ticus Milliaria. One of the principal at Athens was that styled 
Facile {$ 74). 

\ 238. There were three forms of pillars (cmjAat, oxvloC) in use 
among the Greeks, commonly called the three orders of architecture ; 
the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. A particular explanation of these 
belongs to the theory of the art, rather than to its archaeology. The 
Doric exhibits the greatest simplicity and solidity ; the Ionic has pro- 
portions more agreeable and beautiful ; the Corinthian is most highly 
ornamented, and was less frequently employed in large and public 
buildings. The two other orders, Tuscan and Composite, are not of 
Grecian origin ; the former was, as its name imports, from Etruria, 
the latter was of Roman invention. 

The best specimens of the Doric' order are found in the Parthenon, the Pro- 
pylaea, and the Temple of Theseus, at Athens; of the Ionic in the edifice called 
Erectheum, at Athens, consisting of two, and according to some of three tem- 
ples ; of the Corinthian, in the choragic monument of Lysierates, the small but 
elegant structure, at Athens, sometimes called the Lamp of Demosthenes. 

For a brief account of the five orders of Architecture, see Eigelow's Tech- 
nology, containing views of several Greek and Roman structures, on the same 
scale. For explanation of terms, illustrated by plates, Slvart's Dictionary. 

§ 239. Various ornaments, exterior and interior, were used in 
ancient architecture. In the best periods of the art they were intro- 
duced with propriety, taste, and in moderate number, but in later times 



140 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

too abundantly, and so as to destroy both beauty and convenience. 
The exterior ornaments consisted e. g. of statues upon the ends of the 
buildings, bas-reliefs on the architrave, imitations of human forms 
combined with the pillars, like the Caryatides and Atlantes ; with 
various embellishments on the capital and entablature, and about the 
doors, vaults, and other openings. In the interior, the ceiling and 
walls were ornamented with stucco-work, gilding, painting, and mo- 
saic. The ordinary decoration of an apartment consisted in coloring 
the walls and attaching to them small pictures of diversified character. 
Ceilings adorned with fretwork were called by the Greeks qxxTvwftaza, 
by the Romans tecla laqueata or lacunaria. 

See Observations sur l'Architecture des anciens, Oh. ii. in Winchelmann His- 
toire d l'Art. (Par. Ann. He de la Rep. Vol. ii. p. 627.)— See notices of orna- 
ments in the buildings at Pompeii, in Pompeii (cited § 2261 p. 449, 156 163, 166 
et al. L. VuUiamy, Examples of Ornamental Sculpture in Architecture drawn 
from the originals in Greece &c. engraved by A. Moses. Lond. 1828. fol.40 plates. 
C. H. Tatham, Grecian and Roman Ornaments, 1825, foJ. 96 plates. 

§ 240. The most celebrated Greek architects were Dcedalus, to 
whom are attributed many of the most ancient and extensive structures 
of Greece, with much exaggeration and mere fable however (§ 174); 
Ctesiphon or Chersiphron, celebrated as builder of the Temple of Di- 
ana at Ephesus ; Callimachus (not the poet), who was also a sculp- 
tor, and said to be the inventor of the Corinthian Order ; Dinocrates, 
Avho lived in the time of Alexander and was employed by him in 
building Alexandria in Egypt ; Sostratus, a favorite of Ptolemy Phil- 
adelphus, who erected the celebrated tower of Pharos ; Epimachus, 
an Athenian, known by a stupendous war-tower constructed by him 
for Demetrius Poliorcetes in the siege of Rhodes. 

Memorie degli Architetti antichi e moderni, da Franc. Milizia. Parm. 1781. 2 
vols. 8. — A catalogue of Greek and Roman architects may be found in Junius, 
de Pictura Veterum. Rot. 1694. fol. — also in Stuart's Dictionary (Appendix No. 
1), with a notice of their works and the time when they nourished. 

§ 241. In Italy, almost as early as in Greece, architecture was 
cultivated, especially in Etruria. The Tuscan order is among the 
proofs of this. In the early times of Rome also many temples and 
other buildings were erected thereby native art. But their architect- 
ure was greatly improved afterwards, when the Romans imitated 
Grecian models, and many Greek architects of celebrity resided in 
Rome. As the power, refinement, and luxury >of Rome advanced, 
splendid architectural works were multiplied, and thus arose in rapid 
succession temples, amphitheatres, markets, baths, bridges, aqueducts, 
palaces, manors &c. These buildings were magnificent not only 






architecture; roman. 141 

from their architecture, but in their various embellishments, for which 
the other arts, especially sculpture and painting, were brought into 
requisition. Details respecting the names, arrangements, and uses 
of these structures belong properly to the subject of antiquities. 
Here we only mention the most distinguished Roman architects, who 
were, it must be observed, in part Greeks by birth, or scholars and 
imitators of Grecian masters ; Cossutius, Hermodorus, Vitruvius, 
Rabirius, Frontinus, Apollodorus. 

No specimen ot the Tuscan order has come down to us, as time has not spared 
a single edifice of the Etrurians. Some sepulchres exist in Italy whose architect- 
ure agrees with the character ascribed to the Tuscan buildings.— Mutter, Die 
Etrusker. Cf. § 109, 173. 

' Although to the Etruscans, and subsequently to the early Romans, an order 
has been ascribed, no specimen of this Tuscan capital has come down to our 
times, and consequently there exist no means of tracing the narrative or de- 
scriptions of Vitruvius. But by the account even of this native writer, the pub- 
lic buildings of the regal and consular times were rude enough, exhibiting a 
state of the science as already described among the early nations of the East — 
vertical supports of stone, with wooden bearers. This continued to be their 
style of design and practice, till extending empire brought the Romans ac- 
quainted with the arts of the Dorian settlements on the east and southern shores 
of Italy. Down to the conquest of Asia and the termination of the republic, 
Rome continued a 'city of wood and brick.' Only with the establishment of the 
empire and the reign of Augustus, with the wealth of the world at command, 
and the skill of Greece to direct the application, commences the valuable history 
of architecture among the Romans. — Of all the fine arts — poetry not excepted — 
architecture is the only one info which the Roman mind entered with the real 
enthusiasm of natural and national feeling. Success corresponded with the ex- 
alted sentiment whence it arose ; here have been left for the admiration of fu- 
ture ages, the most magnificent proofs of original genius. This originality, 
however, depends not upon invention so much as upon application of modes. To 
the architectonic system, indeed, the Romans claim to have added two novel ele- 
ments in their own Doric, or Tuscan, and Composite orders. But in the restless 
spirit of innovation which these betray, the alleged invention discovers a total 
want of the true feeling and understanding of the science of Grecian design. — 
As far, as concerns the invention of forms, and the just conception of the ele- 
mental modes of Greece, the Romans failed. Their architecture was imperfect, 
both as a system of symmetry, and as a science founded upon truth and taste. 

But when their labors are viewed as regards the practice of the art, their mer- 
its are presented under a far different aspect. Whether the magnitude, the util- 
ity, the varied combinations, or the novel and important edifices of their knowl- 
edge, be considered, the Romans, in their practical works, are yet unrivalled. 
They here created their own models, while they have remained examples to 
their successors. Though not the inventors of the arch, they, of all the nations 
of antiquity, first discovered and boldly applied its powers ; nor is there one dig- 
nified principle in its use which they have not elicited. Rivers are spanned ; 
the sea itself, as at Ancona, is thus enclosed within the cincture of masonry ; 
nay, streams were heaved into air, and, borne aloft through entire provinces, 
poured into the capital their floods of freshness, and health. The self-balanced 
dome, extending a marble firmament over head, the proudest boast of modern 
skill, has yet its prototype and its superior in the Pantheon. 

The same stupendous and enduring character pervaded all the efforts of Ro- 
man art, even in those instances where more ancient principles only were brought 
into action. Where the Greeks were forced to call the opei ations of nature in 
aid of the weakness of art, availing themselves of some hollow mountain side 
for the erection of places of public resort, the imperial masters of Rome caused 
such mountains to be reared of masonry, within their capital, for the Theatre, 
Amphitheatre, and Circus. Palaces — Temples— Baths— Porticos— Arches of 
Triumph — Commemorative Pillars— Basilica, or Halls of Justice — Fora. or 



I 13 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

gnuares— Bridges— without mentioning the astonishing highways, extending to 
the extremities'of the empire— all were constructed on the same grand and mag- 
Dificent plan.' Mmss p. '270. CI. on the grandeur of Grecian works, Chateaubri- 
and (cited §'233) p. 140.— On Roman Architecture, see also Schasll, Hist. Litl. 
Rom. Vol. IT. p. 191. 

$ 242. The strength and solidity of Greek and Roman edifices 
wore such as to have easily preserved them to distant ages, had it not 
been for earthquakes, conflagrations, and the desolations of war. 
The remains of ancient architecture yet standing, especially in Greece 
and Italy, are highly interesting. Only some of the principal can 
here be named. At Athens we see still the ruins of the celebrated 
temple of Minerva, and traces of other beautiful temples at iEgina, 
Eleusis, Corinth, Thessalonica, Ephesus, Priene, Antioch &c. ; ruins 
of theatres are found at Athens, Smyrna, Mylasa, Hierapolis ; of pal- 
aces and royal mansions at Alabanda, Ephesus, Magnesia. — Magnif- 
icent ruins of cities remain on the sites of Palmyra, Heliopolis, 
Persepolis. In Egypt monuments of earlier and later architecture 
are presented in temples, obelisks and pyramids. Still more numerous 
and in better preservation are the remains of Roman architecture ; e. 
g. at Rome, the Pantheon, the temple of Vesta, several porticos, the 
Coliseum or amphitheatre of Vespasian, ruins of the theatres of 
Pompey and Marcellus, of splendid aqueducts, the baths of the Em- 
perors, the pillars and triumphal arches already named (§ 188), gates, 
bridges, tombs, mausolea &c. France exhibits some monuments of 
Roman architecture, particularly at Nismes ; some remains also, chief- 
ly of military structures, have been found in England. 

Besides the numerous accounts of these various remains given by modern trav- 
elers, there are works prepared expressly to make them known ,with engravings 
and explanations ; such are the following. 

1. Remains in Greece or of Grecian architecture. LesRuines des plus beaux 
monumens de la Grece, par le Roy (or Leroi). 1758. 2d ed. 1770. 2 Vols. Fol. 
the first picturesque tour of Greece ; the drawings not always accurate. — Ruins 
of Athens by Robert Sayer. Lond. 1759. Fol. — The Antiquities of Athens, by 
StAiart and Revett. Lond. 1762—1816.4 Vols, fol.— The same, edited by W. Kin- 
nard, with many valuable additions. 1825 — 30. 4 vols. fol. 200 plates. — Ionian 
Antiquities, by Chandler, Revett, and Pars. Lond. 1769-97. 2 vols. fol. — The 
same, 1817. 2 vols. imp. fol. with fine plates. — Voyage pittoresque de la Grece, 
par Choiseul-Gou&er. Par: 1782. fol.— Atheniensia, or remarks on the Topogra- 
phy and buildings of Athens by Wilkins. 1816. 8.— The unedited Antiquities of 
Atica. By the Society of Dilettanti, and edited by Wilkins, Deering, and Bed- 
ford, 1817. imp. fol. 79 plates. — Olympia, or Topography illustrative of the 
ancient state of the plain of Olympia, by J. S. Stanhope, 1824. imp. fol. with 
fine plates.—/?. C. Cockerell, Grand Restoration of Athens, its Temples, Sculp- 
ture &c. Engraved by J. Coney. 1829. large fol.— By the same, Elucidation of the 
temple of jEgina— Architectural Monuments of Greece and Sicily, by F. Gart- 
ner. Munster. 1819. fol. in German, with lithographed plates.— The Antiquities 
of Magna Graecia, by Wm. Wilkins. Cambridge, 1807. M.—Delagardettc, Les 
RuinesdePaestum.ouPosidonia. Par. 1799. fol.— J. Hitlorfs, Architecture An- 
tique de la Sicile. Par. 1825-30. 6 livraisons, with plates.— Galerie Antique, ou 
Collection des Chefsd'ceuvres d' Architecture, de Sculpture, et de Peinture an- 
tiques. Paris. 12 parts in 1 vol. folio pertaining to Architecture. 



REMAINS OF ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. 143 

In a Memoir prefixed to Chateaubriand's Travels in Greece &c. is found a 
brief notice of the state of Athens and her monuments since the Christian era, 
and of the travelers who have visited and described the remains of Greece. He 
closes with the following remark. ' It is a melancholy reflection, that the civi- 
lized nations of Europe have done more injury to the monuments of Athens in 
the space of one hundred and fifty years than all the barbarians together for a 
long series of ages ; it is cruel to think that Alaric and Mahomet II respected 
the Parthenon, and that it was demolished byMorosini and lord Elgin.' — Several 
travelers must be added to Chateaubriand's list. 

2. Remains in Italy. Le antichita Romane opera di Giamb. Piranesi. Rom. 
1756. 4 vols. fol. — Descrizione topografica ed istorica di Roma antica e moderna, 
da R, Vermti. Rom. 1763, 66. 2 vols. 4. — Le plus beaux monumens de Rome anci- 
enne,par Barbault. Rom. 1761. fol.-<-Veteris Latii antiquitatum amplissima col- 
lectio, ed. R. Venuti. Rom. 1769-80. 7 vols. fol. — Les edifices antiques de Rome, 
dessines &c. par Ant. Desgodetz. Par. 1682, it. 1697. it. 1779. fol, English tr. by 
G. Marshall, 1771. 2 vols. fol. — Raccolta de' tempi antichi, opera di Fr. Piranesi. 
Rom. 1780. fol. — The complete works of Giov. B. {John Baptist) Piranesi, pub- 
lished after his death, by his son Francis Piranesi, in 29 Vols. fol. containing 
nearly 2000 plates. (For contents of these vols, see Stuart's Dictionary, Appen- 
dix II, where is a catalogue of Works relating to Architecture, arranged in 13 
classes). — Architectural Antiquities of Rome, by G. L. Taylor and E. Cresy. 
Lond. 1821 ss. 2 vols. imp. foL — G. Valadier, Raccolta delle piu insigni Fab- 
brichediRoma Antichaesue Adjacenze. Rom. 1810-26. imp. fol. 63 plates. — 
Antichita d'Ercolano &c. (with a vast number of Engravings from the busts, 
bas-reliefs, statues, paintings, buildings &c. discovered in the ruins of Herculane- 
um). Napol. 1765-92. 9 vols. fol. — Pompeiana, the Topography, Edifices and 
Ornaments of Pompeii, by Sir W. Gell and J. P. G. Deering. Lond. 1824. 2 vols. 
imp.oct.-Ruinesde Pompeii, by F. Mazois. Par. 1830. 31 livraisons.-Pompeii, cit- 
ed § 226.-Ant. Nibby, Del Foro Romano, della Via Sacra &c. Rom. 1819. 8.-Archi- 
tectural remains in Rome, &c. from drawings by Clerisseau, under direction 
of Robert Adam (also author of Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian , with 61 plates. 
Lond. 1764. Cf. Gibbon Hist. Rom. Emp. Ch. xiii). — Rossini, Veduta di Roma, 
101 large folio Views of the most remarkable antiquities and buildings in Rome 
and its neighborhood. Rom. 1823. 4. — Montfaucon's Antiquitee expliquee. 

3. Remains in other countries — Cassas, Voyage Pittoresque de la Syrie, de 
la Phenicie, de la Palestine et de la Basse Egypte. 2 vols. fol. with many plates. — 
R. Wood, Ruins of Palmyra. Lond. 1753. fol. By same, Ruins of Balbee. Lond. 
1757. fol. — F. C. Gau, Antiquities de la Nubia. Paris. 1824. fol. — Voyages dans 
La Basse et la Haute Egypte par Denon. — The ancient and royal Palace of Per- 
sepolis, destroyed by Alexander the Great. Lond. 1739. 21 plates. — Seynes, Mon- 
umens Romains de Nismes. Par. 1818. fol. 16 plates. — Various notices of Ro- 
man Remains in England are found in the Work styled Archaeologia, or Miscel- 
laneous Tracts retaining to Antiquity, published by the Society of Antiquaries. 
Lond. 1793 ss. 22 vols. 4. — See Catalogue already mentioned in Stuart's Dic- 
tionary. 

It will be proper to add in this place some of the principal works pertaining 
to the history and theory of Architecture. — Observations sur les edifices des an- 
ciens peuples, par C. Roy. Par. 1768. 4. — Stieglitz, Geschichte der Baukunst der 
Allen. Leipz. 1792. 8. — By same, Archaologie der Baukunst der Griechen und 
Romer. Weimar 1801. 8. A. Hirt, die Baukunst nach den Grundsatzen der Al- 
ten. Berl. 1809. fol. 50 plates. By same, Geschichte der Baukunst bei den Alten. 
Berl. 1821. 2 vols. 4.— Goguet De l'Origin &c. cited § 32.— L. Le Brun, Theorie 
de l'Architecture Grecque et Romaine &c. Par. 1807. fol. 26 plates. — Vitruvius' 
Civil Architecture, translated by W. Wilkins, containing the Earl of Aberdeen's 
Inquiry into the Beauty of Grecian Architecture. Lond. 1812-17. 2 vols. 4. 41 
plates. — New Parallel of the Orders of Architecture, according to the Greeks 
and Romans and modern Architects, translated by Mr. Pugin from the French 
by C. Normond. Lond. 1829. fol. 62 plates. — Rudiments of Architecture, practi- 
cal and theoretical, by Jos. Gwilt. F, S. A. Lond. 1826. 8. with plates and vig- 
nettes. — /. Rondelet, Traite Theorique et Pratique de l'Art de Batir. Par. 1829, 30. 
6 vols. 4. with plates. 

§ 243.* Although, strictly speaking, it is only classical art that 
belongs to our subject, it may not be out of place to allude here to a 



144 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. 

style of architecture, which grew up after the dismemberment of the 
Roman Empire. ' The arts degenerated so far that a custom became 
prevalent of erecting new buildings, with the fragments of old ones, 
which were dilapidated and torn down for the purpose. This gave 
rise to an irregular style of building which continued to be imitated, 
especially in Italy, during the dark ages. It consisted of Grecian 
and Roman details, combined under new forms, and piled up into 
structures wholly unlike the antique originals. Hence the names 
Greco-Gothic and Romanesque architecture have been given to it. It 
frequently contained arches upon columns forming successive arcades, 
which were accumulated above each other to a great height. The 
effect was sometimes imposing.' 

The Cathedral and Leaning Tower at Pisa, and the Church of St. Mark at 
Venice are named as the best specimens of the Greco-Gothic style. The ancient 
saxon architecture in England was in some respects similar, as e. g. in the Ca- 
thedral at Ely, which exhibits arches upon columns. The same peculiarity 
is seen in some remains of Diocletian's palace at Spalatro. 

Besides the different styles which have been named, Egyptian, Grecian, Ro- 
man, and Greco-Gothic, we may mention, the Saracenic, Gothic, and Chinese, 
'The Chinese have made the tent the elementary feature of their architecture, 
and of their style any one may form an idea by inspecting the figures which are 
depicted upon common China ware. The Chinese towers and pagodas have 
concave roofs, like awnings, projecting over their several stories. The lightness 
of the style used by the Chinese leads them to build with wood, sometimes with 
brick, seldom with stone.' 

The Saracenic style is distinguished by a peculiar form of the arch, which is a 
curve constituting more than half a circle or ellipse. It is exhibited in the buildings 
of the Moors and Saracens in Spain, Egypt and Turkey. A flowery ornament 
called Arabesque is common in the Moorish buildings. The Alhambraat Grena- 
da furnishes a specimen of this style. — The Minaret, a tall slender tower, appears 
in the Turkish mosques. 

The Gothic style is not so called in order to designate a mode of building de- 
rived from the Goths. The name was first applied as a term of reproach to the 
edifices in the middle ages, which were at variance with antique models. It is 
now chiefly employed to designate a style of building religious edifices introduc- 
ed in England six or eight centuries ago and adopted, nearly at the same time, in 
Prance, Germany and other parts of Europe. ' Its principle seems to have orig- 
inated in the imitation of groves, and bowers, under which the Druids per- 
formed their sacred rites. Its characteristics, at sight, are its pointed arches, its 
pinnacles and spires, its large buttresses, clustered pillars, vaulted roofs, profu- 
sion of ornaments, and the general predominance of the perpendicular over the 
horizontal.'— Bigelow's Technology. Ch. vii. 



PART II. 



HISTORY 



OF 



ANCIENT LITERATURE, 
GREEK AND ROMAN. 



19 



HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 



Introduction. 

§ V. The Greeks, beyond any other nation of antiquity, enjoyed 
a happy union of important advantages for the promotion of civiliza- 
tion and literature. The nature of their country, washed on every 
side by the sea, with its coasts formed into numerous gulfs and penin- 
sulas, afforded the people peculiar facilities for mutual intercourse. 
The singular mildness of their climate was such as to favor the 
happiest developement of the physical and intellectual powers, unit- 
ing a vigorous constitution with a lively imagination and profound 
sensibility. Their free forms of government afforded powerful motives 
to stimulate exertion. The commerce with foreign countries fur- 
nished a source of favorable influences. Equally favorable were the 
high honors and substantial rewards bestowed on knowledge and 
merit. Some have supposed that the existence of slavery contributed 
to the literary advancement of the Greeks, as it left the citizens more 
leisure for public life and study. But a more fortunate circumstance 
was, that oriental influence never established among the Greeks any 
thing like the system of casts, which prevailed in Egypt and some of 
the Asiatic states, and which confined the arts and sciences by a sort 
of hereditary right to the priests. The plan and scope of Grecian 
education deserves also to be mentioned here. It was in general 
more adapted to the common purposes of the whole community than 
in modern times, and was less modified by the individual and private 
aim of the pupil. The apparent good of the state was the object 
constantly in view. This gave to all their ideas and efforts not only 
a definite direction, but also a liberal and diffusive character. 

Comp. remarks on Greek and Roman education in Good's Book of Nature, 
Lect. XI. 



148 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE- 

s \ 2. In this last circumstance we find one obvious source of the 
permanent excellence and utility of the Greek writers and their 
works. Here was a foundation for their pre-eminent and lasting re- 
nown. No nation in the history of letters is so celebrated as the 
Greeks. And hence the imperious obligation laid upon every one, 
who makes any pretensions to literature, to acquaint himself with the 
language and the most valuable productions of the ancient Greeks. 
This knowledge is alike essential to the statesman, the orator, the phy- 
sician, the theologian, philosopher, historian and antiquarian; to the 
polite scholar and the philologian, to the connoiseur and the artist, it 
is absolutely indispensable. 

See an elegant and masterly discussion on the study of Greek Literature by 
Rev Mr. Cheever, in the American Quarterly Register, Vol. iv. p 273. V. p. 33. 
218. The writer aims 'to prove that Greek Literature ought to be profoundly 
studied —First, for the native excellence of the Greek classics; Second, for the 
invigorating discipline which this study affords the mind; Third, for the prac- 
tical knowledge and mastery of our own native language ; Fourth, and most 
important, as a preparation for the study of theology.'— References on the im- 
portance and value of classical literature in Fuhrmann's Handbuch zurKentniss 
der griech. und rom. Schriftsteller. Einleit. p. 5-8— Cf. P. I. § 29. 

§ 3. But independent of these considerations, the language itself 
presents sufficient inducements to the study ; such is its own intrinsic 
beauty; the high degree of perfection it exhibits, above all other lan- 
guages ; its unequalled richness in the most significant words and 
combinations, its symmetrical structure and syntax, its elegance in 
turns of expression, the singular skill in the arrangement of its par- 
ticles, clauses and members, and its wonderful harmony in prose as 
well as poetry. These are excellences, which impart to the best works 
of the Greeks a charm in outward dress fully corresponding to the 
value of their contents. 

See T.G. Trendelenburg's Vergleichung der VorzUge der deutschen Sprache 
mit den Vorz. der lat. und griech. im Vierten Bande der Schriften der deutschen 
Gesellsch. zu Mannheim. Frankf. 1788. 8.— Aug. Schelz, Versuch fiber den 
Werth der alten Sprachen und das Stud, der Lit. der Griech. fur Jurist. Frankf. 
a. d. 0, 1810. 8.— Cf. P. I. § 39.— Coleridge, Study of Gk. Poets, P. I. p. 34. 

§ 4 £ . Respecting the origin of the Greek language and the causes 
of its perfection we have already remarked (P. I. §§ 35-39). Here 
we may further remark, that in the different provinces and settlements 
of the Greeks arose those differences in their language, which are 
named dialects. The principal, which are found in written composi- 
tion, are four, the iEolic, Doric, Ionic and Attic. 

The iEolic prevailed in the northern parts of Greece, in some north- 
ern islands of the Mgean sea, and especially in the iEolic colonies in 
the northwestern part of Asia Minor. It was chiefly cultivated by 



INTRODUCTION. 149 

the lyric poets in Lesbos, as Alcaeus and Sappho, and in Boeotia by 
Corinna. It retained the most numerous traces of the ancient Greek. 
The Latin coincides with this more than with any other of the Greek 
dialects. 

The Doric was spoken chiefly in the Peloponnesus, with a few 
places north of the Isthmus, in the Doric colonies in the southern part 
of Italy, and in Sicily. It was particularly distinguished by the use 
of what was termed the broad sound of the vowels (nluTBi,aufi6c). 
The most eminent writers in this dialect were Theocritus and Pin- 
dar. Bion, Moschus, Stesichorus, and Bacchylides also used it. 

The Ionic was the softest of the dialects, in consequence of its nu- 
merous vowels, and its rejection of aspirated letters. It was spoken 
chiefly in the* colonies in the southwestern part of Asia Minor, and in 
the neighboring islands. The principal writers in this were Homer, 
Hesiod, Anacreon, Herodotus, and Hippocrates. 

The Attic was considered the most refined and perfect of the dia- 
lects, free from the extremes of harshness and softness. It had its 
seat at Athens, and prevailed in the most flourishing period of Gre- 
cian literature. It is the dialect used by many of the best writers of 
Greece; iEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Thucydides, 
Xenophon, Plato, Isocrates, Demosthenes, and others. 

These dialects passed through different changes, and included un- 
der them several varieties. They may be traced to two primary dia- 
lects ; as the Ionic and Attic were originally nearly or quite the same, 
and the Doric, and .ZEolic were at first the same,or had a common ba- 
sis. Their first distinct and definite separation from two into four 
may be referred to the time, when the iEolian and Ionian colonies were 
planted in Asia Minor, between 1030 and 1100 B. C. 

On the colonies referred to, see Mitford's Greece Ch. V. § li. — On the dialects, 
J. F. Facii Compendium Dial. Graec. Norimb. 1782. Mich, Mattaire Grsec. Ling. 
Dialecti. Lips. 1807. E. W. Sturz de Dial. Macedon. et Alexand. Lips. 1807. 
Hermann Progr. de Dialectis, Lips. 1807, and de Dialecto Pindari, Lips. 1809. 
also see Matthice's Greek Grammar, Robinson's Buttmann, § I. and StuarL's 
Grammar of N. Testament. — On the Doric peculiarities, see Mueller's Dorians. 
Vol. II. App. viii. 

§ 5. The true pronunciation of Greek, since it must be viewed as 
a dead language, cannot be determined with certainty. The principal 
difference in the actual pronunciation of modern scholars on the 
European continent is in the enunciation of ^, «t, ot, si, ov and ev, 
which are sounded in two different ways. Erasmus and Reuchlin 
in the 16th century were the distinguished original advocates of the 
two modes respectively, and from this circumstance one is termed the 



[50 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

Braamian and the other the Reuchlinian method. Very probably 
tliere was a different utterance of these vowels in the different provin- 
ces among the Greeks. 

The chief difficulty in pronouncing Greek is found in the expres- 
sion of what is called the accent. The tone in Greek is placed upon 
short syllables as well as long ; in German, it accompanies regularly 
only long syllables. The consequence is, that in reading Greek with 
the accent always placed where the Greek tone is marked, a German 
naturally violates quantity, and in verse destroys all poetical measure. 
Yet attention and practice will enable one to give the accent to the 
syllable marked by it and at the same time regard and exhibit the 
quantity in his pronunciation. 

Those who adopt the Reuchlinian method sound >;, ot and », like the conti- 
nental i (as in machine) ; ai like e in there ; and v in av and ev, like v or /. Those 
who follow Erasmus sound); like a in hale : at like ai in aisle, u like ei in height, 
01 like oi in Boiotia, av and iv like au and eu in Glaucus and Eurus (Robin- 
son's Buttmann § 2. 6). The former are often called Iotistae and the latter Etis- 
tae from their respective modes of sounding the vowel i; ; these terms instantly 
suggest to a continental scholar the ground of their application ;— but to convey 
the meaning to an English or American eye and ear, they must be written and 
spoken eotistae or etistae and alistae (etists and atists). In England and in this 
country, especially in the northern schools and seminaries, it has been the com- 
mon practice to sound the Greek vowels according to the prevailing analogy of 
the vernacular tongue. The controversy between Reuchlimans and Erasmians 
has therefore excited little interest among us. For references to authors who 
have discussed the subject, consult Harles, Introductio in Historiam Linguae Gne- 
cae (Prol. § 7, and Supplement). Harles expresses the opinion hinted above in 
this section, that the vowels had not always and in all places a uniform sound. 
Cf. Messrs.de PorLRoyal, Gk. Grammar, Pref. ix. 

The mode of expressing what is called the accent is viewed as a subject of 
more importance. In giving an accent to a syllable in an English word we there- 
by render it a long syllable, whatever maybe the sound given to its vowel, and 
in whatever way the syllable may be composed; so that as above stated in rela- 
tion to the German, an English accent, or stress in pronunciation, accompanies 
only a long syllable. The consequence is, as the Greek tone (twos) is placed on 
short syllables as well as long, that, if we in pronouncing Greek put our accent 
wherever the Greek tone occurs, we shall in many cases grossly violate the laws 
of quantity. ' Let one take, for example, the word av&qvmos, and attempt toplace 
the stress on the first syllable, and yet make the second seem as long in quantity. 
He will certainly find some difficulty. It is of no consequence in the matter, 
which sound he givesto a in the first, the open or contracted ; the quantity, to an 
English ear, is the same whether he says an'thropos, or an' thropos. Nor does it 
make any difference, as to the point in question, whether he gives to eu in the sec- 
ond the contracted sound or the open ; in either case, the quantity will be the same 
to English ears, whether he say an' thropos, or an' thro pos, and must be the same 
in English verse, just as in the two words big' 6t ed and temp' o ral. Now in this 
difficulty what shall the student do ? Three different methods have been follow- 
ed by different persons. One is to persevere in the effort to separate stress and 
quantity, and give stress in all cases to the syllable which has the Greek tone, and 
at the same time to pronounce that syllable and the others with a prolongation or 
curtailment of sound according to their prosodial quantity. Many distinguished 
scholars recommend this effort, as Matthias, Michaelis, Foster, Buttman and oth- 
ers, with the assurance that perseverance will attain the object. But it is believed 
that very few, if any, ever succeed in the effort. It is indeed not very difficult to 
give a mere elevation to the syllable that has the tone, and still pronounce it in half 
the time employed in uttering either of the other syllables. Such enunciation, 
however, must to our ears seem like singing rather than accented pronunciation. 



INTRODUCTION. 151 

Nor is elevation by any means synonymous with our accent; for the syllable 
which has the stress, in our language, is not always elevated above the others in 
enunciation, but is very often depressed below them. — Asecond method is to place 
the stress always on the syllable which has the Greek tone, and make no effort to 
exhibit the relative quantity of the syllables. This is done by the modern Greeks 
and is perfectly easy for us. But it is a method, which inevitably violates all the 
prosodial measures, and utterly destroys Greek versification. On this account, 
chiefly, scholars in this country, although often urged, have been reluctant to 
adopt it. (See J. Pickering's Memoir on the pronunciation of Greek.) — The 
third mode is to place the stress on the syllable (whether the Greek tone be on that 
syllable or not), on which it would fall by Latin analogy, i. e. on the penult, if the 
penult be long, or the antepenult, if the penult be short. This method, of course, 
is very easy for us, and it also accords with the Greek prosodial quantity far bet- 
ter than the second, although it does not by any means perfectly harmonize 
therewith. It however makes distinctly perceptible the quantity of the penult 
in all words of three or more syllables, and this is nearly all that can be accom- 
plished by modern pronunciation according to Buttman's statement. (Robinson's 
Buttman. § 7. Note 7). See Rules for pronouncing Latin and Greek, and a Me- 
thod of Logical Analysis applied to Greek Composition. Amherst, Mass. 1834. 
32 pp. 12 mo. 

On this topic the following works may be mentioned. An essay on the differ-' 
ent nature of Accent and Q-uantity, with their use in the English, Latin and 
Greek Languages, &c. by John Foster. Third edition, Containing Dr. H. Gaily' s 
Two Dissertations against pronouncing the Greek according to Accents. Lond. 
1820. 8. — Accentus Redivivi, or a defence of an accented pronunciation of 
Greek prose, by William Primatt. Camb. 1764. 8. — Metronariston, or a new 
pleasure recommended in a Dissertation upon a part of Greek and Latin Proso- 
dy. Lond. 1797. 8. — J. Walker's Key to the Classical pronunciation &c. with 
observations on Greek and Latin Accent and Quantity. Lond. 1798. 8. Boston 
1818. 24. — An inquiry into the principles of Harmony in Language &c. by 
William Mitford. Lond. 1804.8.— See also Harles Introductio &c. Prol. § 6. and 
Supplement. 

§ 6. It is important to begin the acquisition of this language at 
an early period of life. But a tedious, unfruitful mode of study must 
be avoided, lest a language so beautiful and excellent should become 
disgusting to youth. The pupil must first be well grounded in the 
principles of the Grammar, the understanding of which and the fix- 
ing of them in the memory may be aided by exercises in the transla- 
tion of easy passages from suitable text-books. 

The best mode of studying and teaching the languages has been a fruitful 
theme for discussion. In this place a few general remarks only will be offered. 

1. Perhaps no one method of teaching can be devised, which shall, by its es- 
sential peculiarities as a method, be tJie best in all circumstances. It is essential 
to great success that the teacher's own mind should be roused to wakeful activity 
and interest, and also that the student should be put upon a kind and degree of 
exertion, which really tasks him, and which yet is fully within his present ability. 
It must be obvious to every observer, that the method, which might secure these 
objects in some cases, would utterly fail in others. The teacher therefore who 
relies upon any plan as possessing in itself certain efficacy, and on that account 
promising infallible success, will inevitably be disappointed. The efficacy of any 
method will depend very much on his own spirit and feelings, and if he trusts to 
a favorite method merely or chiefly as such, however successful it may be when 
executed with his own mind glowing with enthusiasm, he will soon discover that 
his method will not work by magic; as a machine or instrument employed with 
wakeful ardor by him it accomplishes much, but it can do little or nothing of 
itself alone. The judicious and skillful teacher will be regularly guided by cer- 
tain general principles, but will ever be on the alert to watch among his pupils 
the first flagging of interest in his present methods, and put himself to devise new 
expedients to forward his ultimate object. 



152 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE- 

'J. The analytical and syntkttical methods, as they have been termed, have 
often been contrasted. The former is less adapted for the study of a dead lan- 
guage than for almost any other branch of learning to which it can be applied,. 
Much has been urged in its favor in this study, but only doubtful evidence can 
tic adduced from experience. Where there is lime sufficient, and constant oral 
instruction can be afforded, such a method is no doubt adequate. But no abiding 
foundation is laid until the student is well grounded in the principles of gram- 
mar, as hinted in the section above. The principles of grammar are nothing 
but classifications or synthetic statements of those facts respecting the language, 
which by the analytic' process the pupil learns by induction from a series of par- 
ticular cases; i.e. if he learns them by the analytic process in reality; but in 
point of fact, he usually learns them, if he learns them at all, because his teacher 
orally states the general facts to him again and again as successive particular in- 
stances occur ; and thus when one of these facts has been stated so often that he 
cannot help remembering it, he has learned simply what he learns when he com- 
mits to memory from his grammar the rule or principle, in declension or syntax, 
which presents that one general fact ; and the former process is as truly synthetic 
as the latter, with this difference, that the master says the thing over and over till 
the pupil thus commits it, instead of committing it in a vastly shorter time and 
in a more accurate form from his grammar at the outset. 

■ The remark of the author above, that the fixing of the principles of grammar 
in the memory may be aided by suitable accompanying exercises, is just and im- 
portant. Much of the prejudice against the method, which has been called syn- 
thetic, has arisen from the practice of forcing the beginner to spend many weeks 
in merely committing the grammar to memory: It is far better that he should 
be put upon the application of what he learns as he learns it, and that he should 
be furnished with exercises adapted for the purpose. This is the method most 
generally practised in the schools of our country. Most of the elementary 
books now in use, in the study of both Greek and Latin, contain portions design- 
ed for such exercises. 

A very good help for acquiring and fixing in this way the principles of Greek Grammar is, Lessons 
in Greek Parsing, or Outlines of the Greek Grammar divided into short portions and illustrated by ap- 
propriate exercises in Parsing, by Chauncey A. Goodrich. New-Haven, 1829. 

Attempts have recently been made in England to introduce, or rather, in the 
language of the advocates of the system, to restore the method of Interlinear 
Translation. A series of text-books has been published adapted to this design. 
The Greek course commences with Selections from Lucian's Dialogues. The 
beginner is freed from the toil and delay of studying a grammar or turning to a 
lexicon. The translation is given word for word the English directly under 
the Greek, and the learner is expected to be able, on examination by the master, 
to render the Greek into English word for word, and also without the book to 
give the English for each Greek word, and the Greek for each English word. 
The second volume in the course consists of the odes of Anacreon, and is to be 
studied in the same way, but accompanied with the study of a Grammar adap- 
ted to the plan. 

For an account of this system, see An Essay ort a system of Classical Instruction ; combining the 
me thods of Locke, Millon, Ascham and Colet ; the whole series being designed to exhibit a Restora- 
tion of the primitive mode of Scholastic Tuition in England. Lond. 1829. Cf. London Quarterly Re- 
view, No. 77. 

3. It is sometimes asked whether a youth should begin with Greek or with 
Latin. The question is not perhaps of so much importance as some have sup- 
posed. But it may be observed that some of the most distinguished scholars, 
both in this country and others, as Pickering, Wyttenbach, &c. have thought 
that the classical course should commence with Greek. The chief remark we 
wish to urge here is, that it is of the utmost consequence that both languages 
should be commenced in early life. 

4. Whatever methods are employed in the first stages, it is obvious that as the 
student advances his attention should be turned to various points by suitable 
exercises. The habit of thoroughly analyzing sentences upon, grammatical 
principles must be formed and never lost. It is a profitable exercise to the most 
advanced scholar occasionally in his readings to select a sentence and go over it 
in a perfectly minute examination of every word, and make a formal statement, 
even a written one, of all that is true respecting it in its place in that sentence. 

On the importance of thorough study, see Hints on the Study of the Greek Language by Prof. Stu- 
art, In Bibl. Repository, No. VI. Vol.11. p,290. 



INTRODUCTION. 153 

Another exercise which will be found of much utility is that of analyzing 
upon logical principles. This analysis extends of course beyond the parts of a 
single sentence, and examines not only the mutual relations of those parts, but 
also the nature and ground of the connection between the sentences. It may be 
united with a tracing out of the train and order of thought in the mind of the 
author through successive paragraphs or a whole piece. 

The nature of this exercise is partially exhibited in A Method of Logical Analysis applied to Greek 
Composition, cited § 7.— Cf. Principles of General Grammar adapted to the capacity of youth, and pro- 
per to serve as an Introduction to the study of Languages, by A. J. Sylvestre de Sacy. Trans, by D. 
Fosdick. Andov. 1834. (P. HI.) 

Exercises in oral or written translation from the original into the vernacular 
are of indispensable importance. It is advantageous to vary the mode of trans- 
lating. The scholar may sometimes be required to give the vernacular for the 
original, word for word taken in grammatical order, a mode absolutely essential 
with beginners; sometimes he may proceed exactly in the order of the original, 
a method which will be found very useful in gaining familiarity with an author's 
mode of thinking and with the idioms of the language ; sometimes he may, either 
before or after reading the original, translate a sentence or passage as a whole, 
giving as far as possible the exact meaning of the author's words, in the best 
words of the vernacular, and using only vernacular idioms, a method of pecu- 
liar advantage in cultivating accuracy and promptness in the use of the verna- 
cular. Loose and paraphrastic translations cannot be safely indulged even in 
advanced scholars. 

Various other exercises, connected with inquiries on the facts and allusions, 
the sentiments, figures, and general scope of the original, and with topics of his- 
tory, chronology, geography, arts, and antiquities, will be suggested to every 
competent teacher. 

In all cases it is to be kept in mind that repealed reviewing cannot be too much 
recommended. 

On the last point and on this whole subject see, Dissertations on the importance and best method of 
studying the Original Languages of the Bible, by Jahn, with notes by M. Stuart. Andov. 1821.; also, 
Observations on the importance of Greek Literature and the best method of studying the classics, 
translated from the Latin by Prof. Wyttenbach. Boston, 1820. 

Translating from the vernacular into the language, which the student wishes 
to learn, is eminently useful. In the study of Greek this exercise has been prac- 
ticed among us much less than in the study of Latin ; owing chiefly to the want 
of suitable helps to enable the learner to begin it in the outset of his course. 
The student should commence the writing of Greek as soon as he enters upon 
his Chrestomathy or Readtng-Book. 

5. How far Reading-Books, conrprising mere extracts and selections, should 
be used has been a subject of inquiry. In this country for many years, until re- 
cently, the course of study has been chiefly confined lo such Books in the Col- 
leges as well as other schools. Lately, objections have been urged which have 
awakened some prejudice against them. No friend of learning can object to the 
reading of 'whole authors,' which has been demanded. But the time allowed to 
Greek, in the present systems of study at our Colleges, is not sufficient for read- 
ing the whole of more than one or two important authors. — See Remarks on this 
subject by Prof. Stowe, in Biblic. Repository, Vol. ii. p. 740. 

That the student, who would derive full advantage or pleasure from the study, 
must go beyond his Collectanea or Excerpta needs not to be stated. In what order 
it is best to read the Greek authors is less obvious. The Odyssey of Homer and 
Anabasis of Xenophon are adapted for an early place in the course. 

On this point we may refer to J. G. Schilling, ueher den Zweck und die Methode beyra Lesen der 
Gr. u. Rcem. Class. (Hamb. and Kiel. 1795, 97. 2 Abth. 8,— Fr. Creuzcr, Das acad. Stud, des Alterthums. 
Heidelb. 1807. B.—K. G. Schelle, welche alte class. Autoren, wie, in welcher Folge und Verbindung 
mit andernStudien soil man sie auf Schulen lesen! Leipz. 1804. 2 Bde. 8.— Felton's Diss, on Read- 
ing the Classics. Lond. 1730. 8.—H. Sulzer, Gedanken ueber d. beste Art d. class. Schriftst, zu lesen. 
Berl. 1765. 8.— Cf. Fuhrmann as cited § 2. 

6. It may be interesting to introduce here a notice of the methods of instruc- 
tion in the London University. The following account, is taken from the London 
University Calender for the year MDCCCXXXII. The outlines of the courses 
in Latin and Greek were prepared for the work by the Professors in these de- 
partments. We will insert both. 

20 



154 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

• The Instruction in the Latin and Greek Classes is communicated by daily examination of the Stu- 
dents in certain portions of a Latin or Greek author (for which they are required to prepare at home) ; 
by questions on the subject-matter and the words of the author; by remarks on the peculiarities of 
the language and on important facts ; by reference to books, or parts of books ; by the aid of maps, 
plans, views, models, coins, medals, &c.j and, finally, by requiring from the Students translations 
from these two languages Into English, and from English into Latin or Greek, with other exercises of 
various kinds.— There are, in all the Classes, regular examinations at Christmas, Easter, and the close 
Of the Session, conducted chiefly after the Cambridge plan, by written answers to questions privately 
printed ; by these it is determined to whom Certificates of Proficiency shall be granted, and the Prizes 
awarded.' 

Outline of Course in Latin Language and Literature.—' The instruction in this department will, 
from the commencement of the Session issi-a. be divided into three courses, as follows ; 

The Junior Class will begin with two or three books of Csesar's Gallic War. A certain portion of 
this will be daily translated by the Student himself, in the lecture-room. But to make him accurately 
acquainted with the language, he will be called upon, both orally in the lecture room, and in writing 
out of it, to translate a number of short sentences from English into Latin. All of these will be se- 
lected from Caesar's own writings, so as to illustrate the different idioms, as they from time to time 
occur. Those for immediate translation will, of course, be very simple ; while such as are to»be trans- 
lated out of the lecture-room will be of a difficulty somewhat greater, but still simple. These* exer- 
cises are already prepared, and will be printed before the autumn of the next year. No English-Latin 
Dictionary will be required by the Student ; all those words for which he might want to consult such 
a book will be supplied with the exercises. After he has thus overcome the difficulties occurring in 
narrative, he will read Terence's Andria, where the idioms peculiar to dialogue will present them- 
selves. These also will be fully explained to him, and impressed upon his memory in the same way 
viz. by easy passages, carefully selected for retranslation from the other plays of Terence, and those 
o( Plautus.— The Manilian Oration will close the Session.— In this class by far the largest share of the 
student's attention will be directed to the idioms and structure of the language. At the same time it 
will not be forgotten, that an acquaintance with certain portions of history, geography, and antiqui- 
ties isnecessary to the full understanding of every Latin author. The translations from English into 
Latin will be required four times a week, and once a week a written translation from the text of the 
author. 

The Senior Class will commence with the 21st and 22nd books of Livy, and the 9th book of the 
JEneid ; they will afterwards read part of Cicero's letters and the Satires or Epistles of Horace. In 
connexion with the two prose writers, there will be regular exercises adapted to each author, as in the 
Junior class ; but they will be of a more difficult character. In this class also, a weekly translation 
from some portion of the text will be required. 

In the Higher Class the instruction will be of a different character. The Professor will himself 
translate and explain some portion of a more difficult Latin author, or read a lecture connected with 
the history, antiquites, or language of Rome :— Thus in the Session 1831-2, it is proposed, that the sub- 
jects should be— 1st. A play of Plautus; fragments of Ennius and the earlier writers, with some of the 
oldest inscriptions; and a Course of Lectures on the etymological structure of the Latin language.— 
2nd. History of Cicero's times, illustrated by his Orations and Epistles.' 

Outline of Course in Greek Language and Literature.— There are two regular academical classes, 
Junior and Senior, besides a class for more advanced students. In the Junior and Senior classes In- 
struction is given daily, except Saturday : in the Higher class twice a week. 

Junior Class.— This class is intended for those young students who enter the University at the ear- 
liest period that is recommended ; and also for students of a more advanced age, who have learned 
Greek only a short time, and wish to avail themselves of the more elementary kind of instruction. 
The Anabasis of Xenophon is the text-book, of which small portions are read daily, except Saturday. 
At the commencement of the session, the etymological structure of the language is developed by ex- 
plaining the particular forms that occur in each lesson, and by exhibiting on the black board other 
examples of the classes to which they belong.' Each lesson is twice read on successive days, and the 
more difficult parts are also translated and explained by the Professor. Written translations of cer- 
tain portions are required once a week, and they are corrected with reference both to the meaning and 
the mode of expression. One student's exercise is also selected to be read aloud in the Lecture-room 
by the Professor, who makes such remarks as he may judge proper, and calls on other students to read 
aloud parts of their exercises, and to explain any thing in them that is imperfect or obscure. When this 
exercise has been corrected, each student is expected to be able to give orally, and with closed book, the 
Greek text corresponding to the English, which the Professor reads out in short portions, and whenever 
it is practicable, in distinct propositions. To aid the student still further in acquiring the language 
by written exercises, shortEnglish sentences are given him to be turned into Greek, the model or exam- 
ple to be Imitated being always contained in some part that he has read, and to which he is referred. 

During the session the Professor explains the geography of Greece, and the Greek islands of the 
Mediterranean, and gives also such instruction on the geography of Asia as is necessary to under- 
stand the narrative of Xenophon. Every well ascertained fact of physical or modern political geogra- 
phy that can elucidate ancient geography comes within the plan. These explanations are always fol- 
lowed by examination. The student is recommended to use the maps of the Society for the Diffusion 
of Useful Knowledge, and is referred to others on a larger scale in the Lecture-room, and the Library 



INTRODUCTION, 155 

The subject matter of the Anabasis is explained to the student, as well as the language ; it being 
the Professor's design to connect, as far as he is able, all kinds of useful information with the accurate 
study of the Greek text. 

For the session 1830-31, the first four books of the Anabasis are read. In the session 1831-32, the last 
three will be read. 

The Senior Class.— This class is intended for those who have passed through the Junior Class, and 
for others who come prepared to enter it. The general plan for the Junior Class applies to this also, 
with such modifications as the higher acquirements of the pupils may render necessary. In the ses- 
sion 1830-31, the class reads Herodotus, Bookiii. ; the Orestes of Euripides ; and two books of the 
Iliad.— In the session 1831-32, the Senior Class will read Herodotus, Book viii. j the Pcrsa; of JEschy- 
Ius ; and two Books of the Odyssey. 

Higher Class.— The object of this class is to assist those students of more advanced age or acquire- 
ments, who are privately prosecuting their Greek studies.— For this purpose the Professor explains 
some portion of a Greek author, by translating the Greek text, making the necessary remarks on the 
subject matter, and the words, and by referring the students to books, maps, coins, &c. for further 
illustration. It Is his intention to choose for explanation such books as will be most instructive to older 
pupils ; Thucydides, the Attic orators, Homer, Aristophanes, &c. During part of each Spring Course, 
Greek inscriptions will be explained to the class from Boeckh's Corpus lnscriptionum, and from the 
marbles of theBritish Museum.' 

§ 7t. Here it will be in place to mention some of the helps which 
the student in Greek may bring to his aid. 

1. There are many valuable Chrestomathies and Reading Books. Jo. Math. 
Gesneri Chrestomathia Greeca. Lips. 1731. Several later editions. — Chrestoma- 
thia Greeca, Christ. Frid. Malthcsi. Mosc. 1773.— Eclogoe, sive Chrestom. Graec. 
a Frid. Andr. Strolhio, Gymnasii Gluedlinb. Rectore. Gluedl. 1776.— Griechische 
Blumenlese, von Jo. Frider. Fdcius. Wurnb, 1783. — Erstes Vorbereitungsbuch 
der griechischen Sprache, von Jo. Heinr. Martin Ernesti. Altenb. 1784.— F. Ge- 
dike's griechische Lesebuch. (edited by Buttman) Berlin 1321. 8. — J. C. F. Hein- 
zelmann's griech. Lesebuch. Halle 1816.8. — F. Jacobs, Elementarbuch der Griech. 
Sprache. Jena 1824. 4. Th. 8. This has been a very common text-book in Ger- 
many. It consists of four parts or Courses. The first is designed for beginners 
and is the part published in this country under the title of The Greek Reader by 
F. Jacobs. The second part, styled Attika, consists of extracts illustrating the 
history of Athens from the historians and orators. The third styled Socrates, 
is composed of philosophical extracts. The fourth is styled Poetische Btumenlese 
and consists of poetical pieces. — The Boston Stereotype Edition of the Reader 
contains some of the extracts of the second and of the fourth parts of the origin- 
al work ; this is the best American edition, entitled The Greek Reader by Fred- 
eric Jacobs, Professor of the Gymnasium at Gotha &c. Fourth American from 
the ninth German edition; adapted to the Grammars of Buttman and Fisk. 
ANAAEKTA 'EAAHNIKA 'H220NA, sive Collectanea Grseca Minora ad 
usum Tironum accornmodata, by A. Datzel, 2d ed. Edinb. 1791. Several editions 
have been published in this country. It was the common text-book for beginners 
until the publication of the Greek Reader, and is still used in some of the schools. 
The following is considered as the best edition ; Collectanea Grccca Minora, with 
explanatory notes collected or written by Andrew Dalzel, Prof, of Greek in the 
University of Edinburgh. Sixth Cambridge edition ; in which the Notes and 
Lexicon are translated from the Latin into English. — "£zAoyui ' IgroQtxat ; or Se- 
lecta Principum Historicorwm, by Wyltenbach. 2d ed. Amsterd. 1808. This has 
been pronounced an admirable selection. 

ANAAEKTA 'EAAHNlKA MEIZONA, sive Collectanea Graca Majora, 
ad usum Academicse Juventutis &c. by A. Qalzel. 1st ed. Edinb. 1789. 97. 2 vols. 
8. Many editions have been published, as, e. g. the 8th Ed. of 1st. and 4th of 2d 
vol. under the care of G. Dunbar, Edinb. 1816, 17; and the 1st London ed. under 
the care of C. J. Blomfield, Lond. 1821, and 3d in 1830 ; and several American 
editions ; particularly, under the care of J. S. Popkin, Camb. 1824; the notes of 
Prof. Popkin, very briefly and modestly expressed, are very valuable, and this 
edition is considered as altogether the best extant. — A third volume was added 
by Prof. Dunbar, Edinb. 1819. comprising a greater quantity of Greek than the 
first or second ; it has not been re-published in this country. — The Graca, Majora 
has been until recently for many years the principal text-book in our Colleges. 
Cf. § 6. 5. — A few editions of particular authors have been published lately, de- 



15() HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

signed for the use of schools and Colleges; e. g. Robinson's portion of Homer; 
Ft lion's Iliad of Homer; Woolsey's Alcestis of Euripides, &c. Publications of 
this class arc now increasing in England ; as among them may be mentioned the 
Yulpii Greet Classics and the editions of Prof. Long. 

-2. Grammars. It would be almost endless to name all the meritorious. The 
following are among the noted. Jacobi Wcllari Grammatia Grseca. (ed. Fischer). 
Lips. 1781. 8. — J. F. Fischcri Animadversiones, quibus J. Welleri Gram. Graeca 
einendatur &c. (ed. Kuinoel) Lips. 1798 — 1801. 3 vols, 8. — Trendelenburg's An- 
fengsgruende der griech. Sprache Leipz. 1805. 8. — Buttmami's griech. Schul- 
grammatik. Berl. 1824, 1831.— Same translated by Edward Everett, Bost. 1822. 
Abridged (G. Bancroft). — Butlman's Ausfuhrliche griech. Sprachlehre. Berl. 
1819. 1827. 2 vols. 8.— A. Matthicc's Ausfuhrliche gr. Grammatik. Leipz. 1807. 
8. Same translated by Ed. V. Blomfield (ed. J. Kenrick) Lond. 1832.— Fr. 
Thiersch, Grammatik des gemeinen und Irlomerischen Dialekts. Leipz. 1819. 
8.— V. Ch. Fr. Host's griech. Grammatik. 3d ed. Gotting. 1826.— Rost's Greek 
grammar translated from the Germ. Lond. 1827. 8. — Belt's Compendious Gram- 
mer. — Jones's Philosophical G rammer. The Port Royal Greek Grammar; A 
new method &c. Translated from the French of the Messieurs de Port Royalby 
T. Nugent, (latest ed). Lond. 1817. — Smith's Greek Grammar. Bost. 1809. 

The Grammars more commonly used in our schools are, the Gloucester, Moor's, 
Valpy's, Hachenberg's or rather Goodrich's, Bultmann's by Everett, and Fish's. — 
It may be remarked that one chief diiference between these Grammars respects 
the plan of classing the nouns and verbs, some reducing the declensions to three, 
and the conjugations to three or two, others retaining the larger numbers of the 
old systems. — Some excellent thoughts on this subject are found in a pamphlet 
styled Remarks on Greek Grammars. Boston. 1825 (Not Published). — A brief his- 
tory of Greek grammars may be found also in J. C. Blomfield 's Preface to the 
Translation of Matlhiae above cited. 

The Grammar which will be most satisfactory to the more advanced student is 
Buttmann's Larger Greek Grammar, translated by Edward Robinson, Andover. 
1833. — For the theological student we mention in addition, Winer's Grammar of 
the New Testament, Trans, by Stuart and Robinson. Andov. 1825. A Gram- 
mar of the N. T. by Prof. Stuart. Andov. 1834. 

In speaking of grammatical helps it is proper to refer to the treatises of the 
Greek refugees, as those learned men have sometimes been termed, who on the 
capture of Constantinople by the Turks fled into Italy. These treatises were 
published by Aldus, 1494 — 1525. Concerning the Aldine collections of Gramma- 
rians consult Fabricius, Bibl. Graec. Lib. V. c. 7. and in the edition of Harles, 
Lib. iv. c. 39. — Schall ^Hist. Litt. Gr. Int. p. xliv. lxviii. — Renouard Annales de 
1' Imprimerie des Aides &c. 1803. 2 vols. 8. Supplem. 1812.— On the character and 
merits of these exiles, Humf. Hodius, de Graecis illustribus linguae grascae instau- 
ratoribus. Lond. 1742. 8. — Chr. Frid. Boernerns, de doctis hominibus Graecis, 
literarum Graecarum in Italia instauratoribus. Lips. 1750. 8. 

The ancient grammarians may also be mentioned; as the writers just named 
doubtless drew from these sources. — See Harles Introd. in Hist Ling. Graec. Pro- 
leg. § W—Schasll, Hist. Litt. Gr. Intr.p. lxii. — Comp. notice of Grammarians on a 
subsequent page. 

The Scholiasts likewise may he named, or those who wrote Greek commenta- 
ries on ancient authors. These, whatever there may be in their comments that 
is puerile, dull or false, nevertheless furnish some valuable assistance. Among 
the most important works of the kind, are the commentaries of Ulpian on De- 
mosthenes and Eustathius on Homer. — On the value of the scholiasts, see Jo. 
Mart. Chladenius, Opusc. Academ. Lips. 1741. 8. Cf. Harles as just cited. 

3. Numerous Lexicons are also ni»w offered to the choice of the student, The 
most extensive is, Henrici Stephani Thesaurus Graec. Ling. Genev. 1572. 4 vols. 
Fol. ; to which a supplement was published by Daniel Scott. Appendix ad Ste- 
phani Thesaurum. Lond. 1745. 2 vols. Fol. An improved edition of the Thesau- 
rus was commenced, London. 1815. completed, 1825. (Valpy ed).Cf. Lond. Gluart. 
Rev. No. 44.— A third edition was begun, Paris 1831, superintended by M. Hase. 
see Lond. Q.uart. Rev. No. 101. or Bibl. Repos. No 15.— Next to this is, Lexicon 
Graeco-Latinum &c. opera et stud. Joan. Scapulae. Basil. 1579. Fol. oth. ed. Ba- 
zil. 1665. Lugdun. 1663. Glasg. 1816. 2 vols. 4.— To these add, Hederici Gracum 
Lex. Manuale, cura J. A. Ernesti et Wenderi, Lips. 1796. Edinb. 1827. 8.— Jo. 
Dan. a Lennep Etymologicum Ling. Graec. Traject. ad Rhen. Ed. Scheid. 1790. 
2 vols 8.— J. G. Schneider's griechisch-deutsches Wcerterbuch. Lpz. 1819. sup- 



INTRODUCTION. 157 

plena. 1821.— F. Passow, Handwcerterbuch der Griech. Sprache. Leipz 1830. 31. 
2 Bde. 8. — The Tyro's Greek and English Lexicon by John Jones. 2d ed. Lond. 
1825. — CorneliiSchrevelii Lexicon Graeco-Latinum. 13th ed.Lond. 1781. — Trans- 
lation of Schrevelius' Greek Lexicon into English, for the use of Schools. Lond. 
1826. 8. — The Greek Lexicon of Schrevelius, translated into English, with many 
additions, by John Pickering and Daniel Oliver. Bost. 1826. — A Greek and Eng- 
lish Dictionary &c. by Rev. J. Groves. Lond. 1826. — A new Greek and English 
Lexicon, by James Donnegan.%& ed. Lond. 1831. Revised and enlarged by R. B. 
Patton. Boston, 1832. 

For reading the N. Test, the student will need Robinson's Lexicon of the New 
Testament. There are Lexicons illustrating particular authors. — Damm Lex- 
icon Pindaricum Berl. 1765. — Dammii Nov. Lex. Graec. Etymolog. cui pro basi 
substratae sunt concordantiae et elucidationes Homericae et Pindaricae. Cura J. 
M. Duncan, Lond. 1827. 4. — Clavvs Homerica, or Lexicon of all the words in 
the Iliad translated from the original by J. Walker. 12mo. — Schweighauser's Lexi- 
con Herodoteum. 

Aemilii Porti Lex. Ionicum, Francof. 1603. Aem. Port. Lex. Doricum. Francof. 
1603. Useful in explaining Theocritus, Bion, Moschus. Aem. Port. Lex. Pindar- 
icum. Han. 1606. Respecting the various Lexicons and Glossaries by more an- 
cient authors, see Harks Introductio in Hist. Ling. Graecae. Proleg. § 19. 

4. There are various subjects, on which the student may desire more full inves- 
tigations than can usually be given in a Grammar or Lexicon. 

(ft) Idioms. — Gul. Budcei Commentarii Ling. Graec. Par. 1548. (4th ed). Basil. 
1556. fol. — Franc. Vigerus, de praecipuis graec. diet, idiotismis. Cumanimadver- 
sionibas Hoogeveeni, Zeunii et Hermanni. (impr. ed). Lips. 1822. 8. The work of 
Vigerus is compiled from that of Budaeus. — Viger's Greek Idioms abridged and 
Translated into English, with original notes, by Rev. J. Seager. Lond. 1828. 8. — 
Nelson's Greek Idioms. 8 vo. — Lockhart's Idioms of the Greek Language, accu- 
rately arranged and translated. 12mo. 

(b) Ellipsis and Pleonasm. — Lamb. Bos Ellipses Graecae etc. Norimb. 1763. Lips. 
1808. Glasg. 1813. — Bos' Greek Ellipses abridged and translated into English, by 
Rev. J. Seager, Lond. 1830. — Furgault les principaux idiotismes de la langue 
grecque avec les ellipses &c. Par. 1784. 8.— Bj. Weiske Pleonasmi Graeci, Lips. 
1807. 8. — G. Hermann Dissert.de Ellip. et Pleon. in Graeca Lingua, in the Muse- 
um Anfiquitatis Studiorum (vol. i). Berl. 1808. 8. 

(c) Analogy in Derivation and Composition. — L. C. Valcknaeri Observationes 
academ. quibus via munitur ad origines graec. investigandas. Traject. ad Rhen. 
1790. Ed. Scheid. — Jo. Dan. a Lennep, de Analogia lingua? Graecae. Traj. ad 
Rhen. 1790. Ed. Scheid. — Jo. Christ. Struchtmeyeri Rudimenta Ling. Graec. Zuth- 
phen. 1797. Ed. Scheid. — The Primitives of the Greek tongue, with the most 
considerable Derivatives and a collection of English words derived from the 
Greek. By T- Nugent. Lond. 1801. 8. 

{d) Particles. — Devarius, de Graecae Lingua; particulis. (Ed. J. Gottf. Reus- 
mann) Lips. 1785. 8. — Doctrina particularum ling, graec. auctore et ed. Hem. Hooge- 
veen. Delphis. 1769. 2 vols. 4to. There is an abridgment by Schutz. Lips. 1806. 
Glasg. 1813. — Hoogoveen on the Greek Particles, abridged and translated into 
English by Rev. J. Seager. Lond. 1830. 8. — Prof. Stuart, on the use of 'iva, Bibl. 
Repos. and duart. Observ. No. xvii. Jan 1835. 

(e) Preposition and Article, — Casv. Frid. Hachenberg, (de significatione prae- 
positionum graec. in compositis) Ultrajecti. 1771. 8. — Middleton's Doctrine of the 
Greek Article applied to the criticism of the Greek Testament. — Remarks on 
the uses of the definitive article in the Greek of the N. Testament. By Gran- 
ville Sharpe. (Am. ed.) Philad. 1807.— Hints on the Greek Article by Prof. 
Stuart, in Bibl. Reposit. No. xiv. Apr. 1834. 

(/) Dialects. See § 4. — Mattaire's Greek Dialects abridged and translated 
into English by Rev. J. Seager. Lond. 1831. 8. 

(g) Accents. See § 5. and P. I. § 51, — K. GOltling, (Lehre von den griech. 
Accenten i Rudolst. 1820. 8. — M. Stuart, Practical Rules for Greek Accents and 
■Quantity.' Andover, 1826. 

(h) Prosody, Metre and Quantity. — Lexicon Graeco-Prosodiacum, Auct. T. 
Morell, &c. Cantab. 1S15. (Ed. Edv. Maltby).— Analysis of Greek Metres, by 
J.B.Seale. Camb. 1804 — Notassive Lectiones ad Tragic. Graec. &c. Autore 
Beujam. Heath. Oxon. 1762. — A. Apel's Metrik. Leipz. 1814. — Godof. Hermanni 
de metris poet, graec. et rom. Lips. 1796. — Elementa doclrinae metricae. Auct. 
God. Hermanno. Lips. 1816. Glasg. 1817.— Hermann's Elements of the Doctrine 



158 HISTORY QV GREEK LITERATURE. 

of Metres, abridged and translated into English, by Rev. J. Scagcr. Lond. 1830. 
H.— ltunlitir's Prosodia Gnecn, or Exposition oi' the Greek Metres. 8vo.— Mac- 
a nil's Metres ol' ilie Greek Tragedians explained. 8vo. — Greek Gradus; or 
Greek, Latin, and English Prosodial Lexicon, By Rev, J. Brasse. Lond. 1830. 
8.— A new and complete Greek Gradus, &c. By Ed. Maltby. D. D. Lond. 1830. 
8.— Grajfe's Prosodiacal Lexicon of the Greek Language collected from the He- 
roic poets, L2mo. 

5. In writing Greek the beginner needs the help oi some Book of Exercises. 
The following may be named. — Hunting ford's Greek Exercises.— Neilson's, Val- 
m't — Dunbar's. — disk's. — An Introduction to Greek Prose Composition, from the 
German of V. C. F. Rost and E. F. Wtlstemann, by Rev. John Kenrick. 

t>. In order to a thorough and successful pursuit of classical literature, it is 
indispensable to attend considerably to the subjects of Antiquities and Mythology. 
On topics pertaining to the Archaeology of literature and art, we refer to the 
sections in Part First of this work. On other topics of Antiquities and Mytholo- 
gy, to the sections of Parts Third and Fourth. 

7. An important class of helps is composed of such as illustrate the subjects 
of Chronology, Geography, History and Biography. 

(a) There are Classical Dictionaries, which include more or less fully all these 
subjects. — Diclionnaire (de Sabbalhier de Chdlons) pour l'intelligence desauteurs 
classiques grecs et latins, tantsacre's que profanes, contenant la Geographie, 1'- 
Histoire, la Fable et les Antiquites. Paris, 17G6— 1790. 37 vols. — L'Abbe Saba- 
ticr de Castres, Siecles Payens. Paris, 1784. 8 vols. — Furgault, Dictionnaire 
Geographique, Historique et Mythologique. Par. 1776. — Lemprier's Classical 
Dictionary. (1st ed.) Oxf. 1788. Many more recent. The best, by C. Anthon. 
N. York, 1833. 2 vols. 8. 

(b) Geography. — Christ. Cellarii Notitia Orbis Antiqua. Lips. 1701 — 1706. 
2 vols. 4. Also 1771, 1773. — R. Mannert, Geographie der Griechen und Romen. 
Numb. 1787 sqq. 10 vols. 8. — Geographie der Griech. u. Rom. von der fruehes- 
ten Zeiten bis auf Ptolemseus, von F. Aug. Ukert. Weimar, 1816, with maps. — 
The Geographical system of Herodotus explained, &c. by J. Rennell. (2d ed.) 
Lond. 1830. 2 vols. Q.— Dodwell's Classical and Topographical Tour through 
Greece. Lond. 1819. 2 vols. 4. — Danville's Ancient Geography. 2 vols. 8. — 
There-are many smaller works, as Maya's Epitome of Ancient Geography, Pye's 
Dictionary of Ancient Geography, Laurent's Introduction, Long's, &c. — A work 
easily obtained and valuable is Geographia Classica, or the application of An- 
cient Geography to the Classics, by & Butter. Second Am. from ninth Lond. 
edition. With an Atlas. Phil. 1831. 

Some Atlas the student should have constantly at hand. — Danville's Atlas Orbis 
Antiqui. 12 sheets fol.~ Wilkinson's Atlas Classica. — Oxford Atlas of Ancient 
Geography, containing nearly 100 Maps, Plans, &c. 4.— The Eton Comparative 
Atlas of Ancient and Modern Geography upon a new plan, giving two distinct 
Maps, one ancient and the other modern, of the same country. 50 plates. 4. — 
Bean's Classical Atlas, remodelled from the Ancient Maps of Cellarius. 

(e) Chronology. — J. C. Gatterer, Abriss der Chronologie. Gcett. 1777. — D. H. 
Hegewisch, Einleitung in die historische Chronologie. Hamb. 1811: — Hales, 
Analysis of Chronology and Geography, History and Prophecy. Lond. 1830. 4 
vols. 8. — Play fair's Chronology. — J. Blair's Tables of Chronology. — Lavoisne's 
Atlas, Genealogical, &c. — J. Picot, Tablettes ChronologiquesderHistoireUniver- 
selle. Genev. 1803. 3 vols. 8. — Buret de Longchamps, Les Fastes Universels, ou 
Tableaux Historiques, Chronologiques, &c. Par. 1821. — Priestley's Chart of 
Biography.— Goodrich's Blair's Outlines ofChronology is a useful little compend. 

(d) History and Biography. — Dictionnaire Historique (de Chaudon et Delan- 
dine). 20 vols.— Moss' Manual of Classical Biography. 2 vols. 8. — Adam's Classi- 
cal Biography. — Mitford's History of Greece. 8 vols. 8. — Gillie's History of 
Ancient Greece. 4 vols. 8.— Mailer's History and Antiquities of the Doric Raee. 

8. Benefit as well as pleasure may be derived from works giving philosophi- 
cal reflections, or elegant and popular views, on subjects embraced in classical 
study.— Such, e. g. as F. Heercn's Reflections on the Politics of Ancient Greece. 
— F.Schlegel's Lectures on the History of Literature. — A. W. Schlegel's Lectures 
on Dramatic Literature.— Campbell's Letters on the Greek Historians. 

9. Among the very important aids in this study, are those which may be 
called Histories of Greek Literature, or Introductions to the history of Greek 
Literature, giving comprehensive notices of the Greek authors, their, different 



INTRODUCTION. 159 

works, and the various editions, translations, commentaries &c. The design of 
the sketch of Greek literature given in the present work, is to furnish the scholar 
with a help of this kind. But he will wish to be referred to others. 

The most complete, although very deficient in method, is, J. A. Fabricii Bib- 
liotheca Grceca. Hamb. 1790— 1809 (Ed. by Theoph. Christ. Harles). 12 vols. 
4to. There are many others more or less full. Theoph. Ch, Harles Introductio 
in historiam Linguae Graecae, Altenb. 1792-95. with Supplem. Jen. 1804, 1806. 
—By the same, Notitia brevior literaturae graec. Lips. 1812. — Jo. Ernest. Im- 
man. Walch, Introductio in lingam Graecam. Jen. 1772. — M. D. Fiihrmann's 
Handbuch der klassischen Literatur. Rudolst. 1804 — 1810. — By same, Kleineres 
Handbuch, &c. Rudolst. 1823. 8. — T. A. Rienacker's Handbuch der Geschichte 
der Griech. Lit. Berl. 1802. — God. Em. Groddek Historian Graecorum litera- 
riae Elementa. Viln. 1811. A new ed. commenced, 1821. — Geschichte der Litera- 
tur der Griechen und Rcemen, von G. C F. Mohnike. Greifsw. 1813. 8. consid- 
ered an excellent abridgement. — L. Schaaff's Encyklopsedie der klassischen Al- 
therthumskunde. Magd. 1120.2 Th. 8. — F. Passow's Grundzuege der Griech. 
und Rcem. Literaturgeschichte. Berl. 1816. 4.--Z,. Wachler's Handbuch der 
Gesch. der alten Literatur. Frankf. 1822. 8. 

The work which will be most satisfactory of all to the Greek scholar, is His- 
toire de la Litterature Grecque &c. par M. Scholl. (Sec. Ed.) Paris, 1823. 8 vols. 
8. — Prof. Anthon has made much use of it in his last edition of Lempriere's 
Classical Dictionary (1833), which the student may consult on the Greek and La- 
tin authors with great advantage. 

On translations and editions, also the following. Degen's Literatur der deutsch. 
Uebersetzungen der Griechen. Altenb. 1797. 2 vols. 8. Supplem. Erlang. 1801. 
— F. A. Ebcrt's allgemeines bibliographisches Lexicon. Lpz. 1821. — Brtigge- 
mann's View of the English editions, translations, and illustrations of the an- 
cient Greek and Latin authors with remarks. Stettin 1797. 8. Suppl. 1801. 8. 
— Renouard, Catalogue de la Bibliotheque d'un Amateur. Par. 1819. 4 vols. 8. 
— C. F. Debure Bibliographie Instructive, ou Traite de la connoissance des livres 
&c. Par. 1763-82. 10 vols. 8. — Brunet Manuel du Libraire et de l'Amateur de 
Livres. — G. Peignot, Manuel du Bibliophile, ou traite du choix des livres. 
Dijon. 1823. 2 vols. 8. — Dibdin's Introduction to the knowedge of rare and valu- 
able editions of the Greek and Latin Classics. (4th ed.) Lond. 1827. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 8*. We shall now proceed to the history of Greek literature. 
The method pursued will he, to treat of the principal authors, classing 
them under the departments in which they were chiefly eminent, and 
ranging them in chronological order. Before noticing the authors 
in any department individually, a general view of the character and 
progress of that department will he given. In order to secure greater 
distinctness of conception, the whole extent of time included will first 
be divided into a few periods, which will be regarded in the general 
view of each department. 

It will be most convenient to adopt the division of Schcell, in his History of 
Greek Literature, which has been already repeatedly quoted, and is the princi- 
pal source from which the translator has drawn in the additions made to Eschen- 
burg in this part of the work. 






Ilkl HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 



The several Departments and 'principal Authors. 

§ 9, The history of Greek literature embraces more than twenty-seven hun- 
dred years, In this long space of time many changes must have occurred in the 
circumstances of the people, which affected the character of their literature. 
The more obvious and remarkable of these changes may be selected to aid us in 
dividing the history into several periods. Some division of this kind is neces- 
sa ry to avoid confusion. Six periods may thus be readily distinguished. 

The first is the period preceding, and terminating with, the capture of Troy, 
1184 B. C. The proper history of Greece does not extend further back than to 
this event, so much is every thing previous darkened by the fictions of mythology. 

The second period extends from the capture of Troy to the establishment of 
the Athenian Constitution by Solon, about 600 B. C. In this, Greek literature 
had its rise, commencing in poetry. Prose composition does not belong to the 
period. 

The third period is from the time of Solon to that of Alexander, 336 B. C. Du- 
ring this period Grecian literature reached its highest perfection. But the lib- 
erty of Greece expired at the battle of Chseronea, and from that time her litera- 
ture declined. 

The fourth period, beginning with the subjection of Greece to the Macedo- 
nians, ends with her subjection to the Romans, by the capture of Corinth, 146 
B.C. In this period genius and fancy ceased to be the peculiarity of the litera- 
ture, and gave place to erudition and science. 

The fifth period reaches from the fall of Corinth to the establishment of Con- 
stantinople as the seat of the Roman government, A. D. 325. During this pe- 
riod Greece was but a comparatively unimportant province of a vast Empire. 
Her literature also was thrown wholly into the shade by the lustre of the Roman, 
which enjoyed now its greatest brilliancy. 

The sixth period terminates with the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, 
A. D. 1453. The Greek language was still in quite extensive and honorable use, 
but neither the people nor their literature were raised from their depression. 
After a succession of adverse events, Greek letters were at length driven from 
their last refuge in the east to a few seats of learning in Italy. 

These periods may be designated by characteristic names, the Fabulous, the 
Poelic, the Athenian, the Alexandrian, the Roman and the Byzantine. 

§ 10. In noticing the most important authors and prominent circumstances 
in the literary history presented in this vast field, the following order will be adopt- 
ed. The Poets will take the first place; next we put the Orators; then successively, 
the Sophists and Rhetoricians, the Grammarians, the Writers of Epistles and Ro- 
mances, the Philosophers, the Mathematicians and Geographers, the writers styled 
Mylhographers, the Historians, and finally the Authors on Medicine and Natural 
History. 



I. — Poetry and Poets. 

§ 11. Among the Greeks poetry appeared much earlier than prose ; indeed 
the literature of all ancient nations commenced with poetical composition. Mor- 
al and religious maxims, principles of social and political action, physical phe- 
nomena, wonderful events, and the praise of eminent men formed the chief sub- 
jects of the earlier Greek poetry. Probably addresses to the Deity, practical 
rules of conduct, proverbial sentiments and oracles were first clothed in verse. 
This was not originally committed to writing, but sung by the poets themselves, 
who often wandered as minstrels from place to place, and by living rehearsals 
extended the knowledge and influence of their own verse and that of others. 
It was not until eminent poets had sung, that the rules of poetry, in its several 
branches, could be formed, as they are necessarily drawn from observation and 
experience. 



poetry; sacred. 161 

§ 12. The Greeks received much of their civilization from Egypt and Phoe- 
nicia (P. 1. § 40); something perhaps was derived from India; but itwasin 
Thrace that the Greek muses first appeared. Here in Thrace the traditions of 
the most remote antiquity centre and lose themselves, ascribing to this country 
the origin of religion, of the mysteries and of sacred poetry. The mountains 
of Thessaly and the vicinity, Olympus, Helicon, Parnassus and Pindus be- 
came the sanctuaries of this poetry. Here the lyre and harp were invented-. 
In Thessaly and Boeotia, provinces in later times destitute of men of genius and 
letters, there was scarce a fountain, river, or forest not invested with some in- 
teresting association. In a word the poetry, with which the civilization and lit- 
erature of Greece commenced, came from the northern portions of the land. 
Tradition has preserved the names of several poets who lived, or originated in 
those regions as early as about 1250 or 1300 years before Christ. Among these 
were Linus, Eumolpus, Melampus and Thamyris. 

North Amer. Review, Vol. xxi.— Beck's Allg. Welt und Volker Gesehichte. I. 319.— Heyne, de Musa- 
rum religione ejusque orig. et caus. (in Comment. Soc. Gott. viii). 

§13. The first Poets of Greece were at the same time musicians. Music and 
poetry were at first always united, or it may perhaps be more correctly said that 
music, song and dance together constituted poetry, among the Greeks. It is not 
easy to form an idea of their various melodies, but they must have been of a sim- 
ple kind, and each sort of music seems to have had a particular sort of poetry 
attached to it. Music purely instrumental the early Greeks appear to have 
valued very little. The constituent branches of poetry, just mentioned, were 
important parts of education. The dance was soon separated, and became a 
distinct object of attention, which at length resulted in the practice of the vari- 
ous exercises comprehended under the broad name of the Gymnastic art. At 
length song also began to be distinguished from music, and poetry assumed 
shapes and forms less adapted for instrumental accompaniment. 

On the origin and progress of Greek poetry, see Schas.ll, vol. 1. Ch. 2.— Sulzer's Allg. Theorieder 
schoenen Kuenste, art. Dichtkunst, and the references.— Dissertation on the rise, union and power, 
the progressions, separations and corruptions of Poetry and Music, by Dr. Brown. Lond. 1763. 4.— 
Plan der Gesch. der Poesie, Bereds. Mus. Mahl. &c. unter d. Griech. von C. E. L. Hirschfeld, Kiel , 
1770. 8,— Cm/zer'« histor. Kunst d. Griechen.— F. Schlegel's Hist, of Lit. Lect. l.— Heeren's Reflec- 
tions &c. Ch. 15.— G, J. Vossius de Vet. Poet. Graec. et Lat. temporibus. Amst. 1654. i.—Fr. Jacobs, 
brief history of Gk. Poetry, in the CharaJa. d. vornehmst. Dichter aller Nationen. Bd. 1.— Hartmann's 
Versuch einer allg. Gesehichte d. Dichtkunst. Lpz. 1797.— Fr. Schlegel's Gesch. U. Poesie d. Griech. 
und Rcemer. Berl. 1798. 

§ 14. Poetry and music were from the earliest periods favorite pursuits or 
amusements of the Greeks, and their poetry assumed in the course of its history 
almost every possible form. 

The first poetry was adapted to some instrumental accompanimenl, and might 
be therefore properly enough included under the term lyrical used in a general 
sense. But as it consisted chiefly of hymns to the gods, or songs referring more 
or less to religious subjects, it may more properly be considered as a distinct va- 
riety, under the name of sacred. 

Three of the most important forms of Grecian poetry were the lyric, the epic, 
and the dramatic, in each of which there were authors of the highest celebrity. 

Other kinds, which are well worthy of notice, were the elegiac, the bucolic, 
and the didactic. The epigram and the scolion were distinct and peculiar forms. 
There were other varieties or names which may be explained in connection with 
those already mentioned or separately, as the gnomic, cyclic, erotic, and 
sillic. 

On the division of poetry into different kinds, Cf /. J. Eschrnburg's Entwnrf einer Theorie und 
Literatur der Schoenen Redekuenste, (4th ed.) Berl. 1817. 8. (Poetik § 7.)— W. Schlegel's Dramat. Lit. 
(vol. I. p. 38. Lond. 1815).— Blair's Lectures. 

§ 15. (a.) Sacred poetry. Under this may be included all that was produced 
antecedently to Homer, or what is often called antehomeric poetry. It is some- 
times designated by the name of Orphic poetry, from the circumstance that 
Orpheus was one of the most eminent poets of the period and class here referred 
to. It has also been called the poetry of the Thraeian school, as having its ori- 
gin and seat chieflv in (he region of Thrace and the vicinity. 

2.1 



H'r> 1IIST0HY OF CREEK LITERATURE. 

Tlu< general nature and subjects of this poetry, consisting, as has been men- 
tioned, oj hymns and religious songs, are such as suggest the name of sacred 
here applied toit. The poets probably united in their persons the triple character 
of bards (doidog), priest (Uqivs) and prophet (ji&vtis). The principal names 
which escaped oblivion were Linus, Olen, Melampus, Eumolpus, Thamyris, 
Tiresias, Orpheus, and Musaeus. There are pieces extant ascribed to some of 
these, particularly to Orpheus and Musreus, but nothing probably that is gen u- 
iue, except a lew imperfect fragments. 

A.1 though, when we speak of the sacred poetry of the Greeks, we usually 
mean (inly the pieces ascribed to antehomeric writers, yet it should be remarked 
thai the hymn (dftvos) in praise of the gods was not peculiar to that age. Hymns 
were composed by subsequent poets, but did not hold a specially prominent 
place, and are commonly included in the class of lyric productions. Several 
are ascribed to Homer. Callimachus, after the time of Alexander, wrote a 
number. 

On the Thracian school &c. Cf. North Amer. Rev. vol. xxi p. 393.— On the Hymns of the Greeks, 
Fr d. Sneedorff, do Hymnis veterum Gracorum. Hafn. 1786. S.—Souchay, Dissertation sur les Hymnes 
ilrs Anciens, In the Mem. de l'Acad. ties Inscr. T. .xviii. xxiv.—Sulzer s Allg. Theor. Art. llymne. Cf. 
Lowth's Lects. on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews. Lect. 29. 

§ 16. Among the productions comprehended in the sacred poetry, it is proper 
lo notice the oracles, which were ascribed to the Sibyls. The name 2'ipvMa is 
commonly derived from Slog (for Jlog) and Bovh' b and was synonymous with 
prophetess. What the ancients have said of the Sibyls is obscure and perplex- 
ing. As many as ten are enumerated on the authority of Varro. A very high 
antiquity. was assigned to some of them. A few fragments of the oracles as- 
cribed to these are preserved. (See Schceli, Hist. I. Ch. ii). The eight books 
now extant, called the Sibylline oracles, are spurious, evidently fabricated since 
the Christian era. 

What has now been mentioned constituted the whole literature of the Greeks 
antecedently to the Trojan war. There are indeed some works extant, ascribed 
to such personages as Hermes, Trismegistus, Horus, Zoroaster &c. But the 
time when they lived is a matter of dispute, and the works ascribed to them are 
the fabrications of later periods. 

On the Sibylline Oracles, see Fabricii Bibl. GrziBC.—Onwphirus de Sihyllis, in the work, Sibyl. 
Orac. a J. Opsopacocnm latina interpretations S. Castalionis. Paris 1607. 8. — r. Vossius de Sibyllinis 
alUsque quae Christi nat. praecess. Oraculis. Oxf. 1680.— Lud. Prateus, in his Juvenal, not. Sat. 3.—D 
Blondcll, De Sibylles &c. Charent. 1652. 4.— The most complete edition of the Sii. Or. is that of Gallat- 
us, (gr. et lat.) Amsterdam, 1689. 4.— In 1817, A. Mai published a 14th book, of 334 verses, from a man- 
uscript discovered by him in the Ambrosian Library at Milan.— Respecting Hermes, Zoroaster&c. 
Cf. Jtortes BreviorNotitia Literat. Graec. Lips. 1812. 8. p. l2.—Scha>U, Hist. Litt. Gr. Liv. V. Ch. 62, 
Liv. iii. Ch. 10. 

§ 17. (b) Epic poetry. As the poet gradually lost the sacred and mystic char- 
acter, with which he had been invested, poetry assumed more of the epic form. 
It aimed more to interest and amuse the multitude, who gathered around the 
wandering minstrel, especially at festivals and shows, to hear his song and tale. 
The minstrels bore the name of Rhapsodists {' Paxf/mSol). Their songs partook 
more of the nature of narratives than those of the religious bards. They freely 
indulged in fiction ; a new term was soon introduced, expressive of this ; they 
were said lomakc their pieces {noiur, noi^xtjg); while the former were only said 
to sing (ndstv, aoiSog). They were not restricted in the choice of subjects. They 
clothed in new and exaggerated forms the oldest recollections and traditions ; 
they rehearsed the genealogy of the gods, the origin of the world, the wars of 
the Titans and the Giants, the exploits of the demigods and heroes. 

The poets were numerous after the time of the Trojan war. They brought 
to its perfection hexameter verse, which had been employed by preceding bards ; 
and from this time it was restricted chiefly to epic poetry. 

§ 18. All the poets of this class were wholly eclipsed by Homer, who is just- 
ly styled the father of epic poetry, and who remains to this day acknowledged 
prince of epic poets. It is a remarkable fact, that the Homeric poems were the 
principal foundation of the whole literature of the Greeks. Yet it is supposed 



poetry; epic. 163 

by many Ibat they were not committed to writing until the time of Solon and Pi- 
sistratus, at the close of the second or beginning of the third period before men- 
tioned (§ 9). They were then collected into a body, and constituted the first pro- 
duction that circulated among the Greeks in a written form. It "was a splendid 
model, and received with high and lasting admiration by every class of the peo- 
ple. The influence of these poems in Greece is beyond calculation. ' From 
Homer,' says Pope, ' the poets drew their inspiration, the critics their rules, and 
the philosophers a defence of their opinions; every author was fond to use his 
name, and every profession writ books upon him till they swelled to libraries. 
The warriors formed themselves upon his heroes, and the oracles delivered 
his verses for answers.' Cf. § 50 (4). 

§ 19. The history of Grecian epics ends, as it begins, essentially, with 
Homer. The only poet near his time who has enjoyed much celebrity is Hesiod, 
who wrote in hexameter, and is usually ranked among the epic poets, although 
his principal work belongs rather to the didactic class. There is a story of a 
poetical contest between Hesiod and Homer, in which the former bore away the 
prize, but it is a fabrication, and the tradition, on which the story was founded, 
probably grew out of a conjectural comment on the passage of Hesiod, where he 
alludes to a prize gained by him at Chalcis, but says nothing of Homer. 

§ 20. During the whole of the third period into which we have divided the 
history of Greek literature, from Solon to Alexander, we do not find a single 
epic poem. The Perseid of Choerilus is lost, and if extant would not secure its 
author a rank above his contemporaries in the class of later Cyclic poets. In 
other departments poetry flourished in the highest degree; but in this Homer 
had closed the path to glory. 

In the next period, the Alexandrine age, we meet with but one name of any 
celebrity, Apollonius Rhodius, author of the Argonautics, who flourished about 
200 years B.C. Three other epic poets are mentioned, belonging to the same 
age, Euphorion of Chalcis, Rhianus of B ene in Crete, originally a slave, and 
Musasus of Ephesus, who lived at Pergamos. Each is said to have written 
several poems; which are wholly lost. (Schoell. Hist. L. IV. Ch. 30.) 

In the fifth period, from the supremacy of the Romans B. C. 146, to the time 
of Constantine A. D. 325, there were several didactic poems in hexameter, but 
not an epic appeared. 

In the last period, after the seat of empire was removed to Constantinople, 
there was a crowd of inferior poets or verse makers, hanging about the court. 
Many performances were composed in hexameter. The principal that can be 
called epic are the Dionysiacs of Nonnus, and the Paralipomena of Gtuintus Cal- 
aber, which, although some critics have highly praised them, will be read but 
very seldom. The Destruction of Troy by Tryphiodorus may also deserve to 
be named. 

For references on Epic Poetry in general, and on that of the Greeks, consult Sulzer'a Allg. Theorie, 
Art. HcMcnge&icht. 

§ 21. (c) The Cyclic poets, and the Homcridce. Although there was no great 
epic poet after Homer, there were many, who imitated his manner, and sang of 
the same or similar subjects. Some of these, perhaps most of them, were Rhapso- 
dists, who publicly rehearsed portions of Homer and other poets, as well as 
their own verses. This led to the composition of the pieces called sometimes 
hymns (vfcvoi.) being addressed to some deity, and also proems (IlQooipia) because 
they were a sort of introduction to the rehearsal which followed. The Rhapso- 
dists who chiefly rehearsed or imitated Homer, have been called the Homeridce. 
(Schoell, Hist. L. II. Ch. IV.) But to all these poets, as a class, the term Cyclic 
was applied by the ancient grammarians. The name is derived from xvxXof, a 
circle, and was given, because their poetry was confined to a certain round or 
cycle of subjects and incidents. Their performances were of the epic charac- 
ter, but are almost totally lost. The cycle of subjects treated of by them in- 
cluded the whole extent of Grecian story, real and fabulous, from the origin of 
the world down to the sack of Troy. They are sometimes called the poets ot the 
epic cycle ; and have been divided into two classes, such as treated of the my- 
thology and legends anterior in the Trojan war, termed poets of the Mxjthic Cy- 
cle, and those who t/eatei 1 cf the variour: incidents connected with that war from 
the decision of Paris to the .eath of Ulysses, termed poets of the Trojan Cycle. 



ll'l HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE- 

li is easy to perceive how the term cyclic should obtain its metaphorical sense of 
a monotonous and spiritless author, 

The Cyclic poets are interesting to us chiefly from the fact, that they furnished 
tin- sources whence subsequent poets drew their materials. Virgil and Ovid are 
said to have borrowed largely from those authors. 

There were several poets in the period between Solon and Alexander, who 
treated of subjects belonging to the epic cycle, and are sometimes called the later 
Cyclic poets (Schcell L. III. ch. 15). In the last period also of Grecian litera- 
ture the poets, who are called epic, are rather mere imitators and copiers of the 
Cyclic tribe, and might be classed with the same, as, e. g. Gluintus Calaber, Try- 
phiodorus and Tzetzes. 

Sec llcyne Excurs. 1 ad Aen. II.— Fabricii Bib. Graec. I.— Schall, L. II. Ch, 4.— Schwartz, Disserta- 
tlones selectae led. Harlessl. Erlang. 1778.— Bouchaiid, Antiqultes Poetiques, ou Dissert, surl. Poetes ■ 
cy Cliques, Par. 1799. 8.— Dodwell de Cyclls.— The chief original source of information is a passage 
taken from Proclus ; see Bibliothek d. Alt. Lit. und Kunst i. 66.— Photii Bib. ed. Schott. p. 980. 

The names and works of two or three of these poets are given on the Iliac Table ; this is a tablet of 
marble on which the capture of Troy and events connected with it are represented by little figures in 
bas-relier with names added. It was found among the ruins of an ancient temple on the Via Appia, 
and is preserved in the Museum of the capitol at Rome. Its date is not known, probably not before 
the time of Virgil. See Montfaucon, Antiq. Expl. T. IV. 

On the Rhapsodists, Cf. Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, vol. ii. p. 561 .— Coleridge, Introduction to Study of 
Greek Poets, (p. 45. Philad. 1831.) 

§22. (d) I/yric Poetry. It has already been remarked that in the earliest 
poetry of Greece, music and song were united. The hymns and other mythic 
pieces of the sacred poetry were adapted to some instrumental accompaniment. 
The rehearsals of the Rhapsodists and epic minstrels were not without the mu- 
sic of the harp or lyre, employed at least in proems and interludes. 

But the poetry distinctively called lyric originated later. It commenced pro- 
bably in odes sung in praise of particular gods, partly addressed to them like 
hymns, and partly recounting their deeds. Of these there were many varieties, 
as the Ilaiav, anode to Apollo originally, afterwards to any god; 'Yniqxw-i a 
song accompanied with dancing as well as music ; JiB-uqa^og, an ode in honor 
of Bacchus. There was also a class of songs, called HqogoSia, used on festivals 
and in processions, as the Jatpvijcpoqixa sung by virgins bearing laurel branches 
in honor of Apollo, TqinoS^oqixa sung when the sacred tripods were carried in 
procession, 'Oa^oipoQixa sung by youth carrying branches and clusters of the 
vine in honor of Minerva. There were odes giving thanks for deliverances, 
especially from epidemics, 'Emlolfua, and others supplicating help and relief 
*Evxrix'a. Diana was celebrated in the songs called 'Ovnlyya, Ceres in the 
' lovXoi, Bacchus in the 'Jai/Sax^ot, Apollo in the <t>iXtjXiadai. 

§ 23. But lyric song was not confined to the praises of the gods and to reli- 
gious festivals. The enthusiasm awakened by the revolutions in favor of liber- 
ty burst forth in effusions of lyric poetry. The tumult and excitement of re- 
publican contests and hazards seem to have been congenial to its spirit. It ad- 
mitted a free license and variety of metres, and was suited to every imaginable 
topic that could awaken lively interest. It was shortly extended to almost every 
concern of life, and the weaver at the loom, the drawer of water at the well, the 
sailor at his oars, and even the beggar in his wanderings, hadeach his appropriate 
song, and, so generally was music cultivated, they could usually accompany it 
with the lyre. 

Accordingly we find numerous species of songs spoken of in the classics. 
Odes to|heroes were of three varieties, the 'Eyxi>fiwv proclaiming the deeds, 'Ettch- 
vbg, the virtues, and 'EttivIxiov, the victories, of the person celebrated. There 
were different forms of nuptial odes ; the'vfuraioi and yafn\Xta sung at the wed- 
ding, uQfiama, in conducting the bride home, i 7tt6aka/.aa, at the door of the bed- 
chamber. The t'atijlos was a sort of bantering satirical song; the naiyvia were of 
a similar but more sportive and loose cast. The nalSixa and naqbhia. were sung 
by choirs or companies of boys and virgins. The hqceiivai, X sXtS6na and xo- 
Qwvla f iciTa were songs of mendicants. Finally without enumerating any more, 
it may be remarked that Ilgen has pointed out about thirty different kinds, 
in a treatise on the convivial songs of the Greeks (§ 27). 

C. D. Ilgen, ZxoXta, h.e. carminaconviv. Grac.Jen. 1798. 8.— Burette Mem. sur la MusiqueAn- 
cienne, in Mem. de 1' Acad, des Insc. T. xi. xiv. and others.— Cf. Fuhrmann, Keineres Handbuch zur 
Kentniss giiech. und roem. class. Schriftsteller. Rudoldst. 1823. p. 113. 



poktry; lyric. 165 

§24. It has been observed that lyric poetry allowed a great variety of metres. 
Many of these were afterwards distinguished by the names of the lyric poets 
supposed to have invented them. A great license was also indulged in the form of 
the stanzas or strophes in which the lyric pieces were composed, both as to the 
number of verses or lines included in them and the order or succession of lines of 
different metres. The earliest and simplest form of strophe consisted of two 
lines or verses of different metre. The second form seems to have included 
four verses, consisting of at least two metres, used by Alcaeus, Sappho and Ana- 
creon. But strophes of a more artificial composition were employed by Alcman 
•and Stesichorus. Those of Pindar and such, as are used in the choral parts of 
tragedy, exhibit the greatest art in their construction. 

On the metres and strophes consult Hermann and Seager cited § 7. 4. (hi. 

§25. Lyric poetry began to flourish at the close of the second period we have 
pointed out, from the Trojan war to Solon, and after epic had reached its height. 
The most ancient of these lyric poets as distinguished from the mythic, epic 
and cyclic poets, whose name is recorded, was Thaletas of Crete, induced by Ly- 
curgus to remove to Sparta. (See Plutarch on Lycurgus.) Archilocus, Alcman, 
Alcaeus, and Sappho flourished just before Solon, or about the same time, and 
were all celebrated among the ancients, particularly the first and last of them ; 
but we have nothing of their writings except a few fragments. 

In the next period, between Solon and Alexander, lyric poetry was cultivated 
with increasing ardor, and splendid success. Simonides, Stesichorus and Bac- 
chylides are mentioned with praise. Many other names of less note are also 
preserved, as Lasus, Hipponax, Ibycus, Pratinas, Asclepiades, Glycon and 
Phalsecus, Melanippides, Timotheus, Telesthes, and Philoxenes. Several po- 
etesses also adorned the circle of lyric authors in this age, as Erinna, Myrtis, 
Corinna, Telesille, and Praxilla. But it is not from any of the writers we have 
named, that the lyric poetry of the Greek derivesits high reputation among mod- 
ern scholars ; for of all their works almost every thing has perished ; a loss 
which some of the mutilated portions remaining cause us much to regret. 

Time has been more sparing in reference to the performances of two other 
poets, to whom the judgment of all has ascribed the palm of pre-eminent excel- 
lence in lyric verse, Anacreon and Pindar. Each of these excels, yet their char- 
acteristics are totally opposite. Anacreon sings of women and roses and wine ; 
Pindar of heroes, of public contests, of victories and laurels. The one melts 
away in amatory softnesss ; the other is ever like the foaming steed of the race, 
vaulting in the pride of conscious strength, or the furious war-horse, dashing 
fearlessly on, over every obstacle. Under these masters Grecian lyrics were ad- 
vanced to their greatest perfection. 

§ 26. The ancients speak of nine as the principal lyric poets, viz. Alcman 
Alcaeus, Sappho, Stesichorus, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides,Pindar and Bacchy- 
lides. It will be observed that all these have been already mentioned. The age 
of Pindar completes essentially the history of lyric poetry in Greece, as that of 
Homer does the history of epic. No eminent genius appears after him. 

In the next period, after the time of Alexander, we hear of two or three poet- 
esses, as Anyta, Nossis, and Mcero ; and some of the poets at Alexandria wrote 
lyrical pieces, as Philetas, Lycophron, and Callimachus. But after the Roman 
supremacy we shall scarcely find a strictly lyrical production noticed in the ful- 
lest detail of Grecian poetry. 

On the subjects and varieties of Lyr. P. see Eschenburg's Entwurf Einer Theor. u. Lit. d. schcen • 
Redekunste.VH.— On the general character and history of Gk. lyr. P. see Pref. to Darter's Trans, of 
Horace.— M. de la Nauze, surles chansons d l'ancienne Grece, in Mem de VAcad. des Insc. T. IX.— 
Burney's Gen. History of Music, Lond. 1776. 4.— Mem. Histor. sur la chanson en gen. et en part. Fran- 
coise, par M. Meusnier de Qjuerlon. Par, 1765. 3 vol. 8. Histor. Ess. on the Orig. and Prog, of National 
Song. pref. to Select coll. Eng. Songs. Lond. 1783. 3 Vol, i.—Sulzer's Allg. Theorie. Artie. Ode, 
Lied &c. 

§ 27. (e) The Scolion (oxoliov dopa). This was a species of poetry, which ap- 
peared before the time of Solon, and flourished especially in the period between 
him and Alexander. It was nearly aliedto lyric poetry, or more properly speak- 
ing was only a peculiar form of it, consisting of little songs, designed for social 
purposes, and particularly used at banquets and festive entertainments. The 



166 HISTORY OK GREEK LITERATURE. 

word employed to designate it, oxoJkW-, has troubled the grammarians. It properly 
signifies some thing crooked or distorted (detnume), and evidently indicates 
something irregular in the poetry, to which il is applied. The question has aris- 
en wherein consisted the irregularity? 

According to Suidas, the Greeks had three modes of singing at the table. 
First, all the guests forminga joint chorus chanted a paean accompanied with 
the harp, in honor of some god. Then, the harp was passed from guest to guest, 
beginning with the one occupying the chief place, and each was requested to 
sing some moreeau or sonnet from Simonides, Stesichorus, Anacreon or other fa- 
vorite author. If any one declined playing, lie might sing without the harp, 
holding in Ins hand a branch of myrtle. There was a. third manner, which re- 
quired absolutely the accompaniment of the harp, and something of the skill of 
an artist. Hence the harp did not pass in order from guest to guest, but when 
one performer had finished some couplets, he presented the myrtle-branch to anoth- 
er qualified to continue the song and music. This one, having completed his 
part in turn, gave the branch to a third, and so on. Along with the myrtle was 
presented also to the singer the cup or vase, which from this practice gained the 
name of wW;. From this mode of passing the harp in an irregular manner, the 
poem thus' recited was termed oxoZior. 

Plutarch on the other hand states that the scolia were accompanied with the 
sound of the lyre; that this instrument was presented to each guest and those who 
were unable to sing and play could refuse to take it; he adds that the oxoXiov was 
so called because it was neither common nor easy. But he gives also another 
explanation, according to which the myrtle branch is represented as passing from 
couch to couch in the following way ; the first guest on the first couch passed it 
to the first on the second couch and he to the first on the third ; it was then re- 
turned to the first couch, and the guest occupying the second place there, having 
sung and played, passed it to the second on the second couch, and thus it went 
through the whole company. From this crooked manoeuvring the songs of the 
table were called oxoiia. 

These explanations are too subtile to be perfectly satisfactory. It seems much 
more simple to suppose the name to have referred originally to the irregularity of 
metre, in which respect the scolion seems to have had unlimited license. 

The subjects of these songs were not always the pleasures of the table and the 
cup. They often treated of more serious matters, including sometimes the 
praise of the gods. Songs forpopular use and those designed to enliven manual 
labor and domestic care, as those of shepherds, reapers, weavers, nurses &c. went 
under the common name of axolid. 

The earlest known author of scolia, or according to Plutarch the inventor of 
music adapted to them, is Terpander, of Antissa in Lesbos, who lived about 670 
B.C. Other authors of such pieces are recorded; as Clitagorus the Lacedae- 
monian, Hybrias of Crete, Timocreonof Rhodes. Archilochus, and other lyric 
poets composed pieces which belong to the class here described. 

See M. de la Nauze, Burette and Ilgen, (cited §§23, 26), especially the latter.— H. H. Cludius, von den 
Skolion der Griechen, in Bibl. d. alt. Litter, u. kunst. No. 1.— Schatt. Hist. Lit. Gr. L. II. Ch. 5. 

§ 28. (b) Elegiac Poetry. The origin of elegiac poetry was an ancient theme 
of dispute if we may credit Horace ; Quis to/men exiguos elegos emiserit auctor, 
Grammatici c.rtant, et adhuc svijudice lis est. ' It appears,' says Schcell, ' that the 
grammarians of Alexandria (forto these Horace doubtless alludes) raised this ques- 
tion from their confounding times and terms. The matter becomes clear, when 
we give to terms their proper meaning. It is necessary to distinguish between 
the ancient IXsyela of Callinus, and the later 'ileyog, the invention of which has 
been attributed to Simonides. The first was merely a lyric piece, particularly a 
war -song, composed of distichs with hexameter and pentameter alternating, the 
original form of Ionian lyrics. The word tUyoq (from e, alas ! and Xiyta) signi- 
fies a lamentation, and any lyric poem on a mournful subject was so termed. 
The Attic poets, when they sung on a mournful theme, employed the distich of 
alternate hexameter and pentameter, which had been previously used in the 
wai-song. It was now that this distich received the name "tleyeia, from the new 
class of subjects to which it was applied, for it was not originally so called, but 
went by the general name of 'ircoq, afterwards restricted to heroic verse. The 
term was therefore the name of a kind of metre or strophe rather than a kind of 
poetry. The grammarians overlooking this called the two kinds by the name of 
elegy, because the metre was the same in both. 



POETRY : ELEGIAC, PASTORAL. 167 

Callinus of Ephesus is regarded as the author of the first poem composed in 
elegiac metre. He is commonly supposed to have lived about 684 B. C. Others 
place him mueh earlier. The fragment ascribed to him is part of a song stimula- 
ting his compatriots to fight valiantly against their enemies the Magnesians. 
Tyrleeus is next in time, immortalized by his songs composed for the purpose of 
rousing and encouraging the Spartans in a war with Messenia. 

§ 29. The first example of the new application ot the elegiac metre (i. e. to 
mournful themes I, is said to have been given by Mimnermus of Colophon in 
Ionia, about 590 B. C. The few verses remaining of him breathe a sweet mel- 
ancholy, deploring the rapid flight of youthful days, and the brevity and ills of 
human life (see Dalz. Graec. Maj. vol. ii). 

But Simonides is considered as the inventor of the proper elegy, although he 
neither devised the metre, nor first applied it to topics of a saddening cast ; but it 
was after Simonides that the name 'Uiyog was given to a poem of considerable 
size in distichs of hexameter and pentameter. Most of his pieces which are 
preserved are, however, epigrams rather than elegies. Antimachus a lyric poet, 
Euripides the tragic writer, and Hermesianax are mentioned among the au- 
thors of elegies in the period now before us, between Solon and Alexander. 

In the next period the only elegiac writer of any importance was Callimachus ; 
although Alexander the iEtolian and Philetas of Cos are named. Callimachus 
was much admired and imitated by the Romans. After him elegiac verse does 
not appear to have been cultivated at all among the Greeks. 

In conclusion, very little of the Greek elegiac poetry remains to us, but some 
of the fragments we have are in strains peculiarly soft and sweet. 

On the origin of Gk. el. P. see J. Vol. Franckii Callinus s. quaest. do orig. carm. el. tractatio. Alton. 
1816- 8.— C. A. Bottiger'e Abh. ueber d. Fabel vom Marsyas, in Wieland's Attisch. Museum. B.I. St. 
2.— Sehcell, H. Gk. Lit. L. II. Ch. 5.— On Gk. el. P. generally, Fraguier, Mem. sur l'elegie Gr. and Lat 
in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Ins. (T. VIII. ed. d'Amst.)— Souchay, Discours sur les Elegiaques grecs, in 
the Mem. d l'Acad &. T. VIII.— Eschcnburg'3 Entwurf (cited § H) p. 165. 

§ 30. (g) Bucolic or Pastoral Poetry. This species of poetry is supposed to 
have taken its rise from the rustic songs of Sicilian shepherds. Its invention is 
ascribed to a certain Daphnis, who lived in the early fabulous ages, and enjoyed 
the reputation of a divine descent, while he pastured his flocks at the foot of Mt. 
iEtna, 

But Theocritus, belonging to the Alexandrine age of Grecian literature, may 
be considered as the father of bucolic song. The Idyl had not been cultivated 
by any writer before him. This term, from IMlXiov, signifies a little picture, a 
representation in miniature, a delicate piece of poetical drawing. The Greek 
Idyl does not seem to have been confined to any one topic exclusively, yet was 
chiefly employed in representing the scenes of pastoral life. Its external form 
was marked by the use of the Hexameter verse and the Doric dialect. Theocri- 
tus carried it to a high degree of perfection, and in pastoral poetry, no poet, an- 
cient or modern, has surpassed him. 

In fact, Greek bucolic poetry begins and ends with Theocritus. Two other 
poets belonging to the same age, viz. Bion and Moschus, are commonly ranked 
in the class of bucolic or pastoral writers. But neither of them is considered as 
equal to Theocritus, and the subjects and scenes of their poetry have more of 
the lyrical or mythological than of the pastoral character. 

On pastoral poetry in general, see Disc, sur la nat. de l'eclogue par Bern, de Fontenelle. P. 1688. 8.— 
Diss, sur la Poes. past. &c. par Ch. CI. Genest. Par. 1707. 12.— Ess. sur la Pastorale, von Floricm, pre- 
face to his Estelle, Par. 1788. 12.— Pope, Disc, on past, poetry, in Tomson'sMiscell. Lond. 1707. 8.— The 
Guardian No, 28, 30, 32.— Newberry, Poetry on a new plan. Lond. 1762. 8.— Blair's Lectures. 

On Greek pastoral poetry, see Disc, sur les auc. Poet, bucol. de Sicile, par Al. Goulley de Bote Ro- 
bert, in Mem. de l'Acad. d. Insc— Hist, du Berger Daphnis, by Jacq. Hardion, in the same, Mem. &c. 
— Warton, de poesi bucolica Craec. pref. to his ed. of Theoc. Oxon. 1770.— Arethusa, Oder die buko- 
lisch. Dichter des Alterthumes. Berl. 1806-10. 2 Bde. i.—Schoell, Hist. Gr. Lit. L. IV. ch. 33.— Mueller's 
Dorians B. iv. ch. 6. § 10. 

§ 31. (A) Didactic Poetry. In this form of poetry the literature of the 
Greeks was not peculiarly rich. The objects, which didactic poetry has in view 
may be included under two heads ; it aims to give instruction either in what 
pertains to morals, or in what pertains to science or art. In the earliest speci- 



ICiS HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

men of didactic poetry among the Greeks, the works and Days of Hesiod, there 
is a combination of both ; live first book chiefly consisting of moral precepts, and 
tlu> second of rule.-- of husbandry, concluding however with a repetition of pre- 
cepts on the conduct of life. This production belongs to the period before Solon. 
The next productions, which we meet in the account of Grecian didactic po- 
etry, consist wholly of moral precepts or sentences (yv<r, f iat). From this circum- 
stance, the writers'have been called Gnomic poets. The poetry consists of pithy 
maxims, expressed with brevity and force. The metrical form may have been 
chosen principally for the sake of memory. Pythagoras, Solon, Theognis, Pho- 
cylides and Xenophanes, are the chief among the Gnomic poets. Fragments 
remain ascribed to each of these ; not all, however, considered genuine, especially 
the Golden Verses of Pythagoras, and the Exhortation of Phocylides. 

There was a peculiar species of composition, to which it may be proper here 
to allude, as another form of didactic poetry, viz, the fable or apologue {imoloyog 
and Joyoc). The most ancient Greek fables are two or three ascribed to Archi- 
lochub and Stesichorus, and one found in Hesiod (Schcell H. Lit. L. III. ch. 9). 
The most celebrated fables are those of iEsop, who lived in the age of Solon. 
They were probably composed in prose. Socrates translated some of them into 
verse. They were collected in a body by Demetrius Phalereus, and a transla- 
tion of them is said to have been made about the same time into elegiac verse. 
In the age of Augustus they were translated into the verse called Choliambics, 
by Babrius. This metrical version is supposed to have been the basis of the 
modern copies, which are in prose and belong perhaps more properly to the sub- 
ject of philosophy. 

On the Greek Gnomic Poetry, see Me.iner'3 Gesch. d. "Wissenschaften in Griechenland u. Rom. Lemgo 
1781. 8.— Heyne, pref. to Sentent. vetustiss. Gnom. poetarum Op. Lips. 1776. 2 vols.—' H&ixt] Iloitjgig 
s. Gnomici Poet. Gr. ex ed. Brunkii. Argent. 1784. 8. § 47. 

On the apologue or fable generally, see Eschenburg, Entwurf, p. 9i.—Gellert Diss, de Poesi Apolog. 
eorumque scriptoribus, Lips. 1744. 4.— Sulzer's Allg. Theor. art. Fabel.—Lessing's Abhandlungen, in 
his vier Buechem aesopisch. Fabeln. Berlin, 1777. 8.— On the Greek fable, J. M. Heusinger's Dissert, 
degr. Aes. Fabulis. Ger. 1741. 8.— Eschenburg Entwurf &c. p. 102. 

§ 32. The Alexandrine age presents several didactic poets. The first in 
chronological order were two Sicilians, Dicaearchus and Arc'hestratus. The 
former wrote, in iambic verse, a geographical description of Greece. He was a 
disciple of Aristotle, and left also some philosophical pieces. The latter travers- 
ed many lands examining the subject of human food and nourishment, and gave 
the result of his experience and research in a poem entitled Gastrology. At the 
very close of the period was Meander, of Colophon, or of Aetolia according to 
others. His poems, called @r\qiay.a, relating to venomous bites, and '-A?.£§iip<!tQ- 
naxa relating to other poisons, have more of poetic elegance than of scientific 
merit. His Georgics and Metamorphoses (sTtQoiovfii-vu), both lost, are said to 
have furnished hints to Virgil and Ovid. 

But the first place in point of excellence belongs to Aratus, who flourished at 
the Macedonian Court, about 270 B. C. His astronomical poem is highly com- 
mended by the ancients. Cicero translated it into Latin verse. Aratus is the 
poet quoted by Paul before the Areopagus (Acts, 17. 28). 

In the next period, after the capture of Corinth, B. C. 146, there were also 
several writers belonging to the class now under notice ; but none of them of 
much celebrity. Among the principal were Babrius or Babrias and Oppian. 
The former has been already mentioned as author of a metrical version of the 
apologues of iEsop. The latter wrote on fishing, and hunting ; a third poem, not 
extant, on fowling, is also ascribed to him. The following are likewise mention- 
ed ; Apollodorus of Athens who wrote a poetical chronology (Xqovuco) and a 
description of the earth {r!jg niQloSog) ■ Sc-ymnus of Chios, and Dionysius of 
Charax, authors each of a Voyage of the world (ir£oti;'y>?o-<s olxovfievijs) ; He- 
hodorus author of a poem entitled 'AttoXvtixu; and Marcellus of Sida, in the 
time of the Antonines, who wrote a poem in 42 books on medicine (JSi^.ia 
ictTQix'a). 

After the seat of the Roman government was changed, there were, as has been 
mentioned, numerous inferior poets. Several of them would fall into the class 
of didactic poets, but they scarcely deserve to be named. Among them were 
Naumachius, author of a poem on astrology, Dorotheus, author of a poetical. 






poetty; erotic, epigrams. 169 

treatise on triangles, and another on the places of the stars, and Manuel Philes 
who wrote on the peculiarities of animals (IZtgt teiwv tfiorigTo;). 

On didactic poetry in general see Eschenburg;Exil. &c. V.—Marmontel, Poetique T. II. ch. 22.— Ra 
cine, Reflex, sur la Poesie. ch. 7. -Walton's Diss, on Did. Poet. (pref. to trans, of Virgil).— Essay 
pref. to Dryden's trans, of Virg. Georg.— Sulzer's Allg. Theor. art. Lehrgedicht.— On the Greek didactic 
poets, Manso's Abh. in the Nachtr. zu Sulzer, B. iii. 49, &yi. 359. —SchtzU, Hist. Litt. Gr. L. iii. ch. 8, 
9. L. tv. ch. 32. 52. L. vi. ch. 74. 

§ 33. (i) Erotic Poetry. Under this denomination are included such poeti- 
cal performances as refer particularly to the subject of love. It is sometimes 
applied to a class of lyrical pieces, which were of an amatory character {\qunixa 
fdlri). Alcman, or Alcmeeon who lived at Sparta about 670 B. C. is regarded 
as the father of erotic poetry in this sense of the phrase. Most of his poems 
were of the class called naq&hia, or praises of virgins. His songs were very 
popular with the ancients, and were sung by the Spartans at table with those of 
Terpander. Aleseus, Sappho, and Anacreon wrote pieces of the same descrip- 
tion. 

But the term erotic is generally applied by critics to another class of writings ; 
viz. several productions of a later period, chiefly in prose, which had something 
of the nature of novels, or modern works of fiction. They were truly a species 
of romance, and properly therefore may be noticed as a distinct branch of liter- 
ature. In this place we shall speak only of such authors as wrote in verse. 
There were three writers in the period after Constantine the great, who compos- 
ed poems, which may be justly ranked among the performances here described. 
The most eminent of them was Theodorus Prodromus a learned philosopher 
and theologian, in the beginning of the twelth century, author of a great varie- 
ty of poetical pieces. 'Scripsit carmina,' says Harles, ' invita autem Minerva.' 
The principal was his romance, in iambic verse, entitled the loves of Rhodanthe 
and Dosicles. The other two were Constantine Manasses, and Nicetas Eugeni- 
anus ; both lived about the same time with Prodromus. The work of the former, 
the loves of Aristander and Callithea, is nearly all lost ; that of the latter, the 
loves of Drosilla and Charicles, in nine books, is extant. They were both.in 
the verse called political. 

Schoell, Hist. Litt. Gr. L. II. Ch. 5. L. Ch. 74.— 'On appelle politiques des vers de quinze syllables, 
dans lesquels on n'observe pas la quantite ; ils ont la cesure apres la huitieme syllable, et l'accent sur 
1'avantderniere.' Cf. Herman L. II. c. xxtx. 16- 

§ 34. (k) The epigram. The term 1/iiyQauua originally signified merely an 
inscription, and from this use the poetry so called derived its prevailing character. 
The Greek epigram served for a motto on a pillar or an offering to a god, an ex- 
planation or memento under a painting, a panegyric on a statue or a monument, 
an epitaph on a grave-stone. Of course we could not expect it to be strikingly 
marked by that smartness of manner and sharpness of wit and point which mod- 
ern taste demands. It usually expressed a simple idea, a sentiment, a reflection, a 
regret, a wish, inspired by the accidental sight of a monument, an edifice, a tree 
or other object, or awakened by the recollection of something agreeable, melan- 
choly, or terrible in the past. Here we propose to mention some of the authors 
of different ages to whom epigrams are ascribed. 

A few are referred to the time anrecedent to Solon. Those ascribed to Ho- 
mer are the most ancient, but their genuineness is doubted. One worthy of its 
reputation bears the name of iEsop. 

There are various epigrams belonging to the two periods between Solon and 
the Roman supremacy, some said to be from the most distinguished authors. In- 
deed most of the poets, it is probable, composed occasionally these little pieces. 
Anacreon, Erinna, iEschylus, Euripides, and especially Simonides of Ceos 
may be named. The latter defeated iEschylus in competition for the prize ia- 
scriptionat Thermopylae. 

A single epigram is referred to Socrates; one to Thucydides; thirty to Plato, 
but without foundation. Three by the painter Parrhasius are preserved by Athe- 
naeus. 

The Alexandrine age abounded in epigrammatists ; more than thirty are 
enumerated. The most eminent were Callimachus, and Leonidas of Tarehtum. 
The latter left a hundred epigrams, in the Doric dialect, among the best that are 
preserved. 

In the next period the number of epigrammatists was still larger; ab'ave forty 



170 HISTORY OV GREEK LITERATURE. 

writers are named between the fell of Corinth and the time of Constantine, and 
B great number of i heir pieces are extant. Among them is the poet Archias, less 
celebrated tor his own productions than by the oration ol Cicero in his behalf. 
Diogenes Laerti us the biographer also has a place here. "We have the largest 
number of pieces from Meleager and Lucilius. The latter, a contemporary of 
Nero, published two books of epigrams, of which more than a hundred remain, 
chiefly of a satirical cast. Some of the emperors amused themselves in writing 
poetry of this description) we have several pieces from Adrian, and one from 
Trajan. In this period, collections of epigrams began to be compiled and pub- 
lished under different titles. They are now called Anthologies, and will be de- 
scribed in the next section. 

After Constantine it was chiefly in the epigram, that the poets labored or 
gained any distinction. Between forty and fifty different writers are mentioned, 
pagan and christian. The more eminent among them were Gregory Nazianzen, 
Paul Silentarius, the consul Macedonius, and Agathias of Myrinna. 

Besides the epigrammatists that have been now alluded to under the different 
periods of GreeK literature, the Anthologies contain the names of nearly one 
hundred others, whose epoch has not been ascertained. 

On Uie Greek epigrams see Lessing's vermischt. Schrift. Th. l.-Herder's zerstreute Blaetter. Gotha 
17S5, 6. Sanuol. I II. Franc. Vavassor de Epigrammate in his Opp. Amst. 1709. fol. Hist. Poeseos 
Gr. lirrvioris, ad Anacr. usq. ad Melcag. ex. Anthol. Gr. adumbrata. C. G. Sonntug. Lips. 1785. 
Schall, L. HI. Cli. 16, L. IV. Ch. 51. L. VI. Ch. 72. 

§ 35. Anthologies. The Greek Anthologies (Blumenlesen) are collections of 
small poems, chiefly epigrams, of various authors. Many of the pieces are re- 
markable for their beauty and simplicity in thought and their peculiar turns of 
expression. These collections began to be compiled during the decline of Greek 
literature. Several of these collections were made before the fall of Carthage, 
but seem to have been formed with more reference to the historical value of the 
inscriptions than to their poetical merit. The collection of Polemo Periegetes 
was of this early class, which are entirely lost. Next to these the first of which 
we have any knowledge was made by Meleager of Gadara in Syria, nearly 100 
B.C. It was entitled ^riyavog, the crown or garland, and contained the better 
pieces of forty-six poets, arranged alphabetically. The next was by Philippus of 
Thessalonica, in the time of Trajan, with the same arrangement. A little after, 
under Hadrian, about 120 A. D. a collection of choice pieces was formed by Di- 
ogenianus of Heraclea. About one hundred years later Diogenes Laertius gath- 
ered a body of epigrams composed in honor of illustrious men ; from the variety 
of metres in them, it was styled IlaufttTQov. In the second or third centuryStra- 
to of Sardis published a compilation including most of the poets embraced in the 
anthology of Meleager, and some of those embraced in the work of Philippus , 
together with several others. It was entitled HatSixtf Movaa. But that which 
may be considered as the third Anthology was published in the sixth century by 
Agathias of Myrinna, who has already been named as one of the more eminent 
epigrammatists after the time of Constantine. This bore the title of Krixlog, 
and consisted of seven books, into which the pieces were distributed according to 
their subjects. In the tenth century a fourth collection was made by Constantine 
Cephalas, of whom nothing else is known. In preparing it he made use of the 
preceding compilations, especially that of Agathias, but inserted also pieces of 
ancient authors not introduced in them. The epigrams and other pieces are 
arranged according to subjects in fifteen sections. Finally in the fourteenth 
century, Maximus Planudes a monk of Constantinople, the same who collected 
the fables of JEsop, formed a fifth Anthology. Planudes arranged the pieces in- 
cluded in his collection in seven distinct books. 

The two last mentioned, that of Cephalas and that of Planudes, are the only 
Anthologies now extant. That of Planudes was first printed in 1494, and the 
collection of Cephalas was after that almost entirely forgotten. In 1606 a man- 
uscript copy of Cephalas wasfound by Claude Saumaise (Claudius Salmasius") 
in the library at Heidelberg. 

Of the Anthology of Planudes the following are the principal editions. Henr. Etienne [Henr. Stc. 
plii/nus]. Par. 1566. 4. Wcchel, Frankf. 1600. fol. An edition at Naples, 1796. 5 vols. 4. with an Italian 
translation. Jerome de Bosch, Utrecht, 1795, 95. 3 vols. 4. with a translation in Latin verse by Hugo 
(iroiius and a supplement containing additional pieces; De Bosch added a 4th vol. of notes by him" 
self and CI> Salmastus | asth was published by D. J. Van Lrnnrp, 1822. [belle et bonne edition' 
Srhcellj: 



poetry; dramatic. 171 

Tbe discovery of the manuscript copy of Cephalas excited much interest in the literary world. Sal ■ 
masius made preparations for publishing an edition, but died without having accomplished the work, 
having delayed it from conscientious scruples, as is said, about publishing some of the amatory pieces. 
After his death, J, Ph. d'Orville engaged in preparing for an edition of Cephalas, but he also died with- 
out effecting it, and his papers passed to the library at Leyden, Some portions of the work of Cepha- 
las were published, in the meantime, by J. Jensius at Rotterdam, 1742, and J. H. Leich at Leipzig 
1745, But after D'Orville, the next principal labor upon this Anthology was by J. J. Reiske, who pub- 
lished his work under the title, Anthologias gr. a C.Cephala conduce libri ni. &c. Lips. 1754,8. Reiske 
having declined editing the impure pieces which constituted the 12th section of Cephalas, they were 
published by Chr. Ad. Klotz, under the title, Stratonis aliorumque vet. poet . gr. epigrammata eel. Altenb. 
1764. 8. 

A more complete collection of Greek epigrams and small poems is found in Brunck, Analecta vete- 
rum poetarum Graecorum, Argentor, 2ded. 1785. 3 vols. 8. Each piece is placed under the name of the 
author to whom it is ascribed.— A new edition was afterwards published by Fred. Jacobs, Anthologia. 
Graca, sive poetarum gracorumlusus, ex recensione Brunckii, Lips. 1794, 1814. 13 vols. 8. ; the first 4 
vols, contain the text, more correct ; the 5th consists of various tables and references; the remaining 
8 contain a valuable commentary by Jacobs.— By the same, Anthologia Graxa, ad fidem cod. ohm 
Palatini nunc Parisini, ex apographo Gothano edita, curavit, epigrammata in cod. Pal. desiderata el 
annotat. critic, adjecit P. Jacobs. Lips. 1813, 17. 3 vols. 8. [un corps complet des epigrammesgrecques 
restantde l'antiquite, Schall.}— The text is followed in the stereotype edition of Tauchnitz, Lips. 1819, 
3 vols. 12mo.---There are smaller collections; by A. F. Kanne, Halle, 1799. 8. A. WeicJiert, Mer/.en. 
1823, 8. ; Meleager's Sinngedichte [epigrams], by Manso. Jena, 1789. 8. and by Grrnfe Leipz. 1811. 8.— 
English translations of some of the pieces; Collections from the Greek Anthology by the late Robert 
Bland, and others, comprising the fragments of early Lyric poetry, with specimens of all the poets in- 
cluded in Meleager's Garland, Lond. 1833. Revd. in Blackwood's Mag. June 1833.— There are tasteful 
translations into German of some of the most beautiful pieces in Herder's Zerstreute Blotter, Gotha, 
1785. 8. several also in Tempe [by F. Jacobs]. Leipz. 1803. 2 vols. 8, 

For accounts of Anthologies &c. see Sclmll, Hist. Litt. Gr. L. v. ch. 51. L. vi. ch. n.—Fuhrinann Klein- 
eres Handbuch &c. p. 83. 474.— Schneider, Analects critica Fasc, 1,— P. Jacobs, prolegomena, in his 
Anthol. Grac. Lips. 1794 ss,— Harks, Introd. in Hist. L. G. proleg, vol. I. p. 91. 

§ 36. (I) Dramatic Poetry. Dramatic poetry took its rise from the religious 
ceremonies of the Greeks. It was an essential part of the public worship of the 
gods, especially of Bacchus at Athens, that there should be choirs composed of 
a sort of actors, who should, with dancing, singing and instrumental music, rep- 
resent some story relating to the divinity worshiped. 

Herodotus states, that the people of Sicyon thus represented by actors the ad- 
ventures of Adrastus, whom they honored as a god, and although referring to 
a period anterior to the existence of dramatic poetry, he calls these choirs of ac- 
tors tragic, because they represented the sufferings (ra rcMsa) of Adrastus. Sui- 
das and Photius mention Epigenes the Sicyouian as the inventer of tragedy. 
Themistius asserts expressly, that tragedy was invented by the Sicyonians, and 
perfected by the Athenians. 

The father of history also states that, when the inhabitants of jEgina took 
away from the Epidaurians the statues of two national divinities of the latter, 
and erected them in their own island, they instituted, in honor of the same, choirs 
of females under the direction of a male leader, in imitation of the Epidauri- 
ans. These choirs, in the worship rendered to the divinities, performed what 
might, by an anachronism similar to the other just mentioned, be called comic dra- 
mas. 

At Athens, as has been intimated, there were choirs like those of Sicyon and 
JEg'ma,, that performed a part in the festivals of Bacchus. Sometimes repre- 
senting, by their dances, songs and gestures, the expeditions of Bacchus and 
other events of his life, sometimes yielding to the intoxication that accompanies 
the pleasures of the vintage, they constantly vaunted the praises of the god, to 
whom they were indebted for the vine. These performances were conducted 
with a high degree of licentiousness both in language and action'. 

In these performances the drama had its origin, Probably at first they did 
not include what is now understood either by action, or by fable. The songs 
employed were lyric in their nature. Those sung by the choirs of Sicyon and 
iEgina were lyric, but of a tragic or comic character. But at length it began to 
be a custom to interrupt the song of the choir by the representation of some 
scene or action which was called 6(>aua, or InnooSiov, i. e. something acted, or 
something brought in. The murder of Bacchus or Osyris by Typhon was, it is 
likely, one of the most common subjects thus repre^ented. But subjects of a 
grotesque character would also be natural, from the great license attending the 



172 HISTORY OK GREEK LITERATURE. 

Dionysiac festivals. Gradually, and from causes of which tradition preserves 
no account, three distinct kinds or varieties of representation arose, and these 
laid the foundation of the three branches of the Greek drama, viz. tragedy, 
comedy, and satyre. 

§ 37. (1) Tragedy. The etymology of the word tragedy is uncertain; per- 
haps it was derived from the circumstance that a goat (roiiyoc) was the prize re- 
ceived by the conqueror. Tragedy was an improvement upon the chorus of 
the Bacchian festivals, and for a long time retained marks of its origin; having 
taken its rise, beyond question, from the songs at these annual festivals of the 
god of dissipation, when the poet who furnished the most popular piece was re- 
warded with a goat, or perhaps a goat-skin of wine. The chorus was a principal 
and essential part of the tragedy ; it was lyric in structure, and like other lyric 
poems usually presented the regular divisions of strophe, antistrophe and epode. 
In tragedy the chorus was charged with the exposition of the fable ; it praised the 
gods and justified them against the complaints of the suffering and the unhappy ; 
it sought to soothe the excited passions and to impart lessons of wisdom and ex- 
perience, and in general to suggest useful practical reflections. 

The chorus usually never quitted the stage, but remained during the whole performance. Their 
presence was indispensable, because the tragedy was not as among the moderns divided into acts, and 
served also to preserve the unity of the piece. It was usually composed of men of advanced age and 
much experience, or of young virgins of uncontaminated minds. The number of XoQevTttl 
was at first quite large; in the Eumenldes of JEschylus it consisted of fifty ; but after the representa. 
tion of that piece, it was limited to fifteen. It was divided into two portions, each having its chief or 
head styled xoQvtpaios ; when united they were jointly under the direction of a leader styled ^ogij- 
yoc or [ieo6x<>QvS. When they took part in the dialogue, it was done by the Coryphaeus, or leader. 
The portion strictly lyrical was sung by the whole chorus together, accompanied by the flute. When 
the chorus moved, it was in the Orchestra, oo/ ijorgos ; when still, they occupied the thymele (6v- 
ftili}) asort of altar placed in the orchestra, whence as spectators they could look upon all that trans- 
pired on the stage. In singing the part termed the strophe., the chorus moved in a sort of dance across 
the orchestra from right to left, and back from left to right while uttering the antistrophe; in the 
epode they stood in front of the audience. Tragedy had its appropriate kind ofdancetermedEjiijufitto!; 
that of comedy was called xhqSa^ and thatof satyre, alxivvig. The chorus was instructed in per- 
forming its part frequently by the poet himself. (P. 1. § 66). The expense of preparing and furnishing 
a chorus for an exhibition was often very great ; It was defrayed by individuals (#o()Jjyoi) designat- 
ed by the civil authorities (Potter's Arch. Graec. B. i. ch. 15). 

Schall, Hist. Liu. Gr. L. ill. ch. 11.— On the import of the chorus, Schlegel's Dramat. Lit. Lect. Hi.— 
Heeren's Diss, de chori trag. Graec. natura. Gcett. 1785. i.—Ilgen, Chorus Graec. qualis fuerit, &c r 
Erf. 1797. 8.— Franklin, Diss, on the Tragedy of the ancients. Lond. 1762.— On the music of the cho- 
rus, J. N. Forkel's Allg. Gesch, der Musik. 

§ 38. Thespis, of Icarus a ward of Attica, contemporary with Solon and 
Pisistratus, is regarded as the inventer of tragedy. Much obscurity rests on the 
changes, which were introduced by this poet, as the work of the peripatetic 
Chamseleon of Heraclea, which treated of the subject, is lost. His first innova- 
tion appears to have been in relation to the chorus. Before Thespis, its actors 
were masked as Satyrs and indulged in the most licentious freedom in amusing 
their auditors ; he assigned them a more decent part. He also introduced an 
actor whose recitals allowed intervals of rest to the chorus. Other events be- 
sides the exploits of Bacchus were likewise made the subjects of representation. 
But Solon prohibited the exhibiton of his tragedies as being useless fabrications. 
The performances of Thespis were no doubt rude, The stage is said to have 
been a cart, the chorus a troop of itinerant singers, the actor a sort of mimic, 
and the poem itself a motley combination of the serious and trifling, the ludi- 
crous and the pathetic. 

After twenty-five years the prohibition was removed by Pisistratus, and Thes- 
pis re-appeared with new glory. It was now, 537 B. C. according to the Parian 
marble, that he gained the prize in a tragic contest. Suidas gives the titles of 
four tragedies of this poet. There remain two fragments of doubtful authority 
cited by Clemens Alexandrimis (Strom. V) and Plutarch (De aud. poetis), and 
athird found in Pollux (L. VII. 13). 

Phrynicus, of Athens, is the next name in the history of tragedy. He was a 
disciple of Thespis, and introduced some changes, particularly the use of the 
female mask. He employed however but one actor besides the chorus, yet this 



TRAGEDY. 173 

actor represented different persons, by changing the dress and masks. He was 
the author of a tragedy, which Themistocles caused to be exhibited with great 
magnificence, and which bore away the prize. The memory of its success was 
perpetuated by an inscription. 

The first author whose tragedies are cited as having been committed to 
writing, was Choerilus of Athens, about 500 B. C. It was from regard to him 
that the 4 Athenians constructed their first theatre. The ancients attribute to him 
150 pieces, all lost. He is to be distinguished from Chceriius of Samos [§ 20), 
and from Chceriius of Iasus, the contemporary of Alexander. 

§ 39. The real father of tragedy was iEschylus of Eleusis, who flourished 
in the time of the Persian war, and fought in the battles of Marathon, 
Salamis andPlataea. Before him, the fable formed but a secondary part, the 
episode, of tragedy ; he made it the principal part, by adding a second actor 
and speaker, and thus introducing a dialogue in which the chorus did not always 
take a share. Sophocles of Athens, a contemporary of iEschylus but 27 or 28 
years younger, added a third speaker and sometimes even a fourth. Thus the 
importance of the chorus was diminished and the dialogue engrossed the chief 
interest of the play. Under Sophocles Greek tragedy received its final and perfect 
form. A third distinguished tragic writer, contemporary with the two just 
named, was Euripides born 16 or 17 years later than Sophocles. Euripides ad- 
ded nothing to tragedy in respect to its external structure; but in tragic interest 
he excelled both his precursors. The productions of these three authors were 
regarded by the Athenians as monuments of national glory. The orator Ly- 
curgus procured the enactment of a law, directing that an accurate and authen- 
tic copy of the tragedies of iEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides should be de- 
posited in the archives of the state, under the care of the magistrate called 
yqafiuarevg rijg n'oXswg. This copy, it is said, was obtained by Ptolemy III, son 
and successor of Philadelphus king of Egypt,on a pledge of 15 talents, for the 
purpose of correcting by it the copies in use at Alexandria ; he chose to forfeit 
the money and retain the original manuscript, sending back to Athens a copy in 
its stead. 

Some have expressed doubts whether we possess the exact productions of these 
poets, as they first came from their fertile imaginations. Corrections and addi- 
tions may have been made by persons called Siaaxsvaarai. Those of iEschylus 
are said to have been retouched by Bion, Euphorion, and Philocles ; those of 
Sophocles by his sons Iophon and Ariston, and those of Euripides by Cephiso- 
phorus. 

The history of tragedy in Greece, so far as it is chiefly important, is compara- 
tively brief. iEschylus, as has been stated, was its real author, and its history 
included but two other names of any distinction ; Sophocles and Euripides com- 
plete the list. These were nearly contemporary. iEschylus, at the age of 45, 
fought at the Battle of Salamis ; Euripides was born at that place on the very day 
of the battle; and Sophoeles, the same or the next year, being 16 or 17 years old, 
led the choir of singers and dancers around the trophy erected to commemorate 
the same battle. Of their writings only about 30 plays remain to us. But their 
reputation rests on a basis more solid than the quantity of what they produced, 
or time has spared. Perhaps, however, the plays now extant are valued the 
moie because they are so few, being considered, as it were, the savings of a vast 
wreck. (Cf. P. I. § 66.) 

§ 40. Besides the three eminent tragic poets, the grammarians of Alexan- 
dria placed in their canon three others, viz. Ion of Chios, Achasus of Eretria, 
and Agatho of Athens, nearly contemporary with the three whose names are so 
illustrious. Only a few fragments of their works remain ; they may be found 
in the collection of Grotius. The names of above twenty others are recorded 
as writers of tragedies before the time of Alexander; but none of them are emi- 
nent, and nothing remains of their works but disconnected fragments. Among 
them are Euphorion and Bion, sons of iEschylus, and Iophon, son of Sophocles. 
We find also in the catalogue, Critias and Theognis, two of the famous thirty 
tyrants. 

In the period between Alexander and the capture of Corinth, there were a few 
tragic writers, whom the critics of Alexandria ranked in their second canon, the 
"first including the masters who wrote before the death, of Alexander. Their 
second canon, called the tragic Pleiades, included seven poets, who lived in the 
times of the first Ptolemies. They were Alexander of Aetolia, Philiscus of 
Corcyra, Sositheus, Homer the younger, iEantides, Sosiphanes and Lycophron. 



17 1 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

The first Of these has been named among the elegiac, and the last among the 
lyric poets. The trifling fragments of these writers, now extant, are found in 
the collections of Frobenius and Grotius. Another poet, Timon, who for a 
while taught philosophy at Chaleedon, is said to have composed sixty tragedies. 

Ptolemy Philadelphia, in order to encourage the dramatic art, established the- 
atrical contests like those at Athens. But the productions of the poets at Alex- 
andria fell far short of those of Athens in the preceding period. The tragedies 
were rather works for the cabinet, than for the theatre, adapted for the amuse- 
ment of princes and courtiers, or the inspection of cold critics, rather than for- 
popularexhibilion. They were productions of subtlety and artifice, but com- 
paratively uninteresting and lifeless. 

After what is termed the Alexandrine age, nothing was produced in Greek 
tragedy. 

On the origin of tragedy, soo Schneider de origin, trag. Gr. Vratisl. 1817. 8.— Vatry Recherches sur 
l'orig. etle nrog.de la Tragedle, in Mem. de l'Aead, T. XXIII, XXX.— Dr. Blair's Lect. XI V.— Mar- 
mental Poet. T. U.—Brumoy, Disc, sur 1 orig. de la Trag. pref. to Theatre des Grecs.—Rich. Benltey, 
Resp. ad C. Boyle (Opusc. Phllol.). 

On the history and character of Gr. tragedy Jos. Barnes, Tract, de Trag. Vet. Grajc. &c. in his ed. of 
Euripides.— Le Beau, Des Tragiques Gr. in Mem. de l'Aead. XXXV.-- J. J. H. Nast, Obs. in rem trag. 
Graec. Stuttg. nn.—Barthelemy, Anacharsis Chap. 69—71.— .4, Auger De la Trag. Gr. &c. Par. 1792.— 
Brumoy, Theatre des Grecs, ed. Raovl Rochette. Par. 1820.— SchlegeVs Lectures on Dramat. Lit. (tr. 
by Black.) Lond. 1815.— Theatre of the Greeks. Cambr. 1830. 8.— Schttll, Hist. Litt. Gr. L. iii. ch. 11. 

§ 41. (2) Comedy. Epicharmus of Cos, who was a professor of the Pytha- 
gorean philosophy at the court of Hiero, in Sicily, about 470 B. C. is usually 
considered as the first writer of comedy. The species cultivated by him is called 
the Sicilian comedy, which the ancient writers distinguished from the Attic 
comedy. 

Fifty comedies are ascribed to him, but the fragments preserved (found in the 
collection of Heriel) scarcely enable us to judge of their character. Phormis 
of Syracuse, was another writer in the same species. The pieces of Epichar- 
mus are said to have been known and admired especially by the Athenians, and 
to have given a great impulse to the cultivation of comedy among that people 
(Barthelemy's Anacharsis ch. 69). 

Schcell gives the following account of the origin of Attic comedy. ' Between 
Tragedy and Comedy in modern literature there is such an analogy, that they 
are justly regarded as two species of the same genus. From this it has been 
imagined, that both had the same origin among the ancients. But it is not so. 
Tragedy grew out of the songs, with which the cities of Greece celebrated the 
festivals of Bacchus. Comedy, on the other hand, took its origin in the coantry. 
The wards or boroughs (%<oi) of Attica were accustomed to unite in singing 
the phallic songs (tpaUixa), in which the most unrestrained licentiousness was 
allowed. The performers, drawn in cars, proceeded from borough to borough ; 
their numbers increased at every station; and they strolled about the country 
until their excesses forced them to seek repose. Hence comedy derived its name 
from xwfiri, a village. The two species of drama followed in their progress a 
different course. They were for a long time strangers to each other, and it was 
not till a late period, that comedy adopted the improvements embraced by her 
sister. At length however, the chorus, which had played the principal part, as 
in tragedy, lost its primitive importance, and it finally happened that comedy ap- 
peared on the stage without this accompaniment.' 

Susarion of Megara, about 570 B. C. is described as traversing the territory 
of Attica with an exhibition of these burlesque pieces, which constituted the 
beginnings of comedy. Crates, about 500 B. C. is said to have given to them a 
more complete and perfect form. From this time tragedy was not the only rep- 
resentation attending the festivals of Bacchus; comedy was associated with it 
as a novel spectacle. 

Mythology furnished but few of the subjects of comedy in the character, which 
it hrst assumed after its introduction from the country to the city. It was a com- 
plete contrast to tragedy. Passing events, the politics of the day, the characters 
ana deeds of leading chiefs, the civil and military officers, and in short every 
thing pertaining to public or private affairs, entered into the materials, with 
which it amused the hearers. It was therefore obviously liable to great abuse. 
i»o citizen could be secure from attacks, which were not made by mere allusion, 
But more frequently by naming the person and portraying his features upon the 



COMEDY. 175 

mask of the actor. It is this use of personal satire, which essentially characteri- 
ses what is called the old comedy. 

The grammarians of Alexander have ranked, as belonging to the old comedy, 
six poets, viz. Epicharmus, Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristophanes, Pherec rates, and 
Plato, called the comic, to distinguish him from the philosopher. The first has 
already been spoken of. Aristophanes is the only one of the rest, of whom we 
have any whole pieces extant. The fragments of the others may be found in 
the collection of Grotius. The plays of Aristophanes justify and illustrate the 
character above ascribed to the old comedy. Besides these six poets, more than 
twenty others are recorded as authors in this kind of comedy, of several of whom 
trifling fragments are preserved. 

See P. F- Kanngiesser, Die alte Komische Buehne In Athen. Breslau, 1817. S. 

§ 42. The old comedy continued until the time of the Thirty, when, B. C. 404, 
a law was enacted which prohibited the use of living characters and real names, 
and also of the TtaQufiagtg of the chorus. This gave rise to what is called the 
middle comedy. All that we know historically of this, is from the remarks of an 
ancient grammarian by the name of Platonius ( See Hertelii Collectio). But 
there is one piece of Aristophanes, the IIIovto$ } which is a specimen of the 
kind ; it was not represented until after the law abolishing the old form. The 
chief peculiarity is the exclusion of personal satire. It seems also to have con- 
sisted in a considerable degree of parodies. 

The grammarians of Alexandria regarded two authors in the middle comedy 
as classic, viz. Antiphanes of Rhodes and Alexis of Thurii. No more than 
insignificant scraps are left of the 360 pieces ascribed to the former, or the 145 of 
the latter. There were between thirty and forty other writers whose names are 
preserved, with the titles of some of their comedies. 

The comic chorus consisted of twenty four members, even after the tragic was limited to fifteen. 
There were other points of difference. ' It frequently happens that there are several choruses in the 
same comedy, who at one time all sing together, and in opposite positions, and at other times change 
with, and succeed each other without any general reference. The most remarkable peculiarity, how- 
ever, of the comic chorus is the parabasis, an address to the spectators by the chorus, in the name and 
under the authority of the poet, which has no concern with the subject of the piece. Sometimes he 
enlarges on his own merits, and ridicules the pretensions of his rivals ; at other times he avails him- 
self of his rights as an Athenian citizen to deliver proposals of a serious or ludicrous nature for the 
public good, The parabasis may be considered as repugnant to the essence of dramatic representation, 
All tragical impressions are by such intermixtures infallibly destroyed ; but these intentional inter- 
ruptions, though even more serious than the subject of the representation, are hailed with welcome in 
the comic tone.' Schlegel, on Dram, Lit. Lect. vi.— See also Schasll, Hist, Litt. Gr. L. iii. Oh. 13, on the 
parts of the comic chorus, naQa(iaat ;, fTrioo^ua, hvrtnlqqi]^ia &c.—Le beau, sur le Plutus 
d'Aristoph, et sur les caracteres assignes a la comedie moyenne, in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Insc. et 
Belles-Lett. T. xxx. 

§ 43. The new comedy belongs wholly to the Alexandrine period of Greek 
literature. In this the chorus wholly disappeared, having been deprived of its 
most important functions by the change from the old to the middle. The new 
comedy instead of indulging in personal satire with the use of real names like 
the old, or turning into ludicrous parodies the verses and themes of other poets 
like the middle, aimed more to paint manners. ' The new comedy,' says Schlegel, 
is a mixture of seriousness and mirth. The poet no longer himself turns poetry 
and the world into ridicule ; he no longer gives himself up to a sportive and frol- 
icsome inspiration, but endeavors to discover what is ridiculous in the objects 
themselves; in human characters and their situations he paints what occasions 
mirth.' 

The most celebrated writer in the new comedy was Menander, whose pieces 
are spoken of by the ancients with great admiration, and their loss is much re- 
gretted. He began to write at the age of twenty, and is said to have composed a 
hundred plays. Besides Menander, the Alexandrian critics recognise four others 
as possessing classical merit, Philippides, Diphilus, Philemon and Apollodorus. 
Several other names are also recorded, which it is of no importance to repeat. 

Although the plays belonging to the new comedy were very numerous, amount- 
ing it is said to some thousands, not a single original specimen is preserved. 
We have however several imitations or translations in the Roman authors Plau- 
tus and Terence. 



176 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE- 

On Comedy jsrittolly, see P, /c Brun, Disc. surlaComedle&c.Par. 1731.— E-iehenburg's F.ntwurf; 

Hurd's Comment. on Ep. Hor. Loud. 1788, tree.fDe VAtt de la Comedls, par M. de Caithava, Par. 
177-j I vol. a. Essay on Comedy, l>y B. H'alioln, Loud. 1782. 8. On the Gr. Comedy Schlegcl's Lect on 
Dramat Ult.—jBrnmoy, Disc, sur la com. Gr. in his Theatre cles Grecs. - Theatre of the Greeks cited § 40. 

Van y Rechareh. sur l'or. et les prog, de la Com. Gr. In Mem. de l'Acad. I. XXV.—F/fflg-eJ's Gesch. d. 
kom. Literatui •■■ -For the fragments of the comic poets, Jac. Hertel, Vetustiss. sapientiss. comlcor. tiuin- 
quaglnta Sentential Has. I680. Brlx. lt]9.—Henr. Srephanus, Comlcor. Graec. Sent. Frankf. 1579. 8. 
11. Qrotlus, Exceip. ox Trag, et Com. Gr. Par. 1626. 4.— J. Clericua (Le Clerc) Menandrl et Phllemonls 
Fragm. Ams. 1709. 8. 

§ 44. (3) Salyre. The following account of the satyric drama is given by 
Barthelemy. 'After having traced the progress of tragedy and comedy, it re- 
mains to speak of a species of drama, which unites the pleasantry of the latter 
to the gravity of the former. This, in like manner, derives its origin from the 
festivals of Bacchus, in which choruses of Sileni and Satyrs intermingled jests 
and raillery with the hymns they sang in honor of that god. The success they 
met with gave the first idea of the satyric drama, a kind of poem in which the 
most serious subjects are treated in a manner at once affecting and comic. It 
is distinguished from tragedy by the kind of personages it admits; by the catas- 
trophe, which is never calamitous ; and by the strokes of pleasantry, bon-mots, 
and buffooneries, which constitute its. principal merit. It differs from comedy 
by the nature of the subject, by the air of dignity which reigns in some of the 
scenes, and the attention with which it avoids all personalities. It is distinct from 
both the tragic and comic dramas by certain rythms which are peculiar to it, by 
the simplicity of its fable, and by the limits prescribed to the duration of its ac- 
tion ; for the satyre is a kind of entertainment, which is performed after the trag- 
edies as a relaxation to the spectators. The scene presents to view groves, 
mountains, grottoes, and landscapes of every kind. The personages of the cho- 
rus, disguised under the grotesque forms attributed to the satyrs, sometimes execute 
lively dances with frequent leaps, andsometimes discourse in dialogue, or sing, 
with the gods or heroes, and from the diversity of thoughts, sentiments and ex- 
pressions, results a striking and singular contrast.' 

' The satyrical drama,' says Schlegel, ' never possessed an independent exis-, 
tence ; it was given as an appendage to several tragedies, and from all we can 
conjecture was always considerable shorter. In external form it resembled trag- 
edy and the materials were in like manner mythological. The distinctive mark 
was a chorus consisting of satyrs, who accompanied the adventures of the fable 
with lively songs, gestures and movements. The immediate cause of this spe- 
cies of drama was derived from the festivals of Bacchus, where satyr-masks were 
a common disguise. As the chorus was thus composed of satyrs, and they per- 
formed the peculiar dances alluded to (^ixiitj) or ootirnc), it was not a matter 
of indifference where the poet should place the scene of his fable ; the scene 
must be where such a choir might naturally, according to Grecian fancy, display 
itself; not in cities or palaces, but in a forest, a mountain, a retired valley or on 
the sea-shore. 

The great tragic authors, iEschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, each distinguish- 
ed themselves by pieces of this kind. Several other writers, in the same age, 
are mentioned, as Pratinus, Aristias, Xenocles, and Philoxenes. But the most 
distinguished of all in the satyric drama were Acheeus of Eretria, and Hegemon. 
of Thasus. ' The latter added a new charm to the satyric drama,' says Barthel- 
m Y: ' by parodying several well known tragedies. The artifice and neatness, 
with which he executed these parodies, rendered his pieces greatly applauded, 
and frequently procured them the crown. During the representation of his Gi- 
gantomac/tia, and while the whole audience were in a violent fit of laughter, 
news arrived of the defeat of the army in Sicily. Hegemon proposed to break 
off the piece abruptly; but the Athenians, without removing from their places, 
covered themselves with their cloaks, and after having paid the tribute of a few 
tears to their relatives who had fallen in the battle, listened with the same atten- 
tion as before to the remainder of the entertainment.' 

The Cyclops of Euripides is the only drama of this species that has come 
down to lis. Its subject is drawn from Homer's Odyssey ; it is Ulysses depriving 
Polyphemus of his eye after having made him drunk with wine. In order to 
connect with this a chorus of satyrs, the poet represents Silenus and his sons the 
satyrs as seeking over every sea for Bacchus carried away by pirates. In the 
search, they are wrecked upon the shores of Sicily, enslaved by Cyclops and 
forced to tend his sheep. When Ulysses is cast upon the same shore, thev league 



SATYRE. MIMES. 177 

with him against their master, but their cowardice renders them very poor as- 
sistants to him, while they take advantage of his victory and escape from the 
island by embarking with him. The piece derives its chief value from its rari- 
ty and being the only specimen, from which we can form an estimate of the spe- 
cies of composition to which it belongs. 

See Casaubon, de satyrica Graecorum poesi. Halae, 1779. 8.— H. C. A. Eichstaedt, de Dram. Graee. 
Comico-Satyrico. Lips. 1793. 8,—Brumoy, Disc, sur le Cyclope d'Euripide &c. in Theatre des Grecs.— 
J. G. Buhle, de Fabula Satyr. Graec. Gcett. 1787. 4.— Suiter's Allg, Theorie, Satire. 

§ 45. It is important not to confound these satyrica] compositions of the Greeks, 
which have now been described, with the satire of the Romans, which was total- 
ly different in its nature. 

It may be remarked however here, that the Greeks had satire in various forms 
both in poetry and prose. The Margitesof Homer may be considered as a sort 
of epic satire. Of lyric satire (or iambic as it may be called, from the verse gen- 
erally used] a few fragments remain from different authors. Archilochus is one 
of them. Another was Simonides of Nimoa in the island of Amorgos, author 
of a satire upon women. We may add the name of Hipponax (Hor. Ep. VI. 12.) 
who employed, perhaps invented, the Ckoliambic verse { xuiZiufipog, Vaii{los oxutov) 
as best adapted to satirical purposes. 

Here also may be mentioned the poems called SV.loi ; for they were a kind of 
satire. They have been called by some didactic satire, as they seem to have ridi- 
culed especially the pretensions of ignorance. They were a sort of parody in 
which the verses of distinguished poets, Homer particularly, were applied in a 
ludicrous manner to the object of the satire. Xenophanes of Colophon is re- 
garded as the first author of this species. Yet the only writer, of whom it is cer- 
tain that he composed ZtXXot, is Timon of Phlius, the sceptic philosopher already 
named (§ 40) as a dramatist. His satires formed three books, and were very 
caustic. A few fragments are extant. He enjoyed a high reputation with the 
ancients, and Athenasus states that commentaries were written upon his SMot. 
This is not the place to speak of the prose satire of the Greeks, but it may be re- 
marked that the principal writers were Lucian and the Emperor Julian. 

Seele Beau, on Homer's Margites, in Mem. de l'Acad. des Insc, &c. T. xxix, xxx, 4to e^l.— E. L. D. 
Huchs, Versuch ueber die Verdienste des Archilochus urn die Satire, Zerbst. 1767. 8.— The fragments 
of Hipponax were published by Theoph. Fr. WelcJcer. Gcett. 1817. 4. 

Is. Heinr. Langheinrich de Timone sillographo, Lips. 1720, 21. 4.— Sulze r's Allg. Theor. art. Satire. 
Schasll Hist. Gr. Lit. L. IV. Ch. 34. Fred. Paul, de Sillis Gracorum. Jierol. 1821 . 8.— The fragments may 
be found in Brunlc's Analecta. 

§ 46. Besides the three regular varieties of the drama already described, the • 
Greeks had a great number of performances, which were of the nature of 
farces. At festal entertainments buffoons were often introduced, whose panto- 
mime was mingled with extemporary dialogue (uvroxufidaXoi). In the theatre, 
ludicrous and indelicate representations were made by actors called ftifioi. Pie- 
ces of this sort were termed Ivaivoioi. or paymSai. No specimen of them is pre- 
served. 

The name of mimes (fufioi) was at length given to little poems designed to 
bring before the spectator or reader an incident or story, which was not, like 
that of tragedy, drawn from mythology or heroic adventures, nor like that of 
comedy, taken from civil or political life, but furnished by domestic occurrences. 
A piece of this sort contained a painting of manners and characters, without a 
complete fable. Sophron of Syracuse, B. C. 4'20, is mentioned as a writer of 
mimes. His pieces were written in the Doric dialect and not in proper verse, 
but in a kind of measured prose (xaraXoyuSr/v). Plato very much admired them, 
and encouraged at Athens a taste for such performances. The few fragments of 
Sophron's mimes which remain are not sufficient to enable us to judge fully re- 
specting their character. The fifteenth idyl of Theocritus is an imitation of 
one of them. A commentary on the mimes of Sophron was written by Apollo- 
dorus of Athens. Another author of mimes was Philistion of Nicea, who 
flourished in the last days of Socrates. 

For the fragments of Sophron, see Classical Journal Vol. tv.— Museum Critiaim, (Camb.) No. 7. 
Nov. 1821.— The sentences of Philistion and Menander were published by Nic. Rigoulet, Par. 1613. 8. 

§ 47/ Having glanced in a general manner at the history of 

23 



178 HISTORY OF GRF.EK LITERATURE. 

I .reek poetry in each of its departments, the plan already pointed 
out (^ 8) loads us now to notice more particularly the principal poets. 
In doing- this, it will be recollected, we are to arrange the names in 
chronological order. To a brief notice of the poet and his works, a 
view of the more important editions will be added. Before com- 
mencing with individuals, however, we will subjoin here some ref- 
erences to works, which relate to the Greek poets or classes of them 
collectively. 

Lit. Greg. Gyraldi Historic Poetar. tarn Grsec. quam Latin. Dialogi X. 1548. 
8. — G. J. Vossius, de veterum poetarum Graecorum et Latinorum temporibus. 
Amster. 1654. 4. — Hartmann's Versuch einer allg. Geschichte der Poesie der 
Griechen und Rcemen. Berl. 1798. 8. — Le Fevre, Vies de Poetes Grecs. — Lor. 
Crasso Istoria de' Poeti Greci. Nap. 1678. fol. — B. Kermett's Lives and Charac- 
ters of the ancient Grecian Poets. Lond. 1697. 8. — Here may properly be men- 
tioned Elton's Specimens of the Classic Poets. 

It may be proper to refer to some of the collections, which have been publish- 
ed. — J. Fr. Boissonade, Poetarum graecorum Sylloge. Par. 1823. in 32. Vol. i. 
Anacreon, with fragments of others, Vol. ii. Theocritus, Bion, Moschus; Vol. 
iii. Theosinis, Tyrtaeus, Phocylides and others. Whether completed not 
known. — R. F. Ph. Brunch, > H8txti nolyoig, sive Gnomici poetae graeci, cited 
§ 31. Same with additions by G. Schcefer. Leipz. 1817. 8. — Claude Chapelet, 
Poetae grseci christiani. Par. 1609. 8. — Novem Lyrici Graecorum. cura Mmilii 
Porti. (printed by Commeline) Heidelb. 1598. 8.— Repr.Anjou, 1611. 4. H. Ste- 
phanus,' Ot rijg ijQw'iy.i/g noiijaeag nQwrlvovreg TroiijTut xal aXXoi ririg. Poetae 
graeci princ. heroic, carm. 1566. fol. — By same, HoirjOig (ptioaoyog. Poesis phi- 
losphica, &c. Par. 1573. 8.— Thos. Gaisford, Poetae minores Graeci. Oxon. 1814 
-20. 4 vols. 8. — J. Lectins, Poets graeci veteres, carmini heroici Scriptores &c. 
Aurel. Allobrog. 1606, fol.— Same, Poetae graeci veteres tragici, comici &c. 
Colon. Allobrog. 1614. 2 vols. fol. — Mich. Mattaire, Miscellanea Grascorum ali- 
quot scriptorum carmina. Lond. 1722. 4. — Morel, E comicis graecis XLII deper- 
ditis sententise collectse, (gr. et lat.) Par. 1553. 8. — A. Schneider, Movo&v avdtj, 
sive poetriarum Graecarum carminum fragmenta. Giessae. 1802. 8; containing 
the fragments of Sappho, Erinne, Myro, Corinna &C.—R. Winterton's Poetae 
minores graeci. gr, et lat. Cantab. 1635, et al. Lond. 1739. 8. 

Weigel Bibliotheca classica poetarum Graecorum fed. J. G. Schcefer). — Tauch- 
nitz, Corpus poetarum Graecorum. — Same publisher, a later edition, stereotype ; 
convenient and valuable (Cfi Scholl. Hist. Litt. Gr. Introduction, p. 86. 89.] 



§ 48. Orpheus, about 1250 B. C. a Thracian, pupil of Linus, and 
companion of the Argonauts. The tradition, that by his lyre he 
tamed wild beasts and moved inanimate things to actions, is mere alle- 
gory, and refers only to the moral improvement effected perhaps by 
means of his song. The works ascribed to him are (1) Hymns (Te- 
IetccI) 28 in number, (2) a historical poem on the expedition of the 
Argonauts (^AqyovovTtxd), (3) a metrical treatise on the secret pow- 
ers of Stones (TIbqI Aidwv), and (4) a piece on earthquakes (IIsqI 
Seta/iaf) and other fragments. These poems are now considered as 
the production of later times, coimposed at different periods. 

(I) The best edition is that of Hermann, Orphica cum notis H. Stephani, A. 
C. Eschenbachii, J. M. Gessneri, Th . Tyrwhitti, recensuit Godof. Hermannus, 
Lips. 1805. 2 vols. 8. A stereot. ed. of this text. Lpz. 1823. 12mo— Early edi- 
tions ; Princeps. Orphei Argonaut. Hv/mni. et Procli Lyoii Hym.Graece, Florent. 
1500. 4to. (imp. Junta).— Aldina, 151' 7. 8vo— Stephani, in Poet. Graec. princ. 



ORPHEUS. MUS.EUS. 179 

her. carm. cited § 47.— Other editions ; Gessneri (ed. Hambergerl Lips. 1764. 8. — 
HeQt Xidwv. Th. Tyrwhitl. Lond. 1781. 8. — 'AQyoravrixa. J. G. Schneider. Jena. 
1803. 8. 

Translations of the hymns; Italian, Innidi Orfeo, esposti in versi volgari (Ant. 
Jerogadcs). Neapoli. 1788. 8. — Latin, by Jos. Scaliger. Lugd. Bat. 1516. 12; 
English, with prel. dissert, by Th. Taylor. 1787, 1824. 8. ; also by Dodd in his 
Callimachus. Lond. 1755. — German, with the original text, by D.K. P. Dielsch, 
Erl. 1822, 4.— Of the Argonautics, German, I. H. Voss. Heidelb. 180G. 4. 

(2) On the question concerning the origin of the Orphic poetry, see Huct, 
Demonst. Evang. Prop. IV. C. $.—Ruhnken, Epist. Crit. 1782. — Fried. Snedorj, 
de Hymn. Vet. Graec. Lips. 1786.— Car. G. Lenz, de Orphic. Frag. Gcett. 1789. 
— Gerlach, de Hymn. Orpn. Comment. Gcett. 1797. — Diss, de aet. Script, Argo- 
naut, in Hermann's ed. of Orpheus. — De Orphei Argonauticis. Rostoc. 1806. 4to. 
— De argument, pro Antiq. Orph. Argon. Lips. 1811. 4. — Bode, Orpheus Poet. 
Graec. Antiquiss. Gcett. 1824. 4.— Especially Scholl, Hist. Litt. Gr. Vol. i. p. 38. 
— North. Am. Rev. Vol. xxi. 

§ 49. Muscrus, according to tradition a contemporary of Orphe- 
us, born at Athens, a poet and philosopher. The poem of Hero and 
Leander, Td xad' 'Hga y.alAeuvdQov, which has been ascribed to him, 
was certainly the work of a later age, probably the fifth century after 
Christ. It contains many passages of epic beauty, but far too little 
of the simplicity belonging to its pretended age. 

(1) There was a Musaeus, who flourished not far from A. D. 500. A letter 
from Procopius to him implies that he was a grammarian, which title is given to 
the author of the poem, in all the manuscripts. Hence it is conjectured that the 
real author was this person. 

We have the titles of many works ascribed to the ancient Musa;us ; the follow- 
ing, besides others, Xq>io/.(,oI, oracles ; TtXtrui, initiations, a. species of poem re- 
ferring to religious rites of an initiatory and expiatory kind, called also xa&aoftol, 
purifications, and naqalvasii, absolutions; 'Axtanq vuauir ; ' Tno&ijxai, precepts; 
Tltnl QccmQuyrciv, describing the remarkable things of Thesprotia; ZyaiQa, an 
astronomical poem &c. 

The few fragments of the ancient Musaeus remaining are gathered in the 
collection of philosophic poetry by Stephanus [see §471. 

(2) The best editions of the poem of Hero and Leander are by J. Schrader, 
Leuward. 1793. 8. by if. .P. Heinrich, Han. 1793. 8,&by C. A. Mobius, Halle 1814. 
12.-Early editions ; Princeps, Al-dina, Gr. et Lat. 1494 ; supposed the first work from 
the Aldine press ; extremely rare. — Juntina (Phil. Giunta). Gr. et Lat. Florent. 
1519. 8. — with other works Gr. et Lat. ap. J. Frobeninm, Bas. 1518. 8. — H. Ste- 
phani (in Poet. Graec. princ. &c. cited §47). — Others; J. H. Kronmayer, Halle, 
1721. 8. — M. Rmver with the Scholia, and from collation of 7 Mss. and 17 editions 
(editor being 17 yearsof age) Leyd. 1737. 8. — Du Theil, Gr. and Fr. Paris, 1784. 12. 

Translations, besides those included in the above ; German, with original, by 
Fr. PasSow, Lpz. 1810. 8.— Latin and French, with original, by J. B. Gail, Par. 
1796. 4.— by Ch. L. Mollerault, Strasb. and Par. 1805. 8.— Italian, edited by 
Frances. Mazar. Furao, Naples, 1787. 8. — English, G. Chapman, Lond. 1606. 
4 — R. Stapylton, Lond. 1647. 8. — Stirling, Lond. 1728. 12, — Franc. Fawkes, 
(with Anacreon, Sappho, Bion and Moschus) Lond. 1760. — See Brueggemann's 
View &c— Sulzer's Theorie, Vol. II. p. 508. 

(3) Respecting the age and author of the poem, see the Prefaces of Schrader, 
Heinrich, and Passow. — Diss, in Kronmayer.— C. F. Hindenburg, Specimen 
Animadv. in Musaeum. Lips. 1763. — De La. Nauze, Rem. sur l'Hist. d'Hero &c. 
in Mem. de TAcad.des Ins. T. IV. and Nic. Mahudcl, Reft. Crit. &c. in same, 
T. VII. 

§ 50. Homer lived about 1000 B. C. or perhaps later. The 
place of his birth is uncertain; seven Grecian cities claimed the 
honor; it probably belonged to Chios (Scio) or Smyrna. Most of 



ISO HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE, 

the circumstances related of his life are derived from two biographies, 
which have been ascribed, on insufficient grounds, to Herodotus and 
Plutarch. The story of his blindness seems to have been a mere tra- 
dition. His two epic poems, the Iliad ('Ihdg) and Odyssey (' Odvo- 
oeLol) originally consisted of various Rhapsodies, which were first re- 
duced to their present form under the direction of Pisistratus and his 
son Hipparchus. On being committed to writing, which could hard, 
ly have been done by Homer himself, it is not improbable, that they 
received some additions and interpolations. Both of them are a se- 
ries of songs, probably from several authors, Homer and the Homer- 
ida;, composed at different times and successively enlarged. The 
subject of the Iliad is the 'wrath of Achilles,' his separation from the 
Grecian army in consequence of it, and the events of the Trojan war 
during his absence and immediately after his return. The theme of the 
Odyssey is the wandering of Ulysses, the dangers and sufferings of 
his return from Troy to Ithaca, and the events following his arrival. 
Besides these two heroic poems, the most celebrated of epic produc- 
tions, there is ascribed to Homer a comic piece, the Bcxrgaxofivofiaxia, 
(Battle of the Frogs and Mice), a mock-heroic poem, belonging un- 
questionably to a later period. There are also ascribed to him thirty 
three Hymns, besides various small pieces and epigrams. Some of 
the Hymns were probably composed by the Homeridse or- Homeric 
Rhapsodists (§21). 

(1) There is a diversity of opinion respecting the. period in which Homer lived. 
"While some place him as above, B. C. 1000, others place him only about B. C. 
600. The Arundelia'n Marble places him B. C. 907. The date ascribed by wood 
(Essay on the Original Genius &c), and adopted by Mitford (Hist, of Greece, 
Ch. iii. App.) is B. C. 850. A writer in the Philosophical Transactions (vol. 
xlviii) brings Homer down to the sixth century before Christ, by astronomical 
calculations, not to be relied on. 

(2) Different traditions are related respecting his parentage and birth to ex- 
plain the terms Maeonides, son of Maon, and Melesigenes, bom by the riverMeles. 
Conflicting etymologies of his name "OfniQog have been devised, some of them 
sufficiently absurd. — Respecting his manner of life, all the accounts, whether 
genuine or spurious, generally agree in representing him as a Rhapsodist, 
wandering on the Asiatic coast and through the islands of Greece, and earning 
fame and a maintenance by the recitation of his verses. — His death is variously- 
told. One story brings him to his end by falling over a stone. Another allows 
him a gentler death. Another tells that he broke his heart out of pure vexation, 
because he could not solve a riddle proposed to him by some waggish young 
fishermen.— Cf. Coleridge ( § 21). p. 45, 60, 63. 

Numerous treatises have been written on the life of this Poet. Besides the 
two above mentioned, ascribed to Hejodotus and Plutarch, there are three 
short lives in Greek prefixed to the work of Allolius (de Patria Homeri, Lug. 
Bat. 1640. 8.), one of them written by Proclus. Of modern biographies those of 
Pope and Madame Dacier are very convenient. See also Thomas Blaclcwall, 
Enquiry into the Life and Writings of Homer, 2d ed. Lond. 1736. 8. Tr. Germ, 
by Vnss. Leipz. 1776. 8.— Wood's Essay, cited below (4).—Kasppen's Einleitung in 
dieerklEErende Anmerk. zum Homer, verbess. von Ruhkopf. Hannov. 1820.8. 

(3) Besides the works above named, many others were formerly ascribed to 
Homer, of which the titki only are preserved. The Maiiyhm has already been 



HOMER. 181 

mentioned (§ 45), 'a satire upon some strenuous blockhead,' often alluded to by 
the ancient writers. At least twenty other titles are recorded, among which are 
the following; 'uifia&via, 5 Aqavofiaxia, reQavopax'ia, 'Eniyorot, KixQianeg, 
Nuocui, Waiyvia &e. — Fabricius, Bibl. Gr. i, 374. 

The BaTQaxofivopax'LU has been ascribed to Pigres, who lived in the time of 
the Persian invasion ; but some allusions and names in it are supposed to indi- 
cate an Alexandrian age and source. This mock heroic has bt en repeatedly 
imitated. Theodore Prodromus, in the 12th century, wrote ai> imitation in 
Iambic trimeters, called the Galeomackia. There are also Latin imitations (one 

by Addison in the Musoz Etoncnses). Fuhrman kleineres Hadbuch. p 44. J. F. 

D. Goes, Diss, de Batrachomyomachia etc. Erlang. 1798. 8.—C. D. Ilgen, Hymn. 
Homerici etc. (containing a modern Greek version of the Batrachom. by Demetr. 
Zenus, and the Galeomachia of Prodromus), Hal. 1796. 8.— Coleridge, p. 182. 

The greater part of the Homeric hymns belong to the class of addresses and 
invocations to the gods (IlQooifua) which the Rhapsodists were accustomed to 
make in commencing their recitals. But several of the larger ones, especially, 
may with propriety be termed epic. — Herniawi's Epistle, prefixed to his edition 
of Epigrams cited below (5). — Coleridge, p. 190. 

(4) The controversy among the learned respecting the origin of the Iliad and 
Odyssey has awakened much interest. The first doubts, whether Homer was 
the sole author, seem to have been expressed by Perrault in his Parallele des An- 
ciensetdes Moderns, (Paris 1688), in which it is suggested, that they are but a 
collection of many little poems, of different authors. This suggestion was en- 
forced by F . Hedelin, who went so far as to deny the personal existence of Ho- 
mer, in a treatise bearing the title, Conjectures academiques, ou Dissertation sur 
I' Iliad, 1715. Dr. Bently expressed ah opinion, that these poems originally con- 
sisted of several distinct songs and rhapsodies composed by Homer, but not uni- 
ted in an epic form until 500 years afterwards (in reply to Collins' discourse of 
free-thinking, Letter to N. N. by Phileuiherus Lipsiensis §7). The same idea 
was more fully developed by an Italian author, G. B. Vico, in a work called Prin- 
cipi di scienza nuova dintorno alia commune natura delle nazioni, Naples, 1744. 
8th edition. A bolder position was taken by Robert Woods in his Essay upon the 
original Genius of Homer published in London 1770 ; viz. that Homer could not 
have committed his poems to writing. The performance of Wood was transla- 
ted into German, and attracted much attention, and gave a new impulse to the 
study of Homer. In 1795, Wolf published his Prolegomena ad Homerum, in 
which he maintained, that 'the Iliad and Odyssey are not the production of Ho- 
mer or of any other single author, but a collection of rhapsodies composed at 
different times and by different persons, and subsequently and gradually wrought 
Tip into the form in which they now exist.' This doctrine was not eagerly em- 
braced by the public. At the close of the year 1795, Heyne, who then had the 
reputation of the first Hellenist in Germany, while Wolf was acquiring that of 
a rival to him, published in the Gcettingen Journal a review of Wolf's Prolego- 
mena. Inthis review Heyne stated or insinuated, that he had himself always 
taught the same general doctrine respecting the Homeric poems. This was re- 
sented by Wolf, and occasioned a controversy between these champions, not, as 
has often been supposed, concerning the genuineness of these poems, but con- 
cerning the merit of priority in starting the new theory of their gradual forma- 
tion. This contest for the honor of originating the doctrine had great influence 
in deciding general opinion in favor of it in Germany. It was defended with in- 
genuity by Ilgen in the introduction to his edition of the Homeric hymns. One 
of the principal attemps to controvert it was made by Hug in his work on the 
invention of Alphabetic writing, published in 1801 (cited P. 1 § 32). In 1802 Heyne 
fully avowed and supported the theory in the excursuses in his edition of the Iliad. 
The theory was attacked in Prance by St. Croix in a pamphlet styled Refutation 
d'un pwradoxe litteraire. In England also a powerful opposer of it has appeared 
in Granville Penn, whose arguments are given in the work styled An examina- 
tion of the primary argument of the Iliad, fyc. published in 1821. Schcell gives a 
glance at the history of this question, and plainly intimates that he does not 
embrace the Woman doctrines. ' Posterity,' says he, 'will judge of their solidity, 
and we will only add, that while in Germany the views of Wolf are generally 
received, they are almost as generally rejected in England, Holland, France and 
Italy. It is known that they were firmly resisted by Ruhnken one of the greatest 
critics of the last century and by the celebrated Villoison.' Coleridge remarks, 
'however startling this theory may appear at first sight, there are some argu- 



L82 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

ments in its favor, that with all calm and serious inquirers will ever save it from 
indifference and contempt./ 

For the arguments employed in this controversy, we must refer the reader to 
the works of the different writers ; merely observing, however, that the grand 
argument of Wolf and Heync is an assumption of that as a fact, which has 
never been provsi, namely that writing, or at least any common writing materi- 
al.fwns unknown in Greece in the Homeric age ; while the apparent familiarity 
of Homer with Sidonian artists, the close alliance between the Sidonians and 
the Jews, and the indisputable use of the art of writing among the Jews long 

before the Trojan War, render the opposite highly probable. Schcell, Hist. 

Litl. Gr. L. ii. ch. 4 — Coleridge, p. 37. ss.— Also besides the works cited in the 
preceding remarks, Bern. Thiersch,; Urgestalt der Odyssee, &c. Kcenigsb. 1821. 
B.—C. F.Franceson, Essai sur laCtuestion, si Homere aconnu l'usage de l'ecri- 
ture &c. Berl. 1818. 12.— Other references in Harles, Supplem. I. p. 95. 

5. Best editions ; Ii.iad, C. G. Heyne, Gr. and Lat. Leipz. & Lond. 1802. 8 vols. 
8 ; it. Lond. 1819. a 9th vol. appeared Leipz. 1822,-Odyssby, Baumgarkn-Crusius, 
Leipz. 1822. ss. 8.— Whole Works, F. A. Wolf. Gr.and Lat. Halle. 1794. 5 vols. 
8. Leipz. 1804. 7. J. A. Emesti, Gr. and Lat. Leipz. 1759. 1824. Glasg. 1814. 5 
vols. 8.— Samuel Clarke, Gr. and Lat. Lond. 1729. 1740. 4 vols. 4. 16th edition 
Lond. 1815. — Hymns and Batrachomyomachia, Matthia, Leipz. 1805. 8.— Epigrams 
and Hymns, G. Hermann, L/pz. 1806. 8. 

Early editions; {Princeps) Demetrius Chalcondylas and Demetrius Cretensis, 
Flor. 1488. fol. 2 vols.— Aldus, Venet. 1504. also 1517. 1524. 2 vols. 8.— Junta, Plor. 
1519. 2 vols. S.—Hervagius, Basil, 1535. Pol. Cum. Schol. — Francini, Ven. 1537. 
2 vols. 8.— With the Commentaries of Eustathius, Rom. 1542. 50. 4 vols, fol.— 
H. Stephanas, Par. 1566 (in Poet. Gr. Princ. cited §47}. 1588. 2 vols. 8. Gr. and Lat. 

Later Editions : Barnes, Camb. 1711. 2 vols. A.—Foulis, Glasg. 1756, 8. 4 vols. 

fol. very splendid.—./?. P. Knight, Lond. 1820. fol. (see Class. Journ. vol. vii. and 
viii. Lond. Gluart. Rev. vol. xxvii.) — J. A. Mueller, Iliad with extracts from Eus- 
tathius &c. Meissen, 1823. 2 vols. 8.—G. H. Schafer, Iliad and Odyssey. Leipz. 
1810, 11. 5 vols. 12; prepared for the collection of Tauchnitz. and considered by 
Schosll as preferable to the stereotype impression of Tauchnitz, in 4 vols. — C. C. 
Felton, Iliad, from the text of Wolf, with English notes and Flaxman's Illustra- 
tions. Boston, 1833. a beautiful edition. 

There are numerous translations of Homer into modern tongues ; e. g. into 
English by Pope and Cowper ; into German by J. H. Voss, Alton. 1793. 8. (in which 
is an attempt to imitate the ancient hexameter] ; into French by Madame Dacier 
Amst. 1712, 1417.12;. into Italian by A. M. Cesarotti. Ven. 1786, 8.— For notice 
of others, see Harles and Brueggeman, cited §7 (9)- 

6. It has been justly remarked, that it would be an endless task merely to name 
all the authors who have written about Homer. We will here only mention, in 
addition to those already presented, a few of the best works illustrative of this 
poet. — /. H. I. Kceppen, Erklaarende Anmerk, zum Homer, Hannov. 1787 ss. 6 
vols. 8. — K. E. Schubarth, Ideen ueber Homer und sein Zeitalter (erne ethisch- 
historische Abhandlung). Bresl. 1821. 8. — L. Kuester, Historia Critica Homeri 
(in Wolf's Iliad.]— E. Feith, Antiquitates Homericse. Argent. 1743. 8.— For oth- 
ers, on various points, see Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, Homer. 

§ 51. Hesiod lived probably B. C. 950, according to some before 
Homer. He was born at Cuma in iEolia, and was called the As- 
craean, because educated at A sera in Boeotia. We have from him a 
didactic poem, on moral economy, "Eqya xai 'H/iegai, Works and 
Days, and another of a mythological character, Oeoyovla, a theogony, 
on the lineage of the gods and origin of the world. The piece styled 
'Aanlg 'Hgaxleovg, Shield of Hercules is probably a fragment from 
a later author. As a poet Hesiod is inferior to Homer. But his 
poems are highly valuable, as they make known to us so much re- 
specting the conceptions and modes of thinking, which prevailed in a 
high antiquity upon domestic, mythological and physical subjects. 



HESIOD. 183 

(1) We may collect from the poems of Hesiod that his father was a native of 
Cuma, and removed to Ascra at the fopt of Mt. Helicon, where he devoted him- 
self to pastoral and agricultural life. Of the estate, which his father left at death, 
the greater part was obtained by Perses, his elder brother, who had bribed the 
judges to make an unequal division. Yet Hesiod by the prudent management 
of his portion acquired a competence, while Perses was reduced by improvi- 
dence to want. It is an object of the poet in his Works and Days to rebuke his 
brother and judges for their injustice, and teach the duties of industry, frugality 
and prudence. — It has been supposed by some that he tended his own flocks on 
mount Helicon, while others maintain that he was the priest to a temple of the 
Muses on that mount. — He mentions a poetical contest at Chalcis, which formed 
a part of the games at the funeral of Amphidamas, king of Euboea, and in 
which he gained the prize of a tripod, afterwards by him consecrated to the 
Muses of Helicon. This incident was the foundation of the fable of his victory 
over Homer (§ 19), which Plutarch, in his Banquet of the seven wise Men, puts 
into the mouth of Periander ; and which forms the subject of a work styled 
'£2fi>JQov xai 'Hoiodov ayi>v, written after the time of the emperor Adrian. — A 
marvellous story respecting the death of Hesiod, which also is probably a fabri- 
cation, Plutarch introduces in the same piece, from the lips of Solon. 

On the life and age of Hesiod we refer to the Lives by Vossius, Kcnnett &c. 
cited § 47. — Also Prelim. Diss, in Robinson's Hesiod, and Discourse prefixed to 
Cooke's Hesiod (both cited below, 4). 

(2) The same theory, which some have so strenuously maintained in relation 
to the Homeric poems, has also been applied to the poems of Hesiod. They 
have been said to be pieces compiled by JtaaxevagTai in the ages of Solon and 
Pisistratus, from the recitations of the Rhapsodists, or at least from imperfect 
written copies; it being supposed that there were many poems from different au- 
thors imitating the manner of Hesiod, and in after times ascribed to him. Thus 
Hesiod has been considered as the head of an ancient Bmotian school of poetry, 
as Homer of an Ionian. — See Heinrlch's Prolegomena and Wolf's Notes in the 
editions below cited (4). — Aug. Tmesten's Commentatio critica de Hesiodi car- 
mine, quod inscribitur, Opera et Dies. Kilise. 1805. 8. — G. Hermann's Letter to 
Ilgen, in Ilgen's Hymn. Homer, cited § 50 (3). 

(3) The Works and Days of Hesiod consists of 828 Hexameter verses. It is 
a poem of unequal merit, some parts of it bordering on the puerile, others dis- 
covering great elevation of thought and feeling.— Pausanias says, that it is the 
only work allowed by the Boeotians to be the genuine production of Orpheus. 
He states that he saw near the fount of Helicon, a copy of this poem in lead, al- 
most destroyed by age. 

The Theogony contains about 1000 lines. There are passages in it of great 
force and sublimity. The contest of the Giants and Titans and of Jupiter with 
Typhceus are often specified as such. 

The Shield of Hercules, in 480 lines, is supposed by some modern critics to 
have belonged to a lost work of Hesiod, entitled ' Hqusoyovia, the Heroogony, a 
genealogy of the demigods, including, as they think, two pieces cited by the an- 
cients, viz. KaTai.oyog ywa.iy.iav, catalogue of women, a history of such as were 
mothers of demigods, and 'ffoiai ^ityalai, an account of heroines. The ICa-rldo- 
yo$ is sometimes mentioned as consisting of five cantos, of which the 'Hoiut 
formed the fourth. The title 'Hoiai was supposed by Bentley to have arisen 
from the phrase »/' oiij (qualis, such as), with which the transition was made from 
one heroine to another. Of this last piece the Shield is commonly thought to 
have been a part ; it begins with the phrase just mentioned, in a description of 
the person and adventures of Alcmene, which occupies the first 56 lines. Others 
consider the part of it relating to Alcmene as all that belonged to the piece styled 
'Hoiat or Eozm, and view the rest, describing the armor of Hercules &c. as a 
separate poem. This portion of the '^ianig or Scutum is an amplification of 
Homer's description of the shield of Achilles. (Cf. Edinb. Rev. Vol. xv. p. 101. 

Thirteen or fourteen other works, not extant, were ascribed to Hesiod. Cooke's 
Hesiod. 

(4) Best editions ; whole works, Chr. Fr. Lossner, Gr. et Lat. Lips. 1778. 8. — 
Tliom. Robinson, Gr. et Lat. Oxon. 1737. 4. Lond. 1756. — B. Zanmgna (called 
also edition of Bodoni). Gr. et Lat. Parmae, 1785. 4. — works and days, L. 
Wachler, Lemgo. 1792.' 8. — shield, Car. Frid. Heinrich. Vratisl. (Breslaw) 1802. 
8.— theogony, Fr. Aug. Wolf, Hal. 1783. 8. 

Early editions ; The Princeps contains only the Works and Days, Milan. 1493. 
fol.— The Princeps (or earliest) edition of the whole works of Hesiod, is that of 



181 HISTORY OF ORTEK LITERATURE. 

Aldus, Vend. 1 l!l"). fol. connected with an edition of Theocritus.— Junta, FIo- 
rent. 1515. 8; this is the first edition of Hesiod separately—/?. Heinsius, Lug. 
Bat. 1608. 4. Or. et Lat.— Gncvius, Amst. 1667. S.—Clericus (Le Clerc), Amst. 

1701. S. The two last are the foundation of Robinson's. Later editions; 

Lanzi, (Works ami Days) Florent. 1808. 4. Gr. Lat. et Ital,— SpoA»( Works and 
Days) Lips. 1819. 8; a more critical edition announced by same. — Gaisford, in 
hisPoetae Minores Greeci cited § 47; said by Dibdin to give the purest text of 
I [esiod. 

Translations, besides those in the above mentioned editions; German (verse), 
./. If. Voss, whole works, Heidelb. 1806. 8.— J. D. Hartmann, Shield, Lemgo. 
1794. 8.; English (verse) Thomas Cooke, Lond. 1728. 4. 1811. 2 vols. 24.— Ch. 
Ah. Elton, Lond. 1812. 8. ; French, P. C. CI. Gin, Par. 1798. 8. 

(5) Works illustrative ; S. F. Thiersch ueber die Gedichte des Hesiodus, 
ihren Ursprung Sue. Muenchen, 1813. 4.— Heynes Abh. ueber die Theogonie. : , in 
the Comment. Soc. Golt. Vol. ii. — F. Schlichlegr oil ueber der Schild des Hercu- 
les &c. Gotha. 1788. S.—Hartmann's translation above cited. 

§ 52.* Archilochus flourished about B. C. 680. He was a na- 
tive of the island of Paros, and ranked among the greatest poets of 
Greece, and generally supposed the inventor of Iambic verse. He 
wrote satires, elegies and triumphal hymns and lyrical pieces, of 
which only trifling fragments remain. 

(1) Little is known of his life. He went, while young, with his father in a 
Parian colony to Thasos. He states of himself, that in a battle between the 
Thasians and Thracians, he threw away his shield, and saved himself by flight. 
On account of this, it is said, when he afterwards visited Sparta, he was ordered 
by the magistrates to quit the city. 

(2) The fragments of Archilochus are found in Brunch's Analecta, and Ja- 
cobs' Anthologia, (cited § 35). They were published separately, with comments, 
by Ign, Liebel, Lips. 1812. 8. enlarged 1819. 8. 

§ 53. Tyrtceus, about B. C. 647, of Athens, or more probably 
Miletus, leader of the Spartans against the Messenians. By his ele- . 
gies, full of the praises of military glory and patriotism, he roused 
the ardor of his warriors, and rendered them victorious. Of his 
writings, only three elegies and eight fragments have come down to us. 

( 1 ) The common account is, that the Lacedaemonians, at the bidding of Delphi- 
an Apollo, sent to the Athenians for a general to conduct their wars with the Mes- 
senians, hitherto unsuccessful, and that Tyrtseus, lame and deformed, was se- 
lected by the Athenians, out of hatred. Schcell remarks that the whole story 
has the air of fable, and that the alleged deformity had no foundation in truth, 
being a satirical allusion to his use of pentameter verse. But the effect ascribed 
to his poems is not improbable. The Lacedaemonians were accustomed to enter 
the field under the inspiration of martial music and songs, as illustrated in Plu- 
tarch's life of Lycurgus. The song thus used in rushing to battle was termed 
fiiXog ififSaTilQiov. The instruments used by the Lacedaemonians were flutes. 
Tyrtaeus is said to have invented and introduced among them the trumpet. 

(2) The elegies composed by Tyrtaeus amounted to Jive books. It is com- 
monly supposed that they were chiefly war-songs of the kind just mentioned (Cf. 
Lowth's Hebrew Poetry. Lect. I). Schcell remarks that we have but a single 
fragment of these songs of Tyrtaeus, which were in the Doric dialect, and that 
his remaining elegies, being in the Ionic dialect, are not to be confounded with 
them. 

A work by Tyrtaeus is cited by Aristotle and Pausanias under the title of 'E v- 
vopia ('bonne legislation'), which some have considered as a distinct poem, 
while others have supposed it to be only a certain class of his elegies collected 
together and so named. Schcell, Vol. I. p. 189,— Fahrmann's Kleineres Handb. 
p. 65. 



, 



SAPPHO. SOLON. 185 

(3) Best editions, Chr. Adolph. Klotz, Altenb. 1767, 8; with a German ver- 
sion by Weiss, and dissertation on Tyrtaeus and on warlike songs.— Chr. Dokl, 

Upsal. 1790. 4. Gr. etLat. Other editions ; Princeps, by S. Gelenius, Bas. 

1532. 4. with remains of poetesses. — Lond. 1761. 12. with English metrical ver- 
sion, — In Brunch's Gnom. Poet, and Kmppen's Blumenlese (cited § 31). — L. Lam- 
berti, with Lat. and Ital. version. Paris, 1801. 8. 

(4) Illustrative ; J. V. Franke's Callinus, cited § 29.— Matthia de Tyrtaei 
Carminibus. Altenb. 1820. 4. 

§ 54. Sappho nourished probably about B. C. 612. She was a 
native of Mitylene, in the island of Lesbos. Of distinguished celeb- 
rity as a poetess, she is also remembered from the story of her un- 
happy passion for Phaon, and her tragical leap from Leucate into the 
sea, in a fit of despair. This story, however, seems to belong to an- 
other Sappho, of a later age. It is from the poetess that the verse 
termed Sapphic takes its name. Of her productions there now re- 
main only two odes, full of warm and tender feeling, and some small 
fragments. 

(1) There is disagreement respecting the precise date, which should be assign- 
ed to Sappho. Some make her a contemporary of Anacreon, considerably later 
than the time above named. — J. Ch. Cramer, Diatribe de avyxQ.oviafim Sapphus et 
Anacreontis. Jen. 1755. 4. — H. F. M. Volger, Diatribe historico-cril. de Sap- 
phus Poetria? vita et scriptis. Goth. 1809. 8. 

(2) Little is known of the life of Sappho, and her character is a subject of 
controversy. The imputations cast upon her are of doubtful authority, and are 
supposed by some to have had their origin in the license of the comic poets. 
They may have arisen from confounding her with the courtesan Sappho,' of Ere- 
sus, in the same island Lesbos. It is now made quite probable, that the whole 
story of the passion for Phaon and its fatal issue belongs to the latter, who was a 
person of some celebrity, as seems evident from the fact that her image was 
stamped upon some of the Lesbian coins, a circumstance which Barthelemy ap- 

Elies to the poetess. A coin brought from Greece in 1822, has upon it a female 
ead with the name 2AJI&S1 and the letters EFECI, supposed to refer to Ere- 
sus. — See Barthelemy's Anacharsis, ch. iii. — Fr. G. Welcker, Sappho von eineirt 
herschenden Vorurtheil befreyet. Gcett. 1816. 8. — De Hauteroche, Notice sur la 
courtisane Sappho d'Eresus. Par. 1822. — Schmll, Hist. Lit. Gr. L. ii. ch. 5. 

(3) Sappho is said to have composed, besides odes, hymns, elegies, scolia and 
epigrams. The two odes now extant are preserved the one in Longinus, and 
the other in Dionysius Halicarnasseus [de Composition*, verborum) as a specimen 
of soft and flowing style. Two or three epigrams are among the fragments 
otherwise preserved. 

(4) The princeps edition was by H. Stephanus, iwith Anacreon) Lut. Par. 
1554. 4.— More recent; J. C. Wolf, Hamb. 1733. 4. as 1st. vol. of his Fragments 
of nine Greek poetesses.— H. F. M. Volger. Lips. 1810. 8.-4. Mosbius, Hannov. 
1815.8. — Blomfield, in the Mus. Crit. or Cambr. Class. Researches, (vol. i.) Lond. 
1813. this text highly valued.--The odes are found in most editions of Anacreon. 

The epigrams are in the Anthology of Jacobs. Translations ; German, by 

Ramler & Overbeck, cited § 59; English, in The works of Anacreon, by J. Addi- 
son. Lond. 1735. 8.— Cf. Addison's Spectator, Nos. 223, 229. 

§ 55. Solon, the distinguished lawgiver of Athens, native of Sala- 
mis, and descendant of Codrus, lived B. C. 594. He wrote several 
poems. By one of them he aroused the Athenians to a war with the 
Megareans, in which he, as their general, subdued Salamis. After- 
wards he was appointed Archon at Athens, and this was the epoch of 

24 



I8f> HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

his legislation so much celebrated. We have a series of moral max- 
ims, in elegiac verse, ascribed to Solon. 

( 1 ) Solon is said to have engaged in early life in trade, and in this pursuit to 
have visited Egypt and other foreign countries. On returning to Athens, he 
devoted himself to poetry and philosophy. After he was brought into public of- 
fice, as above mentioned, and had established his laws, he again left Athens for 
ten years, for the sake of rendering them permanent. He returned, and spent 
the remainder of life in literary pursuits, and is said to have done much in col- 
lecting and publishing the poems of Homer. Some accounts say that he died at 
Athens, others at Cyprus, at the age of 80. 

His biography is given by two ancient writers, Plutarch and Diogenes Laer- 
tius. 

(2) Besides the poetical remains of Solon there are some fragments of his 
laws extant, and a little piece on the pursuits of life. Diogenes Laertius also 
has lecorded certain letters, said to have been written by Solon. 

(3) The principal poetical fragments of Solon are found in Brunch's Gnomie 
Poets (cited § 31), Winterton's Minor Greek Poets, and other collections. 
— The best edition is probably that of Fortlage, Lips. 1776. 8; the second vol. of 
a collection of the Gnomic Poets. — The princeps edition was by Gelenius, in the 
work cited § 53 (3). — German translation, in G. C. Braun, die "Weisen von Hel- 
las als Saenger. Mainz, 1822. 8. see Fuhrm. Kl. Handb. p. 68. — English version 
of Letters, in Savage's Collection of the Letters of the Ancients. Lond. 1703. 8. 

The fragments of Solon's laws are found in the Leges Attica by Sam. Petit, 
Par. 1635. fol. ; imp. ed. by P. Wesseling, Lug. Bat. 1742. fol. 

§ 56. Theognis, born at Megara, lived in banishment at Thebes, 
about B. C. 550. There remain of his poetry 1238 verses, belonging 
to the class of yvtifiou (sententia) or maxims. They are simple ver- 
ses or couplets, once, probably, forming parts of connected poems ; 
two poems, particularly, are said to have been composed by him. The 
portions extant are valued for their moral, rather than their poetical 
character. 

(1) Theognis is said to have died B. C. 495. His verses are addressed, un- 
der the name of naQaivzatig, exhortations, chiefly to a young man to whom he 
gives counsel on the conduct of life. He has been reproached for the licentious 
nature of some of his sentiments ; yet nothing of this character appears in the 
fragments extant. He inculcates religious and filial duty, and recommends 
caution in the choice of friends. 

(2) It is not improbable, that some of the verses ascribed to Theognis are of 
later origin, although most of them are thought to be evidently of high antiquity. 
In 1815, or near that time, 159 verses, never printed, were discovered by Bek- 
ker, in a Modena manuscript. These added make the whole number extant 
about 1400. 

(3) Best edition, Imm. Bekker, (with the translation by Grotius) Leipz. 1815. 

8. The princeps was by AldMS, (together with Hesiod and others) Ven. 1495. 

fol. The verses (except the 159) are found in Brunch's Gnomic Poets, Gais- 

ford's Minor Poets [cited § 47], and various other collections.— On Theognis, 
cons. Gluart. Rev. No. 95. 

§57. Phocylides, of Miletus, lived about B. C. 540. He belongs 
to the class of Gnomic Poets. An ethical poem, called the Exhorta- 
tion or Admonition (noir\fia vovdszixov) in 217 verses, is ascribed to 
him (§31). It is' allowed by the critics to be the work of a later au- 
thor, perhaps a christian of the second or third century. Of the gen- 



PYTHAGORAS. ANACRKON. 187 

nine verses of Phocylides, only a few fragments are extant, preserved 
by Stobseus. 

The genuine remains of Phocylides are in Brunck's Analecta ("cited § 35) and 
other collections. — The Exhortation was first printed by Aldus [with the Golden 
Verses of Pythagoras, in C. Lascar's Greek Grammar), 1495. 4. It is found in 
the collections just referred to ; it has been published separately several times ; 
best probably by J. A. Schier, Gr. and Lat. Leipz. 1751. 8. — Cf. Harles, Brev. 
Notit. Lit. Gr. p. 64. 

§ 58. Pythagoras, of Samos, probably lived between 550 and 500 
B. C. He is celebrated as the founder of the Italian School of phi- 
losophy. The fragments called Xgvad I'm], Golden Verses, which 
commonly pass under his name, are probably from some disciple be- 
longing to a later period. 

(1) Certain epistles, and a number of symbolical precepts (tta'a ano<f6iyi.iara) 
are also ascribed to Pythagoras, which may be noticed under the department of 
philosophy, to which the name of Pythagoras most properly belongs. 

(2) The princeps edition of the Golden Verses was by Aldus, in C. Lascaris 
erotemata &c. (same cited § 57) Ven. 1495. 4. They are found in the several 
collections of Gnomic Poets already cited ; and in Orellvs Opuscula Graecor. 
vet. sententiosa et moralia. Lips. 1819. 8. Separately published, P. Need- 
ham, (with the commentary of Hierocles upon the verses) Cantabr. 1709. 8. — 
J. A. Schier, Lips. 1750. 8.--E. G. Glandorf, Lips. 1776. 8. — t G. Lindner, Gr. 
et Lat. Rudolst. 1810. 8.—Fabre d' Olivet, Gr. and Fr. Par. 1813. 8.— There is a 
translation in German Hexameter by G. Ch. Link. Altdorf. 1780. 4. 

§ 59. Anacreon lived about B. C. 536, a native of Teos in Ionia. 
He fled with his parents from Persian oppression, to Abdera in Thrace. 
Subsequently, he resided at Samos, under the protection of Polycra- 
tes the king, and afterwards at Athens, under Hipparchus. He died 
in his native place, or at Abdera, in the 85th year of his age. He was 
a lyric poet, and wrote in that light kind of ode, of which love, social 
pleasures and wine form the subjects, and which from him has received 
the name anacreontic. The collection of odes ascribed to him con- 
tains many belonging to other authors, some of whom were of a later 
age. The pieces are of unequal merit. Many of them are unworthy 
of the praise, which the^ancients bestowed on Anacreon, and which 
beyond question justly belongs to the rest, on account of their vi- 
vacity, grace and lyric beauty. 

(1) The time and manner of Anacreon's death are variously stated. Com- 
mon tradition reported, that he died by suffocation from shallowing a grape- 
stone, while in the act of drinking wine. This tradition is^ipposed by some to 
have originated from the bacchanalian character of his poetry. — Herodotus (iii. 
121) and Plato [in Hipparchus') are the authorities for some of the facts stated 
above.— A learned life of Anacreon is given by Barnes, in his edition of this 
poet. 

(2) He is reputed to have written elegies and iambic poems in the Ionic dia- 
lect, besides scolia and epigrams. Theodeswhich have been ascribed to him 
are 65 in number. The genuineness of most of them was denied in the middle 
of the 16th century, by Framis Robortellus, one of the acutest critics of that a»e. 



l>> HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

Their credit having revived, it was again attacked at the commencement of the 
last century, by De Pauw. The same views were enforced by Fischer at the 
close of the last century, since when, the opinion above stated by Eschenburghas 
generally prevailed. The opinion is confirmed by the fact that, with two excep- 
tions, none of the existing odes are known to be cited by any ancient author. 

(3) One of the best editions is Jo. Frid. Fischer, Lips. 1573. 8. repr. 1776, 
and 1793, with additions. Also, R. Ph. Fr, Brunck, Strasb. 1780. 12. accurate. 
—J. Fr. Degen, Lips. 2d ed. 1821. 8- with a German translation, and other 
lyrical pieces.— Edw. Foster, Lond. 1802. 12. not professing to be critical, but 

correct, with elegant engravings. Early editions; Princeps, H. Slephanus, 

Lutet. Paris. 1554. 4. Gracce.— Morel $• R. Stephaims, Paris, 1556. 8.— Fabri 
(TanaquU Faber), Gr. et Lat. Salmur. 1660, 1690. 8.— Others; Barnes, Gr. et 
Lat. Cantab. 1705, 1721. S.—Mattaire, Gr. et Lat. Lond. 1725, 1740. 4. rare.— 
Pauw, Gr. et Lat. Tr. Rhen. 1732. 4.—Spalletti, Gr. Rom. 1781-83. fol. very 
splendid. 'Printed from an ancient Ms. of the tenth century; the type, com- 
prehending the first sixteen pages, a. facsimile of the Vatican Ms.' —Bodoni, Par- 
ma. 1784. fol. handsome.— F. G. Bom, Leipz. 1809. 8.—Bolhe, Leipz. 1805. 8. 
— Van Reenen, Amst. 1808. 8.—E. A. Mmbius, Halae, 1810. 8. approved by 
Harles. — The epigrams ascribed to Anacreon are found in Jacobs' Anthology. — 
Translations, besides those in the editions already named ; English, Th. Moore, 
Lond. 1812. 2 vols. 12. Stanley, Lond. 1815. 12. also by Fawkes and Addison 
I cited § 54) ; French, J. B. Gail, Par. 1799. 4.— De Saint Victor, Par. 1818; 
German, Overbeck, Lueb. 1800. Q.—Ramler, Berl. 1801. 8.—F. C. Brosse, Bert. 
1806. 8.— A. Drexel, Landsh. 1816. 8; Italian, Ch. Ridolfi, Veaet 1765.8. 

(4) Works illustrative ; P. C. Henrici, de indole carminis Anacreontic!. 
Alton. 1752. 4.— Degen, ueberd. Philos. des Anacreon. Elang. 1776. 8. — J. G. 
Schneider's Anmerkungen ueber den Anacreon. Leipz. 1770. 8. — Manses 
Character of Anacreon in Nachtr. zu Sulzer, B. 6. — D. H. Urquhart, Dissert, on 
the Odes of Anacreon. Lond. 1790. 8. 

§ 60. Pindar, of Thebes in Boeotia, about B. C. 490, a lyric poet 
of the greatest celebrity. He wrote in the higher kind of lyric verse, 
employed to celebrate the triumphs of heroes and victors. He sung 
chiefly the praises of victors in the great public games of the Greeks. 
There now remain 14 Olympic, 12 Pythian, 11 Nemean, and 8 
Isthmian Odes. Many other Hymns and Paeans, Dithyrambics, 
Threni (dQrjvov) and the like, are lost. Q,uintilian justly ranks Pindar 
first among the nine most distinguished lyric poets of the Greeks 
(cf. § 26). He is marked by his lofty sublimity, his bold energy of 
thought, his vivid and poetical imagination, and the flowing fullness 
of his diction. Horace gives a lyric description of his character 
(L. iv. ode 2). 

(1) Pindar was early taught the arts of music and poetry. Lasus and Si» 
monides were his instructers. The Greeks related a story of him, that once, 
while he was a youth, as he threw himself upon the grass fatigued and sleepy, a 
swarm of bees deposited their honey on his lips, which prefigured the sweetness 
of his future poetry. In several instances he lost the prize in poetical contests 
with Corinna, who is, however, supposed to have owed something to the charms 
of her person as influencing the feelings of the j udges. He is said at last to have 
appealed from them to herself. From all other competitors he invariably bore 
away the prize. He enjoyed great honors while living. The conquerors at the 
public games counted it a great part of their glory to be celebrated in the verse 
ot Pindar, for which they courted his person, and bestowed on him the most libe- 
ral rewards. A statue was erected to him in Thebes, and was standing in the 
time of Pausanias, six centuries afterwards. The house which he had occupied 
was spared by the Spartans, and at a later period by Alexander, when Thebes 
was laid in ruins. — The age which he attained is variously stated, some say 55, 
others 66, and others 86 years. 



PINDAR. 189' 

For the incidents of Pindar's life we are chiefly indebted to Pausanias ; some 
circumstances are drawn from JSlian, Plutarch and others. Of the accounts by 
moderns, see (besides Lives of the Poets cited § 47) Preface in Tourlet's Trans- 
lation of Pindar, Paris, 1818. 2 vols. 8.— J. G. Schneider, Versuch ueber Pindars 
Leben und Schriften. Strasb. 1774. 8. 

(2) The division of the odes into four classes is ascribed to Aristophanes of 
Byzantium. He selected, out of the general mass of Pindar's effusions, such as 
had reference, more or less distinctly, to victories gained at the great games of 
the Greeks; yet some are found in the selection, which do not refer specially to- 
any particular victory. Schcell remarks, that some of these odes seem to have 
been prepared to be rehearsed at the general triumph of the conquerors on the 
evening after the contest in the games, and others for the more private festival 
afterwards given to the individual victor, by his relatives and friends. See Schwll, 
Hist. Litt. Gr. Vol. I. p. 277.— Pref. to West's Pindar, cited below (4). 

Various f&rms of poetical composition, besides odes, were written by Pindar, 
as, in the words of Neander, ' Paanes, Dithyrambi, Scolia, Epitaphia, Encomia, 
Tkreni, Prosodia, Parthenia, Enthronismi, Bacchica, Daphnephorica, Hyporchc- 
mata, Dramata tragica, Epigrammata epica, etc.' Very little, however, of all 
this remains. We have nothing entire except the odes. — Mich. Neander, Aristo- 
logia Pindarica Grseco-Latina. Basil, 1558. 

(3) One of the Odes (Olymp. 7) is said by a scholiast to have been preserved 
in a temple at Athens, in letters of gold. — The more the odes of Pindar are 
studied, the more the reader will be impressed with the genius of the author. 
The abruptness of his transitions has often been a ground of censure, but with 
great injustice. In many cases, where a new topic is introduced with apparent 
violence, or, as might at first seem, only by a perfectly wild imagination, there 
is found, on a closer view, a very philosophical and logical connection. 

There is much of an epic character in the use of history and mythology, 
which he so happily employs. The Doric dialect abounds in his language, but 
he does not confine himself to it, but adopts ^Eolic and other forms where strength, 
variety, or the peculiarity of his metre demands. — See C. W. Theoph. Camenz, 
Pindari ingenium etc. Misenae. 1804. 4. — G. Hermann de Dialecto Pindari Ob- 
servations. Lips. 1809, 4.— On Pindar's character and poetry, see also Quarterly 
Rev. vol. v. & xxviii. 

(4) Best editions ; Aug. Bozckh, Gr. & Lat. Leipz. 1811-22. 2 vols. 4. admi- 
rable.— C. G. Heyne, Gr. &Lat. Lips, 1817. 3 vols. 8. Early editions; Prin- 

ceps, Aldina, Ven. 1513. 8. with the hymns of Callimachus. — Calliergi, Rom. 
1515. 4. Cum Scholiis. First Greek book printed at Rome. — R. Stephanus, Par. 

1560. 2 vols. Q.—Erasm. Schmid, Wittenb. 1616. 4. Gr. & Lat. cum schol. 

Later ; West et Welsted, Gr. & Lat. Oxon. 1697. fol.— Foulis, Gr. & Lat. Glasg. 
1744, 54, 70. 3 vols. 12.— D. Beck, Lips. 1810. 2 vols. 8. not completed.— Fr. 
Thiersch, with a German translation in Pindaric verse. Leipz. 2 Th. 8. — Tauch- 
nitz, Stereot. Leipz. 1819. 12. — Humingford, Gr. &. Lat. Lond. 1814. 8. with 
an abridgement of Damm's Lex. Pindaricum. — Ch. W. Ahlwardt, Lips. 1820i 8. 
He contests with Bceckh the priority of inventing a new metrical system for 

Pindar's verse. Translations ; Latin, N. Sudorius, Par. 1582. 8. — Jo. Costa, 

(in verse) Patav. 1808. 8. German ; Fr. Gedike, (prose) Olympic Odes, Berl. 
1777. 8. Pythian, Berl. 1779. 8. — J. Gurlitt (prose), see FuhrmawtCs Klein. 
Handb. p. 124.— Goth. Fahse, (verse) Penig. 1804, 1806. 2 vols. 8.—F.H.Bothe, 
(verse) Olympic. Berl. 1808. 8. — Thiersch, cited above; in high estimation. 
Italian ; Ant. Jerocades, Nap. 1790. 8. French ; F. Morin, Par. 1617. 8.— Ja- 
quier, Lyon. 1754.— I,. C. Gin, Par. 1801. S.— Tourlet, already cited (1). Eng- 
lish; G. West, Lond. 1753. 2 vols. 8. 1766. 3 vols. 12.— Six Odes (omitted by 
West) by .ff. .7. Pye, Lond. 1775. 8.—E.B. Greene, Lond. 1778, 4. — T. Banister, 
Lond. 1791. 8. 

(5) Illustrative ; Lexicons of Damm <f- PortMS cited § 7 (3). — J. C. de Pauw, 
Not. in Pind. etc. Trajecti ad Rh. 1747. 8.— Hermann, on the Pindaric Metres, 
in Heyne's edition, 3d vol. — Aug. Bozckh, Ueber die Versmasse des Pind. Hei- 
delb. 1809. 8. — J. C. Fr. Goetschel, Mythologies Pindarieee Specimen. Erlang. 
1790. 4. — Blondel, Comparaison de Pindare et d'Horace, Par. 1673. 12. — Fra- 
guier, Le Caractere de Pindare, and Massieu, Reflex, crit. sur Pindare, in Mem. 
des l'Acad. des Ins. T. iii.— W. Congreve, Discourse on the Pindaric Ode, in 3d 
vol. of his Works, Lond. 1753. 3 vols. 8. 



190 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

^ 61. sEschylns, a native of Eleusis, in Attica, flourished about 
490 B. C. He engaged in military service, and acquired glory in the 
battles of Marathon, Salamis and Platoea. He afterwards retired to 
Sicily, where he died. His merit was very great as a poet in the de- 
partment of tragedy. Indeed he was, properly speaking, the author 
of tragedy, as he gave it greater unity of action, introduced the dia- 
logue (although the chorus still retained an important place), employ- 
ed a more dignified style, and imparled a more noble and elevated 
character to the external representation. Yet we notice a want of 
completeness and finish in his plays. His efforts to present terrific or 
shocking scenes, with bold and uncommon modes of thought and ex- 
pression, sometimes lead him into what is exaggerated, obscure or 
unnatural. Nor can Ave find in him the beauties belonging to a full 
and regular method. Of 75 or 90 tragedies, which he is said to have 
written, only seven remain. These are entitled Ilpofirjdevg deanmijg, 
Prometheus vinctus ; negacti, Person ; 'Emd inl Orjfictg, Septem con- 
tra Thebas ; 'Aya/ieftvwv, Agamemnon; Xoycpogot, Choephori ; 
'Ev/ievideg, Eumenides, Furies ; 'Ixhideg, Supplices. 

(1) The birth of .(Eschylus is dated B. C. 525, and his death, 456. He is 
said to have made his first public attempt as a tragic author, at the age of 25, 
B. C. 499. Six years after the battle of Marathon, he gained his first tragic vic- 
tory, and eight years after the battle of Plataea, he gained again the prize for 
a tetralogy (Cf. P. I. § 66). 

Different accounts are given as to the reason of his removing to Syracuse in 
Sicily. Some ascribe it to his disgust at being charged and tried before the Athe- 
nians for profanation of the mysteries in some of his plays, although he was ac- 
quitted. Others assign as the reason, his defeat in a poetical contest with Simo- 
nides, and in another with Sophocles. Sehlegel suggests (Dram. Lit. Lect. iv) 
that he retired from apprehensions of the hostility of the populace towards him, 
because he had highly recommended the Areopagus as holding a check upon de- 
mocratic violence. — See F. C. Petersen, De iEschyli vita etc. Havniae, 1816. 8. 
— Life of iEsch. in Stanley's edition, cited below (3). 

(2) The plots of JEschylus are very simple. His characters are sketched 
boldly. A lofty and grave spirit reigns in his poetry. Terror is the predomi- 
nant emotion. His Prometheous bound is called his master-piece. — Cf. A. W. 
Schlegel's Lect. on Dramat. Lit. Lect. iv. — Ed. Rev. vol. xxvi. — Theatre of the 
Greeks, cited § 40. — Charactere der Vornehmsten Dichter aller Nationen &c. von 
einer Gesellschaft von Gelehrten. Lips. 1792. vol. ii. p. 391.— Gtart. Rev. Vol. 
xxv. 

(3) Best editions ; C. G. Schutz, Gr. & Lat. 4th ed. Halle, 1809-21. 5 vols. 8. 
The editions of Schuetz are very highly lauded by continental critics ; but an 
English reviewer has spoken in a different tone. See Mus. Criticum. Vol. i. p. 
109. Cf. Dibdin's Introd. cited § 7(9), vol. i. p. 241.— S. Butler, Gr. & Lat. 
Camb. 1809. 4 vols. 4; 8 vols. 8. CI Ed. Rev. vol. x.ix— Wellauer's, Lips. 1826. 
and Scholefield's, Camb. 1828. 8. are considered good.— Dr. C. J. Blomfield's 
editions of separate tragedies are ranked very high, and said to give the purest 
text. Prometheus, Persce, Septem contra Thebas, Agamemnon and Choephorihave 
been published ; the remaining two expected. 

Early editions ; Princeps, Aldus, Ven. 1518. 8.—F. Robortellus, Ven. 1552 — 
Turnebus. Par. 1552. S.— Victorius (printed by H. Stepharms) Par. 1557. 4.— Th. 
Stanley, Gr. &Lat. Lond. 1663. fol. It was very celebrated; the foundation of 
Butler's. Later; Pauw, Gr. & Lat. Hag. Com. 1745. 2 vols. 4. 'to be shun- 
ned.'— Foulis, Gr. & Lat. 1746. 4. & 12.— Porson, Glasg. 1795. fol. See, on this. 
Pursuits of Literature, pt, ii. p. 42, Dibdin, i. p. 242.— F. II. Bothe, Leipz. 1805. 



vESCHYLUS. SOPHOCLES. 191 

8. not much approved (Dibdin). Editions of separate tragedies; G. Her- 

iriawn, Eumenides, Leipz. 1799. 8.— C. Schwenk, Septem contra Thebas. Lpz. 
1818. 8.— Choephori, Lpz. 1819. 8.— Eumenides, Bonn. 1821. 8. 

Translations ; Italian, (with Sophocles and Euripides) Mich. Mallius, Rom. 
1788. 8.— German, J. T. L. Danz, Lips. 1805, 1808. 2 vols. 8. ' too much modern- 
ised.'— Gottf. Fcehse, Lips. 1809. 8. ' defective.' Fuhrmann.—C. Ph. Conz, (met- 
rical) Choephori, Zuerich, 1811. 8, Persae, and the rest, Tuebingen, 1815-1820. 

'good.' Fuhrmann.— W. von Humboldt, Agamemnon. Lpz. 1816. 4. English; 

R. Potter, 2d ed. imp. Lond. 1779. 2 vols. 8. French; F.J. G. de la Porte du 

Theil, (with original & notes) Par. 1798. 2 vols. 8. also in new edition of Brumoy's 
Theat. Gr. (by Raoul-Rochelte) Par. 1820 ss.— Marquis de Pompignan, Par. 
1770. 8. 

(4) Other works illustrative ; J. Meursius, iEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, 
sive de tragoediis eorum libri III. Lug. Bat. 1619 ; also in Gronovii Thesaurus 
Gr. T. X.— J. A. Starck, de iEschylo et inprimis ejus tragccdia, quae Prometheus 
vinctusinscripta est, libellus. Gcett. 1763. 4.— H. Blurnner, Ueber die Idee des 
Schicksals in d. Tragoedien iEschyl, Leipz. 1814. 8.— Car. Fr. Wvnderlich, Ob- 
servat. criticae in iEschyli tragcedias etc. Gcett. 1809. 8. — G. Hermann, De ver- 
sibus spuriis ap. iEschylum. Lips. 1814. 4. — Burney's Tentamen de metris (ab 
iEschylo) in chor. cant, adhibitis. Lond. 1811. 8. Cf. Ed. Rev. vol. xviii. 

§ 62. Sophocles, born at Colonus, near Athens, was the greatest 
author in Greek tragedy, and not without honor as a warrior. He 
flourished about 450 B. C. He improved the tragic stage by intro- 
ducing a third speaker, and by limiting the office of the chorus, which, 
with him, appears rather as a contemplative spectator, than a real par- 
ticipator in the action represented. His tragedies have the merit of a 
regular and judicious plan, a striking truth in characters, and a mas- 
terly and energetic expression and play of the passions. They are 
full of feeling and full of nature. Of a great multitude composed by 
him, we possess only seven ; viz, ~"Aiag fiaoTiyocpoqog, Ajax Fla- 
gellifer, Ajax bearing the lash ; 'HIsxtqcc, Electra ; ' Oidinovg Tvqav- 
vog, CEdipus King; ^Avtlyovrj, Antigone ; ' Oidinovg inl KolwvcJ, 
CEdipus at Colonus ; Tquxiviai, The Trachinian women ; &doxTrjiTjg t 
Philoctetes. The third of these, Qldipus King, is esteemed as the 
best. 

(1) Sophocles was about 30 years younger than iEschylus, and about 16 older 
than Euripides (§ 39). In early youth, it is said, he was beautiful in person, and 
made rapid attainments. His father, Sophilus, was wealthy, and furnished him 
with the best advantages for education. At the age of 25 he brought forward 
his first tragedy, for a prize. It was' in a memorable dramatic contest, in which 
iEschylus was a candidate, and Cimon and his nine colleague-generals, after 
their victory over the Persians near the Eurymedon, were the judges. Sopho- 
cles received the prize by their decision, B. C. about 468. He won the first prize 
in such contests twenty times, while iEschylus gained this distinction but thir- 
teen times, and Euripides but a still smaller number. 

The unnatural ingratitude of his family, in attempting to deprive him' of his 
property on the charge of dotage, furnished him an opportunity to acquire new 
glory ; he read before the court his CEdipus at Colonus, which he had just com- 
posed*; in admiration of the piece, the judges not only rejected the suit of the 
family, but escorted the poet from the place of trial to his own dwelling. He 
died about B. C. 405, not long before the defeat of the Athenians at iEgos-pota- 
mos. Discordant and marvelous tales are related of his death. — See Gott.Ep/i. 
Jessing, Leben des Sophokles. (ed. Eschenburg) Berlin, 1790. 8. — Nachtra;ge zu 
Sulzer's Theorie {Fr. Jacobs). 



198 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

(2) Different statements are made respecting the number of tragedies corai- 
posed by Sophocles. Suidas makes it 123. It is commonly judged that the true 
number is about 70. Many of the plays, which were ascribed to him, are thought 

to have belonged to his son Iophon and grandson Sophocles. He was called 

by the ancients the Attic Bee, to designate the sweetness and grace which char- 
acterised his works.— See Besenbeck, Diss, de ingenio Sophocles. Erlang. 1789. 
A.—SchkgeVs Dram. Lit. Lect. iv.—SchOll, Hist. L. Gr. Vol. ii. p. 30. 

(3) Best editions; R. F. Ph. Brunch, Gr. & Lat. Argent. 1786-9. 3 vols. 8. 
Renr. often ; best, Oxf. 1820. 3 vols. 8. Lond. 1824. 4 vols. 8.—C. 6. A. Er- 
furhdl, Lips, 1802-11. 6 vols. 8. each volume one play; Oedipus Coloneus want- 
ing. Same, ed. Hermann. Lips, (commenced) 1823. 12. 

Earlv editions; Princeps, Aldus, Ven. 1502. 8. — Junta, (Francinus ed.), cum 
Schol. Flor. 1522, 1547. 4. — Turncbus (with the Schol. of Dem. Triclinius), ~Pz,r. 
1553. 4.— H. Slephanus; Par. 1568. 4.— Canterus, Antw. 1579. 12. Repr. Lugd. 

Bat. 1593. Later ; Johnson, Oxon. 1705. 2 vols. 8. 3d vol. Lond. 1746. Gr. & 

Lat. Cum. Schol. Repr. Lond. 1758. Eton. 1775. more correct. Dibdin. ii. p. 
412. — Capparonier (finished by Vauvilliers), Gr. & Lat. 2 vols. 4. — F.H.Bolhe, 

Gr.& Lat. Lpz. 1806. 2 vols. 8.—G.H. Schcefer, Lips. 1810. 2 vols. 8. Of 

single tragedies, there have been numerous editions; among the best are the fol- 
lowing ; Ajax, B. Stollberg, [with Scaliger's metrical version] Wittenb. 1668. 
8. — T. G. Hoerius, Wittenb. 1746. 8. Ch. Aug. Lobeck, Lips. 1809. 8. Electra, 
(Gr. Lat. & Ital.) Rom. 1754. 4.— G. Ant. Ch. Scheffier, Helmsted. 1794. 8. 
CEdipus Tyrannus, J. H. C. Barby, Berl. 1807. 8.— P. Elmsley, Oxf. 1811. 8. 
impr. Lpz. 1821. Antigone, J.H. C. Barby, Berl. 1806. 8. CEdipus Coloneus, 
C. Reisig, Jena;, 1820. 8. a vol. of Comment, crit. 1822. 8.— P. Elmsley, Oxf. 1823. 
8. Trachiniae, J. G. Ch. Hospfner, Lips. 1791. 8. — L. J. Billerbeck, Hildes. 
1801. 8. Philoctetes, F. Gedike, Berl. 1781. 8.—Buitmann, 1822. 8. 

Translations ; German, (metrical) Count Stollberg, Hamb. 1823. 2 vols. 8. — 

better, C. W. F. Solger, Berl. 2 vols. 8. French, Dupuy, Par. 1762. 2 vols. 

8.—G. de Rochefort, Par. 1788. 2 vols. 8. English, (blank verse) Th. Frank- 
lin, Lond. 1759. corr. 1788.— R. Potter, Lond. 1788. 

§ 63. Euripides, was born at Salamis, of Athenian parents, B. 
C. 480. He was instructed in rhetoric by Prodicus, and by Anaxa- 
goras in philosophy. Socrates was his familiar friend. He died B. 
C. 406, at the court of Archelaus, king of Macedon. His talent for 
philosophy and eloquence appears in his tragedies, which are strik- 
ingly marked by sententious passages, and pathetic scenes; in this re- 
spect he sometimes violates tragic dignity. An easy and regular 
method is found in all his pieces. His characters are designed with 
exactness, and are less ideal than those of Sophocles. With much 
fidelity and truth in expression he unites great richness and fullness. 
Most of his plays, of which he composed at least 75, are lost ; seven- 
teen or eighteen, however, remain, besides some fragments, and the 
Cyclops, which was a performance of Euripides, belonging to the 
satyrical drama (§ 44). 

(1) Euripides remained at Athens until within a few years of his death. He 
went to Macedonia on the invitation of the king, Archelaus. Several causes 
are suggested as influencing him thus to retire ; domestic trials, the abuse and 
ridicule received from Aristophanes, and public prosecution on a charge of im, 
piety. His death is said to have been occasioned by an attack of some ferocious 
hounds, in which he was so mangled, that he expired not long afterwards. He 
was 75 years old. — For the biography of Euripides, see (besides the work refer- 
red to in § 47) his Life by Barnes, in pref. to his edition of Euripides,— and by 
Moschopulus* Tliomas Magister, and Autnis Gelllus, found in Musgrave's edition of 
Euripides,— and the anonymous Life in Elmsley' s edition of the Bacchce. Cf. (4) 
below. 



EURIPIDES. 193 

(2) Euripides is said by some to have composed 120 dramas. A catalogue of 
those lost is given by Fabricius (Bibl. Graec). Those which remain are ' Except], 
'OgfffT?;?, <t>oi'rmaai, Mi' t Siia, ' IrmblvToq OTB(pav7](pi(>og, Hippolytus Coronifer, 
"AUxtjOTig, AvSqouux'U ' Ixirties, The Female Suppliants, 'I<piyiveia >; iv 'AvZlSi, 
'Iifiyivtia tj \v TauQoig, TqcoaScg, The Trojan Women, Buxxat, The Female 
Bacchanals,' HqaxluSai, ' Elirrj, "luir, 'Hqaxlfjg fcaiv6/.uvog, Hercules furens, 
>HXixTQa, a.nd' Pijaog, Bhesus. This last, however, is considered as spurious by 
some of the best critics. The principal fragments are of two pieces entitled 
<&ai&u>v, and Javurj. — On the number of pieces written by Euripides, what genu- 
ine, what lost, &c Fuhrmann's Klein. Handb. p. 151. Schall, Hist. Litt. Gr. ii. 
p. 52. — Valc/cenaer, Diatribe in Euripid. deperditor. dram, reliquias. Lips. 1824. 
S.—Fr. Osann, Epist. ad Matthiseum, de nonnullis fabularum Euripidis deperd. 
titulis. in Wolf's literar. Analekten (vol. 2d. p. 527) Berl. 1820. — In same work 
(Analekten, vol. 2d. p. 392) ueber den Prologus der Danae (one of the fragments 
above named). — A. Boeckh, Graecre tragoediae principum, JEschyli, Sophoc. Eu- 
rip. numea qua? supersunt et genuina omnia sint, et forma primitiva servata etc. 
Heidelb. 1808. 8. — Hardion, sur la tragediede Rhesus, in Mem. de TAcad. des 
Ins. et B. Lett. T. X.— Class. Journ. No. 43, 

Ancient authors refer to another production of Euripides, styled 'Emxi'/Seiov, 
a funeral song, in honor of Nicias and others, who perished in the fatal expedi- 
tion of the Athenians against Syracuse. There exist alsofive letters ascribed to 
Euripides. They may be found in the editions of Barnes, Beck and others. — 
See Sch&ll, ii. p. 64. — The genuineness of the letters is discussed in R. Benlley's 
Dissert, upon the epistles of Phalaris, &c. Lond. 1816. first published in Wot- 
lon's Reflect, on anc. and mod. Learning (Cf. P. I. § 29). Comp. remarks of 
Beck, Glasg. ed. of Eurip. vol. 7. p. 720. 

(3) The Medea is generally considered as one of the best pieces of Euripi- 
des. It is said that Cicero was reading this, when arrested by the ministers of 
the proscription. 

In comparing Euripides and the other two masters in Grecian tragedy, it may 
be said, that he ranks first in tragic representation and effect, Sophocles, first in dra- 
matic symmetry and ornament, and iEschylus, first in poetic vigor and grandeur. 
iEschylus was the most sublime, Sophocles the most beautiful, Euripides the most 
pathetic. The first displays the lofty intellect, the second exercises the cultiva- 
ted taste, the third indulges the feeling heart. Each, as it were, shows you a 
fine piece of sculpture. In iEschylus, it is a naked hero, with all the strength, 
boldness and dignity of olden time. In Sophocles and Euripides, it may be per- 
haps the same hero ; but with the former, he has put on the flowing robes, the 
elegant address and the soft urbanity of a polished age ; with the latter, he is 
yielding to some melancholy emotion, ever heedless of his posture or gait, and 
casting his unvalued drapery negligently about him. They have been compared 
by an illustration from another art. ' The sublime and daring iEschylus resem- 
bles some strong and impregnable castle situated on a rock, whose martial gran- 
deur awes the beholder, its battlements defended by heroes, and its gates proudly 
hung with trophies. Sophocles appears with splendid dignity, like some imperial 
palace of richest architecture, the symmetry of whose parts, and the chaste magnif- 
icence of the whole, delight the. eye, and command the approbation of the j udgment. 
The pathetic and moral Euripides hath the solemnity of a Gothic temple, whose 
storied windows admit a dim religious light, enough to show its high embowed 
roof, and the monuments of the dead, which rise in every part, impressing our 
minds with pity and terror at the uncertain and short duration of human great- 
ness, and with an awful sense of our own mortality.' {Potter). 

On the character of Euripides and his writings, comp. Schlegel, Dram. Lit. 
Lect. v. — Char, vormehmst. Dicht. cited §61(2) vol.5. p. 335.— Anacharsis, ch. 
59. — Clodius, Versuche aus der Literatur und Moral. Th. 1. p. 72. — Fr. Ja- 
cobs, Andimadvers. in Euripidem. Goth. 1790. 8. — Same, Curas Secundee 

in Eurip. Lips. 1796. 8. Euripides is defended from the common charge 

of misogyny in the work styled Hinterlassene Papiere eines philos. Land- 
predigers, herausgegeben von Karl Heinr. Heydenreich, Lips. 1798. 8. 

(4) Best editions ; Variorum, Gr. & Lat. (publisher Priestley) Glasg. 1821. 
9 vols. 8. very highly commended by Dibdin ; the text of each play drawn from 
the most eminent editor of that play. — Beck, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1778-88. 3 vols. 4. 
—Matthiae, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1813-18. 8 vols. 8. 

Early editions: Princcps, Aldus, Ven. 1503. 2 vols. 8. [12 Dibdin]. There 
was an edition of four plays, perhaps earlier, but without date, printed at Flu- 

25 



194 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE- 

ivniv.— MervMtws, Basil. 1637,44,61 [3 cdiiions] 2 vols. 8.—Oporimu, Gr. & 
l.ai. Basil. 1663, fol. — Canttrus, Antw. 1571. 12.—Commelin, Gr. & Lat. Hei- 

rlelb. 1697. "J vols, ft— JF». stcpkanus, Gr. & Lat. Genev. 1602. 4. Later; 

lim ins, Or. & Lat. Cantab. 1694. fol. it eclipsed all preceeding editions. — Mus- 
trmv, Qr. & Lat. Oxon. 4 vols. 4. differently estimated by critics.— Foulis, Gr. 
& Lat. Gla.sg. 1797. 10 vols. 12.— E. Zimmermann, Gr. & Lat. Prancof. ad M. 

[ Fram-loi i) 1808-15. 4 vols. 8. To detail editions of single plays would take 

too much space. Hermann, Brunei?, Valckenaer, Elmsley, Porson, Monk, 
[Q.uart. Rev. vol. 16], Wuestemann, Markland and Robinson are the most cele- 
brated editors. Of the Cyclops, the best edition is Has/tier, Lips. 1789. 8. 

Translations; German," [metrical.! F. H. Bothe, Berl. 1800. 5 vols. 8.— French, 
P. Prcvost, Par. 1783. 3 vols. 8. and in Brumoy's Theatre des Grecs — English, 
R. Potter, Lond. 1783. 2 vols. 4. and later.— M. Woodhull, Lond. 1782. 4 vols. 8. 
1802. 3 vols. 8. 

(5) Some other works illustrative ; C. Fr. Ammon, Diss, de Eurip. Hecuba. 
Erl. 1788. 4.— Fr. N. Morus, Prog, de Phcenissis Eur. Lips. 1771. i.—H.Bluem- 
vcr, Ueber die Medea von Euripides. Lpz. 1790. 8. — Bouterwek, de philosophia 
Euripidea &c in the Cornmentt. class, hist, etphilos. Soc. Reg. Scientiar. T. iv. 
and in Miscell. Grace. Dram. Cambridge. — C. A. BOttiger's prolusiones II de Me- 
dea Eurip. cum priscre artis operibus comparata. Weim. 1802. 4. — A. W. Schle- 
gel, Compar. entre la Phedre de Racine et celle d'Euripide. Par. 1807. 8. — L. 
Racine and Balteaux, in Mem. de l'Acad. des Insc. &c. T. viii. x. xlii. — Henr. 
Aug. Zeibisch, Disp. qua mos Graecorum infantes exponendi ex variis scriptor. 
anfiq. maxime Euripidis lone illustratur. Wittenb. 1753. 4. 

§ 64. Empedocles, of Agrigentum in Sicily, who nourished about 
B. C. 440, may be mentioned here as a didactic poet. He was one jaf 
the most eminent men in his native land, and distinguished as a philoso- 
pher and naturalist. That from ostentatious pride he threw himself 
into to the crater of iEtna, is a fable ; he probably died while journey- 
ing in Peloponnesus. A poem in three books, on the nature of things, 
(IIs(>h <pvaea>s rajv ovrcov) is ascribed to him by ancient authors. It 
was imitated by Lucretius ; and a fragment of it still remains. An- 
other poem, called the Sphere (^qDatoa), was ascribed to him, but it is 
undoubtedly from some later author. 

(1) Other productions were ascribed to him, particularly a number of verses 
under the name of KaQappoL, and a poem called 'laTQtxbs ioyoj. Some have 
considered him as the author of the so called golden verses of Pythagoras. In 
philosophy he was a disciple of the Italic or Pythagorean school. His life is 
given by Diogenes Laertius. For his philosophical views, see Enfield's Hist. Phil. 
B. II. ch. xii. sect. 2. [vol. I. p. 430. Dublin, 1792].— H. Ritterixi Wolf's Analekten, 
vol. ii. p. 411.— Cousin's French Trans, of Tenneman's Hist. Phil. vol. i. § 108. 

(2) . The poetical fragments of Empedocles are found in Fr. W. Sturz, Empe- 
docles Agrigentinus &c. Lips. 1805, 2 vols. 8. containing a view of his life, 
character, writings &c. — also in A. Peyron, Empedoclis et Parmenidis Fragmen- 
ta, Lips. 1810. 8— The poem of the Sphere was published by F. Morel (Par. 1584. 
4), as the work of Demetr. Triclinius, probably author of the copy that fell into 
the hands of Morel. Shortly after (1587. 4) a Latin translation by Q. Sept. Flo- 
rent. Christians.— The original and the Translation by B. Hederich, Dresd. 
1711. 4.-Both found also in Fabricius [Harles ed.] vol. i. p. 816. 

$ 65. Aristophanes, lived at Athens about B. C. 430. His na- 
tive place is not certainly known. He is the only comic poet of the 
Greeks, from whom any complete plays now remain. Of more than 
fifty comedies written by him, only eleven are extant. They are 



ARISTOPHANES. 195 

styled 'AxotQfsig, the Acharnians ; 'Imteig, Knights; JVecpekai, 
Clouds; Zcprjxsg, Wasps ; Elgr[V7], Peace ; "Ogvideg, Birds; Avaia- 
rqdtrj, Lysistrata ; OEOjiocpoQid'Qovoav, Females keeping the festival 
0eafioq>oQi« (in honor of Ceres) ; Burga/ai, Frogs ; ExxX^aia^ovo-ai,, 
Females in Assembly ; JJlovjog, Plutus, god of riches. Aristophanes 
possessed a very fertile genius, a lively wit, true comic power, and 
Attic eloquence. We are obliged, however, to charge him with bitter 
personal satire, and ridicule of worthy men, especially Socrates and 
Euripides. This, it is true, was in accordance with the character of 
Grecian comedy at that time, as was also his abundant contempt for 
the common religious belief. His plays furnish a valuable means of 
learning the state of manners and morals among the Greeks in his 
age. 

(1) He was probably a native of iEgina. He is supposed to have died about 
380, B. C. at the age of 80.— Nic. Frischlin, Life of Aristoph. prefixed to Kuster's 
edition (mentioned below). — Fuhrmarm's Klein. Handbuch. p. 163. 

(2) In the' uixaqvng, the author attacks Euripides, and in the 0eouo<pooia- 
Zovoai and Burqaxoi also brings him particularly into view. It is in the Neipi/iai 
that Socrates is ridiculed; many have supposed that the poet merely intended to 
ridicule, under the name of Socrates, the sophists in general, and that this play 
had little or no influence in reference to the trial and condemnation of that phi- 
losopher.— Schlegel's Dram. Lit. Lect. vi. [i. p. 203]. — Scholl, Hist. Lit. Gr. vol. 
ii. p. 95. — Mitchell's Translation, Introduction [Cf. Ed. Rev. vol. 34. N. Amer. vol, 
14. L. Quarterly, vol, 23]. — Harles, de Consilio Aristoph. in scribend. comoed. 
Nubes inscripta, Erlang. 1787.— For a view of the character of Aristophanes 
and his writings, besides the references just made, we add Charuk. vornehmst. 
Dicht. cited § 61 [2], vol. 7. p. 113. 

(3) Best editions; Brunck,Gx. &Lat. 1783. 4 vols. 8. Repr. Oxf. 1811. 4 vols. 
8. with the Lexicon Aristophaneum of J. Sanxay, as 5th vol. — Invemiz, Beck 
and Dindorf, Lips. 1794-1822, 11 vols. 8. with the scholia, not in Brunck's; ex- 
pected to extend to 15 vols. — Ch. God. Schiltz, Gr. & Lat. commenced Lips. 1821. 
8. whether more than 1st vol. published, not known [Dibdin). — A new edition 
was some time since announced, to be under the care of Bekker, 4 vols. 8. 

Early editions ; Princeps, Aldus, (Marc. Musurus ed.) Ven. 1498. fol. cum 
Schol. (9 comedies). — Junta, Flor. 1515. 8. 1525. 4. (ed. Francinus). — Cratan- 
drus [ed. £. Grynceus] Basil. 1532. 4. [first containing 11 comedies]. — Zanelli, 
"Ven. 1538. 8. — Froben, Basil, 1547. fol. — Nic. Frischlin, Gr. & Lat. Francof. ad 

M. 1597. 8.—jEmil. Porims. Gr. & Lat. Aurel. Allobr. 1607. fol. Later ; 

hud. Kuster, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1710, fol. very highly esteemed. — Bergler, rather 
P. Burman with notes of S. Bergler and C. Duker) Gr. & Lat. Lug. Bat. 1760. 
2 vols. 4. 

Editions of separate plays cannot here be cited. Melancthon, Hemsterhuis, 
Harles, Kuinoel, Hermann, Hoepfner, and Elmsley, are among the principal 
names. Beck, Wolf and Reisig may be added. 

Translations; German, J. H. Voss, with notes, Braunschw. 1821. 3 vols. 8, 
commended by Fuhrmann. — French, L. Poinsinet de Sivry. Par. 1784. 4 vols. 8. 
— A. C. Brotier in the Theatre des Grecs. — Italian, B. <%• P. Rositini, Ven. 1544. 
8.— English, Thorn. Mitchell, Camb. 1817. 3 vols. 8. 

(4) Some other works pertaining to Aristophanes; Reisig, Conjectaneorum 
in Aristoph.Libb.il. Lips. 1816.8. — P. F. Kannglesser, cited" § 41.— J. G. Willa- 
mow, de Ethopoeia comica Aristoph. Berl. 1766. 8. — J.Floder, Diss, explicans 
Antiquitates Aristophaneas. Ups. 1768. 4. — Boivin, in Mem. de FAcad. des 
Inscr. T. vi. and Le Beau, in same, T. xxx. — The fragment of Plutarch contain- 
ing a comparison of Aristophanes and Menander. — Aug, Seidler, de Aristoph. 
fragments. Hal. Sax. 1818. 4. 



196 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

$ G6. Menander, born at Athens about B. 0. 342, one of the later 
comic poets of the Greeks. He wrote numerous comedies (§ 43), of 
which we possess only slight fragments. The loss of Menander is 
the more regretted on account of the praise bestowed on him by 
Quintilian (x. 1). Some idea of his manner may be obtained, how- 
ever, from the imitations of him in Terence. Philemon is usually 
named in connection with Menander, as a contemporary and rival. 

(1) Menander died at the age of about 50;. Philemon, a native according to 
some of Sicily, but according to others of Cilicia, lived to the great age of 97 or 
!>9. The former was rather a voluptuary ; the latter was particularly temperate. 
— Schlcgci's Dram. Lit. Lect. 7. 

(2) The best edition of the fragments of Menander and Philemon, is by 
A. Meinccke, Berl. 1823. 8. — They are found in the collections cited § 43. That 
of Le Clerc occasioned a bitter literary war (Schcell iii. p. 82. Harles, Int. i. p. 
489. Brev. Not. p. 226). 

§ 67. Lycophron, a poet and grammarian, born at Chalcis in Eu- 
bcea, nourished in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. C. about 284. 
His performance styled 'Ai.e^dv8qct, Alexandra or Cassandra, was 
improperly ranked in the class of tragedies ; it is a monologue or 
monodrama, in which Cassandra predicts to Priam the fate of Troy. 
This topic is interwoven with many others, pertaining to the history 
and mythology of different nations, so as to render the poem obscure 
and heavy. 

(1) Lycophron was a writer of tragedies andwas ranked among the Pleiades 
(§40). A work also on the subjectof comedy, Tltol xw(no8ias,v>as written by him. 
The loss of the latter is more regretted than of his dramatic pieces. The gram- 
marians of Alexandria collected a mass of materials illustrating his Cassandra, 
from which John Tzetzes compiled alarge commentary. — Schcell, iii. p. 96. 

(2) The best edition, according to Dibdin, is that of Ch. G. Mailer, Lips. 1811. 
3 vols. 8. (Cf. Dibdin ii. p 211, Schcell iii. 106).— That of J. Potter, Oxf. 1702. 

fol. is very celebrated. The oldest or princeps edition was by Aldus, Ven. 

1513. 8. together with Pindar and Callimachus. Other editions ; Peraxylus, 

or P. Lacisius, Basil. 1546. Fol. (Cf. Dibdin, ii. p. 208.)— W Canter, Bas. 1566. 
4. with brief notes and two Latin translations, one in prose by Canter, the other 
in verse by Jos. Scaliger.—H. G, Reichard, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1788. 2 vols. 8.— 
L. Sebastian, Gr. & Lat. Rom. 1803. 4. commended by Dibdin. 

An English version of Lycophron by Royston, Class. Journ. xiii, xiv. 

§ 68. Theocritus, a native of Syracuse, nourished in the time of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, and in the reign of the second Hiero, B. C. 
about 275. We have under his name thirty Idyls, 'EidvlUa, some of 
which are probably not genuine, and also twenty-two smaller pieces, 
chiefly epigrams. He was the most distinguished of ancient authors 
in the department of pastoral poetry. Virgil followed him as a mas- 
ter and model, but was his inferior in simplicity and fidelity to nature. 

(1) We cannot assert what induced Theocritus to remove from Syracuse to 
Alexandria, where he certainly spent a part of his life. Some have stated that 
certain satires composed by him against Hiero exposed him to the vengeance of 



1 



THEOCRITUS. BION. 197 

that monarch. Where and when he died is not known, although it has been 
supposed, that he returned to Sicily and suffered a violent death from the ven- 
geance of Hiero— Life of Theocritus in Polwhele cited below. 

(2) The nature of the Greek Idyl has already been exhibited (§ 30). The 
Idyls of Theocritus are not confined to pastoral subjects. Of the thirty ascribed 
to him, only fifteen can properly be considered as bucolic or pastoral, viz. the 
first 9 and the 11th, considered by all as genuine bucolics, and the 10th, 20th, 21st, 
23d and 27th, which may be put in the same class. Five are mythological, viz. 
the 13th, 22d, 24th, 25th and 26th. Three have been termed epistolary, 12th, 28th 
and 29th, bearing a slight resemblance to the epistles of Ovid, but having less of 
the elegiac character. They are called lyric by Schcell. Two may be denomi- 
nated comic, the 14th and 15th. The latter, ZvQaxovaiai, the Syracusan Gossips, 
has no more of the pastoral in its tone than a scene from Aristophanes. (Cf. § 
46.) Two others maybe styled panegyrical, the 16th and 17th. And there areiwo 
in the collection, 19th and 30th, which may properly enough perhaps be called 
anacreontic, being mere imitations of the lighter odes of Anacreon. The re- 
maining one, 18th, is a genuine epithalamium, according to its title, 'EXevrj$ lm- 

SaXafliog. 

The reputation of Theocritus is built on his Idyls. The epigrams would 
scarcely have preserved his name from oblivion. One piece of a peculiar char- 
acter remains, termed the 2v$iy$, consisting of 21 verses so arranged as to form 
a resemblance to the pipe of the god Pan. In the Alexandrine age there was a 
depraved fondness for such odd and fanciful devices, in which the poet's lines 
presented the form of eggs, axes, wings or altars. — For the character of Theo- 
critus, see Elton's Specimens of Classic Poets. — Nachtr. zu Sulzer. i. p. 89. — C. 
W. Ahlwardt, zur Erklserung der Idyll. Theokrits. Rostach. 1792. 8. — Eichstcedt, 
Adumb. queest. de carm. Theocr. indole ac virtutibus. Lips. 1794. 4. 

(3) The epithalamium of Helen has been thought to resemble the Song of Solo- 
mon, and some have supposed that Theocritus imitated the latter. Schoell op- 
poses this idea, although there are passages in the Idyls containing imagery, 
which might have been drawn from the Scriptures. The Septuagint version 
was made in the time of Theocritus.— Comp. Idyl. 24, 84 with Is. 75. 25 and 11. 
6; Id. 18. 26-28 with Sol. S. 1.9 and 6. 10; Id. 20. 26 with Sol. S. 4. 11; Id. 23. 
23-26 with Sol. S. 8. 6, 7.— See Scholl, vol. iii. p. 146.— Matter, Essai sur l'Ecole 
Alexandrie. — Ck. Fr. Stceudlin, Theokrits Idyll, und das hohe Lied verglichen, 
in Paulus, Memorabilien. vol. ii. p. 162. 

(4) Best editions ; Th. Kiessling, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1819. 8. ' Perhaps the very 
best, up to the time of its publication.' Dibdin. — Jacobs, Hate, (commenced) 1824. 
8. promising to be most ample. — Of previous editions, the best are Th. Warton, 
Oxf. 1770. 2 vols. 4. L. C. Valckenaer, Gr. & Lat. Lug. Bat. 1779. 8. repr. (ed 

Heindorf) Berl. 1810. 2 vols. 8. Early editions ; Princeps, (18 Idyls, with 

Works and Days of Hesiod) Milan, 1493. fol. time and place known only by 
conjecture. Dibdin. — Second, by Aldus, (with Hesiod) Ven. 1495. fol. — Junta, 
Flor. 1515, 1540. S.—Calliergus, cum schol. Rom. 1516. 8. thought to be the se- 
cond Greek book printed at Rome. — Morel, Par. 1561. 4.—H. Slephanus, Par. 
1566, in Poet. Princ. cited § 47. & 1579. 12. Gr. & Lat. with Bion and Moschus. 
— D. Heinsius, Gr. & Lat. Heid. 1604. 4. Repr. Oxf. 1676. 8. Lond. 1729.8. 1758. 

8. Later; Martinus, Gr. & Lat, Lond. 1760. 8. — Reiske, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 

1765. 2 vols. 4,— F. A. Stroth, Gothse, 1780. 8. particularly valued for its illus- 
trations of terms and phrases pertaining to botany and natural history. Dibdin. 
4th ed. by Stroth and Jacobs, (for schools) Gothae. 1821. 8. — Bodoni(e& B. Za- 
magna) Parm. 1791. 2 vols. 8. with Lat. version. — J. B. Gail, Paris, 1795. 3 vols. 
4. with Lat. and Fr. vers, and figures. The two last are named by Scholl, as 
' editions du luxe.'— Dahl, Lips. 1804. 8.— J. Geel, Amst. 1820. 8.— Th. Briggs, 
Camb. 1821. 8. 

Translations ; German, Finkenstein, Arethusa. oder die bukol. Dichter des 
Alterthums, Berl. 1806. 8. containing a Life of Theoc. — l H. Voss, Tubing. 
1808. 8. French, Chabanon, Par. 1777. 8.— Gin, Par. 1788- 2 vols. 8.— Ital- 
ian, A. M. Salvini, Ven. 1718. 12. with annot. by Desmarais, Aret. 1754. 8. 

English, E. B. Greene, Lond. 1767. 8. — R. Polwhele. (with Bion and Moschus) 
Lond. 1792. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 69. Bion of Smyrna, and Moschus of Syracuse, were contem- 
porary with Theocritus, as is generally supposed. The Idyls of 



IDS HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

Moschus belong rather to descriptive than to pastoral poetry, properly 
speaking ; they have more refinement, with less of natural simplicity 
than the pieces of Theocritus. The seizure of Europa is the most 
beautiful. — The Idyls of Bion contain elegant passages ; but they 
savor too much of art, and are wanting in the freedom and naivete of 
Theocritus. His principal piece is the funeral song in honor of 
Adonis. 

(1) Some have placed the date of these poets considerably later than the 
time of Theocritus. Their era is perhaps a matter of real doubt.— Manso Abh. 
von Bion's Leben, in his ed. cited below (3). 

(2) There remain of Moschus four Idyls, and a few smaller pieces ; of Bion, 
besides the piece above named, only some short Idyls, and a fragment of a longer 
one. These pieces have usually been published in connection with those of The- 
ocritus ; and anciently they were in fact confounded with them. — Scholl, iii. 
p. 175. 

(3) Best editions ; Jacobs, Gr. & Lat. Gothse. 1795. 8. — Valckenaer with The- 
ocritus cited § 68 (4). Early editions; Princeps in Aldus, with Theoc. Ven. 

1495, fol. — The first ed. of B. and M. separate from Theoc. was by Mekerckus, 
Brug. PI. 1565. 4.-- Vulcanius, Gr. & Lat. with Callimachus. Antw. 1584. 12.— 
Later; Heskin, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1748. — Schier, Lips. 1752. — Manso, Gr. & Germ. 
Gothae, 1784. 8. but without accents. — Wakefield, Lond. 1795. without accents. 

Translations; German, by Manso, just cited; French, Gail, and English, 
Greene and Polwhele, cited § 68 (4). 

§ 70. Callimachus, of Cyrene in Lybia, flourished B. C. about 
260. He was a historian and grammarian, at Alexandria, patronised 
by Ptolemy Philadelphus and by him placed in the Museum (Cf. P. I. 
§ 74). Of his many writings we have only six hymns, some smaller 
poems, and a considerable number of fragments. His hymns exhibit 
more of study and artificial effort, than of true poetical spirit. Q,uin- 
tilian, however, ranks him as the first elegiac poet of the Greeks ; and 
he certainly was imitated by the Roman Propertius. 

(1) The Hymns of Callimachus are in elegiac verse. Five are in the Ionic, 
one in the Doric dialect. That addressed to Ceres is judged the best. Besides 
these he composed Elegies, which were regarded as the chief ground of his rep- 
utation ; but of which only fragments remain. Another class of his pieces con- 
sisted of Epigrams, of which nearly 80 remain. Strabo refers to his Iambics 
and Choliambics, and some fragments of these still exist. Among his poetical 
works are named also three little poems viz. "Striae on the causes of fable, 
custom &c. 'Exaltj, on the hospitality shown by an old female to Theseus, on his 
way against the bull of Marathon, and * Ifiig, a poem directed against one of 
his pupils charged with ingratitude. Many prose works were written by this 
grammarian and professed teacher, as ' ' Yno^vrifiara, Memoirs, or Commentaries, 
Krions vtlowv xal noitiav, Settlements of islands and cities, 0av/.i.uoia, on the won- 
ders of the world, Movottov, an account of the Museum at Alexandria, nlva£ 
navToiajiwv ouyypa/i^aTov, a sort of universal Tableau of Letters, in 120 books, 
containing an account of authors in every department methodically arranged, 
the first example probably of a history of literature. Some of those performan- 
ces styled JiSaaxaliai (P. I. § 66) are also ascribed to him. All these works are 
lost. — Schmll, iii. p. 109. 

(2) Best editions; Ernesti, Gr. & Lat. Lug. Bat. 1761. 2 vols. 8.—C. J. Blom- 
field, Lond. 1815. 8.— A good school edition is Fr. M. Volger, Lpz. 1817. 8. con- 
taining the Hymns and Epigrams ; Volger promises a grand edition of all the 
remains of Callimachus.— Valcke?iaer's fragments of the Elegies, by Luzac, 
Leyd. 1799. 8. 6 b , j 



CALLIMACHUS. ARATUS. CLEANTHES. 199 

Early editions; Princeps, J. Lascaris, Flor. 1495. 4. in capitals; called by 
Dibdin, the edition of Alopa, being the 4th of the 5 extremely rare works printed 
in capitals by L. Fr. de Alopa. — Froben, Basil, 1532. ^.—Robortellus, Gr. & Lat. 
Ven. 1555. 8. — H. Stephanus, Gr. & Lat. Genev. 1577. 4. — Faber iAnne Le Fever 
afterwards Madame Dacier) Lutet. Paris, 1674. 8. Gr. &Lat. Her first effort in 

editing.— Gravius, Gr. & Lat. Ultraj. (Utrecht) 1697. 2 vols. 8. Later; T. 

Bentley, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1741. 8. Cf. Mus. Crit. ii. p. 150. Class. Jour. ix. p. 
35.— Fmlis, Glasg. 1755. fol.— Bandini, Gr. Lat. & Ital. Flor. 1763. 8.—Bodoni, 
Parm. 1792. fol. in capitals, with an Italian version. 

Translations; German, C. Schwenk, Bonn. 1821. 8. — Ahlwardt, (metrical) 
Berl. 1794. 8. French; G. la Porte du Theil, Par. 1775. 8.— P. Radel, with Lat. 
vers. Par. 1808. 8. English; W. Dodd, Lond. 1755. 4.— H. W. Tytler, Gr. & 
Eng. Lond. 1793. 4. 

(3) Illustrative; C. G. Goetling, Animadv. crit. in Callim. Epigrammata. 
Jen. 1811. 8. — J. G, Zierlein, Disp. de ingenio Callim. Hall. 1770. 4. — Nachtr. 
zu Sulzer's Theorie, otherwise styled Charakt. vornehmst. Dicht. cited § 61 
(2), vol. ii. p. 86. — Philetas of Cos, in the time of Alexander the Great, is some- 
times mentioned in connection and comparison with Callimachus (§ 29). The 
fragments of his Elegies were published separately by C. Ph. Kayser, Gcett. 
1793. 8. 

§ 71. Aratus, of Soli in Cilicia, afterwards called Pompeiopolis, 
flourished B. C. about 278. At the request of Antigonus king of 
Macedon, he wrote an astronomical poem under the title of 0aiv6fteva 
xal JioaijfieZat,. It was not strictly an original, as the request of the 
king his patron was that he should clothe in verse two treatises, the 
"EvortTQov and the ftaivofieva, of Eudoxus. This poem is memora- 
ble on account of Cicero's metrical translation of it. Of this transla- 
tion, however, only slight fragments remain. It was translated into 
Latin verse also by Caesar Germanicus and Festus Avienus. That 
of Avienus, and a part of the other are still extant. 

(1) The poem of Aratus was much esteemed by the ancients. Cf. Ov. Amor, 
i. 15. v. 16. Quint, x. 1. 55. Although he is charged with knowing but little on 
the subject of astronomy, many of the mathematicians wrote commentaries on 
his work ; four of these are yet in existence. Delambre (Hist. Astr. Anc. i. p. 
74) remarks that Aratus has preserved nearly all that the Greeks knew of the 
science, at least so far as it could be told in verse. — SchOll iii. 137. 

(2) There are three anonymous lives of Aratus, besides the notice of Suidas. 
On the later didactic poets of the Greeks, Aratus, Nicander, and Oppian, we 
may refer to the Nacht. zu Sulzer (Cf. §70), vol. vi. p. 350. 

(3) Editions ; Best, J. G. Buhle, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1793-1801. 2 vols. 8.— F. 

Ch. Matthia, Frankf, 1817. 8. Early ; Princeps, by Aldus, in the Astronomi 

Veteres. Ven. 1499. 2 vols. fol. Cf. Schmll, i. p. 50. Intr.— Micylli, Gr. & Lat. 
Basil, 1535. tol— Valderus, Bas. 1536. 4.— Colineeus, Par. 1540. 8. G. Morell, 
Par. 1559. 2 vols. 4. — Grolius, Gr. & Lat. Leyd. 1600. 4. among the more pro- 
minent of early editions ; the editor at the time but sixteen years of age.— J. 
Fell, Oxf. 1672. 8. with the KaraartqiOfiol of Eratosthenes. Repr. Oxf. 1801. 8. 

Later ; Bandini, Gr. & Lat. Flor. 1765. 8. with Ital.metr. vers, by Salvini. 

Not highly esteemed. — Th. Foster, Lond. 1813. 8. value not known: — Abbe Hal- 
ma, with French trans. Par. 1823. 4. — A German version by G. S. Falbe is given 
in the Berlin Monatschnft, 1806. Feb. & Aug. 1807. Feb. & March. 

$ 72. Cleanthes, of Assus in Troas, having been for many years 
a disciple of Zeno, at length succeeded him as teacher in the Stoic 
school at Athens, B. C. 264. Of his numerous writings, nothing re- 
mains but an admirable Hymn to Jupiter. 



200 HISTORY OF ORBF.K LITERATCRK. 

(1) Cleonihes received the name </>yfuni>;? from the circumstance that, in 
order to enable himself, being poor, lo atteud the schools of philosophy by day, 
he spent a part of the night in drawing water as alaborer in the gardens of the 
city. Heissaidto have died at the age of 80 or 90, by voluntary starvation. 
The 1 1\ inn, winch still keeps alive his memory, is in hexameter verse, and con- 
lams some exalted views ot a supreme Divinity. — Enfield's Hist. Philos. cited 
§ IM (1), i. p.376.— SchaU,OtT. Ljjft. ill. 335. — Diog. Laert. Lives of Philosophers. 

(•2) The Hymn -was first published by Fulv. Ursinas, Carmina novem illust. 
feminarum etc. Antw. 15G8. 8.— Again in H. Stephanas, Poesis Philos. cited 
§ 47.— In R. Cudworth, Intellect. Syst. of the Univ. Lond. 1678. fol. p. 432. with a 
Latin metrical version by Duport.— In Brunch's Analekta (§ 35) and Gnom. Poet. 
(§31),& in other collections.— Separately published, F. W. SVurz, with Germ, 
trans. Lpz. 1785.4.— H. H. Cludius, Goett. 1786. 8.—G. Ch. Mohnike, Greifswalde 
181 1. 8. with other remains of Cleanthes.— An English metrical version is giv- 
en in West's Pindar, cited § 60(4).— See J. F. H. Schwabe, Specimen theologiae 
comparative, exhibens KXeuvBovs tifivov eig Jla cum disciplina Christiana compa- 
ratum,etc. Jen. 1819. 4. 

v) 73. Apollonius Rhodius, B. C. about 195, was a native of Nau- 
cratis, or perhaps of Alexandria, in Egypt. The name Rhodius was 
occasioned by his residence at Rhodes, where he for a time taught 
rhetoric. He was a pupil of Callimachus, and became the librarian 
at Alexandria. His chief work was an epic, poem, 'Aqyovavttxd, on 
the expedition of the Argonauts. He imitated Homer, with talents 
much inferior. His poem, however, evinces great application, and 
has some beautiful passages, particularly the episode on the passion 
of Medea. Yet in poetical genius and style he is rather surpassed by 
his imitator among the Romans, Valerius Flaccus. 

(1) A bitter enmity existed between Apollonius and Callimachus until the 
death of the latter. Apollonius is said to have retired from Alexandria to 
Rhodes, from mortification at having been hissed by the partisans of Callima- 
chus at the public reading of his Argonautics. It was at a subsequent period, 
that he was appointed keeper of the Alexandrian library, being successor to Era- 
tosthenes. — There are four ancient biographies of Apollonius, in Greek. — A. 

Weichert, Ueber das Leben und Gedicht des Apollonius von Rhodus. Meissen. 
1821. 8. 

(2) The poem of Apollonius consists of four books, or cantos. The critics- 
do not agree in their estimate of its worth, nor as to the comparative merits of 
the Greek original and the Roman imitation by Valerius. Schcell pronounces 
the latter superior to its model, in agreement with the remark of Eschenburg 
above. But in the edition of Eschenburg's work published after his death, the op- 

fosite is asserted. — Schwll, vol. iii. p. 1 17. — Groddech, in the Bibliothek deralten 
iiteratur und Kunst. St. 2. p. 61.— Charaktere vornehmst. Dicht. vol. vi. p. 199. 
— O. Th. Blcch, Diss, de carm. epic. Apoll. Rhodii. Havn. 1792. 8.— Gluintil. 
x, 1. 54. 

(3) Editions; Best, Wellauer, Lips. 1828. 2 vols. 8.— Brunch, Lips. \8\0:.2 

vols. 8.— Beck, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1797. 2 vols. 8 Early ; Princeps, Fr. de Alo- 

pa (cur. J. Lascaris) Flor. 1496. 4. in capitals.— Aldus, Ven. 1521. 8.—Bruba- 
chius, Prancof. 1546. S.—Rotmarus, Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1572. 8.—H. Stephanus, 

Genev. 1574. 1.— Elzevir, (ed. Hmlzlin), Gr. & Lat. Lug. Bat. 1641. 8. 

Later; J. Shaw, Oxf. 1777. 2 vols. 4.—Flangini, Gr. & Ital. Rom. 1794. 2 vols. 
4. with plates and map.— Hcerstel, school ed. Brunsw. 1806. 8. 

Translations; German, J. J. Bodmer, Zurich, 1779. 8.— French, J. J. A. 
Caussin, Par. 1797. 8.— English, Fr. Fawkes, Lond. 1780. 2 vols, 8. 

§ 74. Nicander, bom at Colophon in Ionia, lived about B. C. 146. 
He was a physician, grammarian and poet. There remain from him 



NICANDER. OPPIAN. NONNUS. 201 

two poems in hexameter, termed Gngiaxd, and ^AJ.eStqxxQfiaxa, the for- 
mer treating of venomous animals and remedies for wounds from them, 
the latter of antidotes to poisons in general. His rewqyixd, Georgics, 
andAhafoxd, Things pertaining to JEtolia, are lost. The two former 
possess no great merit either as poems or as treatises of natural sci- 
ence (§ 32). The scholia of Eutecnius upon them are of much value, 
particularly as illustrating the history of medicine. 

(1) Nicander wrote also, as has been before noticed (§ 32), a work styled meta- 
morphoses, wholly lost Schoell, iii. 141. Charactere vornehm. Dicht. vi. p. 373. 

(2) Editions j Best, J. G. Schneider, ' AWiitpa^iay.a, Hal. 1792. 8. 0ij§i«xa, 
Lips. 1816. 8. — Early; Princeps, Aldus, Ven. 1499. fol. with Dioscorides. — J. 
Soter, Cologne, 1530. i.—Gorrasus, (Morel print.) Gr. & Lat. Par. 1557. 3 vols. 
4. uniting the two poems as edited separately by him in 1549, & 1556. — Later ; 
Bandini, Gr. Lat. & Ital. Flor. 1764. 8. with the scholia or paraphrase of Eu- 
tecnius. 

§ 75. Oppian, of Corycus in Cilicia, a later Greek poet, lived as 
is supposed under the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus in 
the latter part of the 2d century after Christ. Under his name we 
have two didactic poems, 'Ahevzixd, on fishing, in 5 books, and Kwtj- 
ysTixd, on hunting, in 4 books. The former excels the latter both in 
thought and style. This circumstance has furnished some ground for 
ascribing them to different authors of the same name. The latter has 
been ascribed to an Oppian of Apamea in Syria, who lived under 
Caracalla, in the beginning of the 3d century. 

(1) The hypothesis of two poets by the name of Oppian, father and son, or 
uncle and nephew, was advanced by Schneider, in 1776, in his edition of the po- 
ems. In 1786 it was attacked by Belin de Ballu, in an edition of the poem on 
the chase. Schneider, in a new edition, 1813, still maintained his hypothesis. — 
Schce.ll, iv, p. 70. — Charakt, vorn. Dicht. vi. p. 379. 

The poem 'I&vnxa, on fowling, generally ascribed to Oppian, is lost; but 
there is extant a commentary upon it, by Eutecnius. This was published by E. 
Winding,Gr.&La.L Copenh. 1702. 8, 

(2) The best edition is, J. G. Schneider, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1813. ed. Schacfer. 
— The Princeps or first'e&ition was by B. Junta, Flor. 1515. 8. only the Halieu- 
tica. — Others; Aldus, Gr. &Lat. Ven. 1517. 8. — Turnebus, Par. 1555. 4. — Ritter- 
shusii, Lug. Bat. 1597. 8. Gr. & Lat. with a proem on the life and writings of 
Oppian. — B. de Ballu, Gr. & Lat. Argent. 1786. 8. Cynegetica only. 

Translations ; Of the Cynegetica, German, C. G. Lieberktthn, Lpz. 1755. 8. — 
French, Belin de Ballu, Argent, 1787. 8.— Italian, A. M. Salvini, Flor. 1728. 8.— 
English, M. Sommerville, Lond. 1788. 8. — Of the Halieutica, by Dnapper tf- Jones, 
Oxf, 1722, 1751. 8. 

§ 76. Nonnus, of Panopolis in Egypt, flourished probably in the 
beginning of the 5th. century ; originally a pagan, afterwards convert- 
ed to Christianity. Little or nothing is known of his history. Two 
works by him are extant; one, the Jiowcnuxd, on the deeds of Bac- 
chus, in 48 books, of various contents, without much order or connec- 
tion, in a style-not generally easy or natural ; the other, a poetical, or 

26 



•Ml HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

be terms it, epical paraphrase of the Gospel of John, prolix and bom- 
bastic. 

(1) The Dionysioca of Nonnus has been ranked among epic poems, but per- 
haps not with sttict propriety (§ 20). It is a storehouse of mythological tradi- 
tions. Some learned men, as Falckenburg and Julius C. Scaliger, have highly 
praised, while others, as Nicholas Heinsius and Joseph Scaliger, have as strong- 
ly condemned it, — ScnmU, vi. 79. — J. A. Weicherl, de NonnoPanopolitano. VitelL 
1810. 4.— Nic. Schow, Comment, de indole carminis Nonni etc. Havn. 1807. 

('2) Editions; Diom/siaca, first,by G. Falckenburg, from a manuscript now 
at Vienna, Antw. 1569. 4. Re'pr. by Wechel, (with a poor trans, by Z/«Am) Han- 
ov. 1605. 8 ; to this edition was afterwards joined, (with a new title page, 1610) 
a volume published by Cunasus including a dissertation by D. Heinsius, and con- 
jectures by J. Scaliger. — G.H.Moser published 6 books (8-13) with notes, and 

arguments of all the books of the poem, Heideb. 1809. 8. The latest edition 

is by Fr. Grafe, Lips. 1819. 8. The 1st vol. then publ. containing the first 24 
books, without preface, version, or comments; these with the remaining books 

of the poem expected in subsequent volumes. Metachrosis, or Paraphrase 

of John, first edition by Aldus, Ven. 1501. 4. — Others, F. Nansius, Leyd. 1589, 
1599. 8. — F. Sylburg, Heidelb. 1596. 8. — D. Heinsius, in his Aristarchus Sacer, 
sive ad Nonni etc. Lug. Bat. 1627. 8. 

§ 77. Coluthus, of Lycopolis in Egypt, was a poet of a later pe- 
riod, probably about the beginning of the 6th century. His poem, 
called 'Elsvijg dgnayrj, or Rape of Helen, has many defects, and but 
little real poetry. The whole is without plan, dignity, or taste, with 
many traces of too close imitation. 

(1) He is said to have lived in the reign of the emperor Anastasius, who abdi- 
cated A. D. 518. He wrote a poem in six cantos entitled Caledoniacs ; this, with 
other pieces by him, is lost. The Rape of Helen consists of 385 verses, in imita- 
tion of Homer. This poem was found by cardinal Bessarion, along with that of 
Q.uintus(Cf. § 78), and Schcell remarks that it is ascribed to Coluthus without 
certain evidence. ' The word rape (in the title) must not be taken in the com- 
mon acceptation ; for Paris was more courtly than to offer, and Helen more kind- 
hearted than to suffer, such a violence. It must be taken rather for a transport- 
ing of her with her consent from her own country to Troy.' — Schall, vi. p. 106. — 
Harles, Super Coluthi carm. deraptu Helenas. Erlang. 1775. fol. 

(2) Editions; Best; J. Dan. de Lennep, Leovard, 1747. 8. Imm. Bekker, 
Berl. 1816. 8.— A. Stan. Julien, Par. 1823. 8. Thishasthe text of Bekker, with 
translations in Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, English and German, and a fac- 
simile of two manuscripts of the poem (of the 15th and 16th centuries), rep- 
resenting not only the letters, but the color of the ink and paper. Early; 

Princeps, by Aldus, along with duintus and Tryphiodorus, without date, but sup- 
posed 1504 | Schcell, vi. p. 103). — H. Stephanus, in the Poet, princ. heroic, cited 
§ 47. also in his Homer, Par. 1604. 12.— M. Neander, Opus Aureum, Bas. 1559. 
4. Later; A. Th. Villa, Milan, 1753. 12. Gr. & Ital.— Ph. Scio de San. Mig- 
uel, Madrid, 1770. 4. Gr. Lat. & Span.— Bodoni, Parma. 1795. 4. Gr. Lat. & Ital. 

Translations; German, K. A. Kuttner, in his Callimachus, Alt. 1784, 8. 

English, W. Beloe, Lond. 1786. 4.— Meen, in Cooke's Hesiod cited § 51 (4). 

§ 78. Quintus, or Cointus, lived probably in the first part of the 
6th century. He was called Smyrnceus from his native place Smyrna, 
and received the surname Calaber from the circumstance, that his 
poem was found in a convent in Calabria. The poem ascribed to 
him, termed IIa^ulei,n6fieva ' OfirJQa, Things omitted by Homer, is 
drawn from the Cyclic poets (§21). It consists of 14 books, giving 



QUINTUS. TRYPHIODORUS. PRODROMUS. 203 

the history of the siege of Troy from the death of Hector to the de- 
parture of the Greeks. It is of very unequal merit in its different parts. 

(1) Cardinal Bessarion found in a convent at or near Otranto in Calabria, a 
manuscript copy of this poem, and also of that of Coluthus. And there is in 
manuscript another poem ascribed to Quintus, on the twelve labors of Hercules, 
in the library of St. Mark, and in that of the king of Bavaria at Munich. 

Studious imitation of Homer is apparent every where in the Paralipomena. 
Some have considered it a sort of amplification of the Liltle Iliad of Lesch.es, one 
of the early cyclic poets, or a compilation gathered from various poets of that 
class. — Schmll, vi. 91. where is a pretty full analysis of the poem. — Tourlet, in 
his translation, and Tychsen, in his edition cited below (2). — K. L. Struve, in his 
Abh. u. Reden meist. philol. Inhalts. Koenigsb. 1822. 8, 

(2) Editions; Best; Th. Chr. Tychsen, Strassb. 1807. 2 vols. 8. Early; 

firstby Aldus, with. Coluthus, cited § 77 (2). — Rhodomann, Gr. & Lat. Han. 1604. 

8. Later ; J. C.de Pauio, Gr. &Lat. Leyd.1734. 8. Translationin French, 

bjR. Tourlet, Par, 1800. 2vols. 8. 'not faithful.' (Fuhrmann). 

(3) In connection with the imitations of Homer in the poems ascribed to Co- 
luthus and Ctuintus, we may notice another imitation of a singular kind, the 
' OfitiQoxevTQa, Homerocentra. This is a. Life of Jesus Christ, in 2343 hexameter 
lines, formed by verses and hemistichs selected from Homer. It is ascribed by 
some to a Pelagius, who lived in the 5th century ; by others to Eudocia, wife of 
the Emperor Theodosius 2d. It was probably the work of both, having been 
commenced by the former and finished by the latter. — The latest edition is that 
by L. H. Teucher, Lpz. 1793. 8. Gr. & Lat. 

§ 79. Tryphiodorus, a native of Egypt, of whose history nothing 
is known, lived in the 6th century, and was the author of a poem, en- 
titled 'IUov alcoaig, the Destruction of Troy. It is is marked by 
bombast and affectation of ornament. 

(1) He is said to have written other poems, as the Marathoniaca, the Hippo- 
dameia, and the Odyssey called Lipogrammatic, f.einoytyauuaiixr,, because some 
particular letter of the alphabet was excluded from each of its 24 books, or ac- 
cording to others, because the letter Z was excluded from the whole poem. The 
Destruction of Troy consists of only 681 verses, and is perhaps merely a sort of. 
argument of a more full work contemplated by the author.— Schcell, vi. 109. 

(2) Editions; Best; F. A. Wernicke, [completed by Zumpf) Lpz. 1819. 8.— 

Thorn. Northrnore, Camb. 1791. and Lond. 1804. 8. Early ; first or Princeps 

by Aldus as cited § 77 (2).— Fr. Jamot, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1537. 8. Others ; J. 

Merrick, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1741. 8. with a dissertation on the life and writings of 
Tryph. and an English metrical version in a separate volume. — Bodoni, 1796. 
fol. — Tauchnitz, Lips. 1808. fol. 

§ 80. Theodorus Prodromus lived at Constantinople in the first 
half of the 12th century. There are several works by him yet 
remaining in manuscript, from which it appears that he followed the 
various pursuits of theologian, philosopher, grammarian and rheto- 
rician. He is mentioned here on account of his erotic poem in 9 
books, styled the Loves of Rhodanthe and Dosicles (Cf. § 33). 

(1) He enjoyed high reputation among his contemporaries, and the epithet 
Cyrus (KvQog for Kvqio?) often joined to his name, is said to have been given to 
him in token of respect. On embracing monastic life he assumed the name of 
Hilarion. His poem above mentioned is but an indifferent performance. There 
is only one edition of it, G. Gaulmin, Paris, 1625. 8.— A French translation is 
found in the Bibl. d. Rom. Grecs. vol. xi.—Schasll, vi. p. I21.—Huet, Traite de 
H'origine des romans. Par. 1711. 12. p. 118. 



204 HISTORY OK GREEK LITERATURE. 

(2) Various other poetical pieces were composed by him ; as the Qaleomya- 
machia, or Uulcomachia, mentioned § 50 (3) ; a poem, styled Poverty gives wis- 
tlom, published by F.Morel,Qr. & Lat. Par. 1608. 8; another styled Friendship 
banished, published by Morel, Par. 15-1!). 4 ; and some epigrams m honor of em- 
inent Christian Fathers, Basil, Chrysostom and others, published by Jer. Erard, 
Lpz. 1598. 8. Other pieces remain in manuscript. 

(:!) Many works in prose were also written by him, of a character, which 
places them in the class of grammatical and rhetorical woTks, — Schozll, vi. 215, 
965.— Harks, Brev. Not. Lit. Gr. p. 591. 

§81. Tzctzes or Tzctza {John) was a grammarian of the 12th 
century, at Constantinople. From the works and fragments of other 
poets, and without taste, he compiled what were called his Antehome- 
rica, td nqo 'OfnJQov, Homcrica, id 'Ofiyoov, and Posthomerica, xd 
(ted' " Ofirjgov. To these he also furnished scholia, or comments. 

(1) The three pieces form a whole of 1665 hexameters, and are together 
called 'lhaxix. The firstcontains events from the birth of Paris to the tenth year 
of the Trojan war, with which Homer's Iliad opens ; the second consists of an 
abridgment of that poem ; the third, like the poem of duintus, refers to what 
occurred between the death of Hector and the return of the Greeks. Tzetzes 
also wrote a work in political verse, called BLfttog [aroQixij, treating of topics of 
history, mythology and literature, in a very miscellaneous and disconnected 
manner; the work is more commonly called Chiliades, from a division of the 
verses into several suites of a thousand lines each. He also composed an Iambic 
poem, on the education of children. Several other works in verse by him are 
yet in manuscript. The most considerable is the ' TrciAeois tod ' OprjQov, explain- 
ing the fables of Homer. — Schcell, vi. p. 125. 

(2) The first edition of the pieces constituting the Itiaca, G. B. Schirach, 
Hal. 1770. 8. very imperfect. — The next, and improved, Fr. Jacobs, Lpz. 1793. 
8.— Last and best text, J. Bekker, Berl. 18l6. 8. — The Chiliades were published by 
N. Gerbelius, Bas. 1546. fol. — J. Lectius, in Poetse Gr. etc. in unum. redacti cor- 
pus. Colon. Allobr. 1614. 2 vols. fol. 

(3) Tzetzes holds a higher rank as a grammarian and scholiast. He wrote 
commentaries on Homer's Iliad and on Hesiod. His commentary on Lycophron, 
by some ascribed to his brother Isaac Tzetzes. has been mentioned § 67 (1). 
—Schcell, vi. 265, 269. 



II. — Oratory and Orators. 

§ 82. M Prose was cultivated later than verse, and oratory later than other 
branches of prose composition, of which the earliest form was historical. But 
although oratory in form and as an art did not yet exist, yet even in the heroic 
ages there was actual eloquence. There was practical skill in moving the feel- 
ings of assembled numbers in civil and military affairs. We have evidence of 
this in the addresses made by the warriors of Homer, which, although doubt- 
less the productions of the poet, are yet a proof of the existence and the success 
of a sort of oratory. 

§ 83 m The example of those historical writers, who were not indifferent to 
the beauties of style, seems to have first suggested to the Greeks the advantage 
of careful attention to the language and manner of their spoken addresses. 
From the time of Solon (B. C. 594) political eloquence was much practised 
at Athens, and by the emulation of great speakers was ere long advanced to high 
perfection. Rhetoric and oratory soon became objects of systematic study, and 






ORATORY. 205 

were indispensable in the education of such as wished to gain any public office, 
or any influence in the affairs of the state. 

§ 84. It may be remarked, then, that Grecian oratory was not of early or 
sudden growth. It was not till after Greece had adopted the popular forms of 
government, not till after the works of her Homer had been collected and begun 
to be studied, and after her general prosperity and independence allowed her citi- 
zens to attend to speaking as an art, that Greece exhibited any very eminent 
orators. At the time of Solon, beyond which the history of Grecian eloquence 
cannot be carried back, several of the states had existed much longer than Rome 
had at the time of Cicero. While eloquence made its first appearance thus late, 
and gradually rose to perfection under the peculiar circumstances of the nation, 
it continued in power and splendor only for a short period. Its real history must 
be considered as terminating with the usurpation of Philip and the supremacy 
of Macedon over southern Greece, so that the whole space of time, during which 
Grecian oratory particularly flourished, includes less than three hundred years. 
This space. coincides with the third of the periods into which we have divided 
the history of Greek Literature, from Solon about 600 B. C. to Alexander B. C. 
336. It is, however, the brightest period in the annals of Greece ; a glorious day, 
at the close of which her sun went down in clouds and never again rose in its 
native splendor. 

§ 85. It is also worthy of remark, that whatever glory has redounded to the 
Greeks for their eloquence belongs almost exclusively to Athens. In the other 
states it was never cultivated with success. The orators, of whose genius any 
monuments are still preserved, or whose names have been recorded as distin- 
guished, were Athenians. So that Cicero in his Brutus inquires, who knows of 
a Corinthian or Theban orator, unless you except Epaminondas 1 Out of Greece, 
however, the study flourished, both in the islands and in the settlements in west- 
ern Asia. The Sicilians were the first who attempted to form rules for the art, 
and theRhodians had orators that might be compared with the Attic. 

§ 86. To one, who traces the history of Grecian oratory through the period 
which has been mentioned, it will present itself under three different aspects suc- 
cessively. It exhibits one characteristic appearance from the time of Pisistratus 
to the close of the Persian war, another from the close of the Persian to the 
close of the Peloponnesian, and a third from the close of the Peloponnesian war 
to the supremacy of Macedon. A glance at the peculiar character of the elo- 
quence of these three portions will give us perhaps the best general view of the 
whole. 

See Cicero's Brutus.— Heeren's Greece by Bancroft, p. 257, where some of the views touched upon 
in the following sections are beautifully developed. 

§ 87. Of the first portion no monuments or fragments of the oratory remain. 
Its character must be drawn altogether from the testimony of later periods and 
from circumstantial indications. It was in this age, that the poems of Homer 
were collected and published, which gave anew impulse to Grecian mind, and 
unquestionably exerted an influence on the language and oratory of the times. 
As the models of language and style were all in poetry and not in prose, the 
speeches and the composition of this age were marked by a poetical structure, 
by something of the rhythm and measure of verse. Such indeed was the pre- 
ference for metrical composition, that Parmenides taught his philosophy in verse, 
and Solon published his laws in the dress of poetry. Solon is ranked among the 
distinguished orators of the period, and the first circumstance, which brought 
him into notice, was a poetical harangue to the populace of Athens. 

§ 88. Oratory as an art was now scarcely conceived. The orators were only 
the favorite leaders of the people ; chiefly such as had been brave and successful 
in war, who gained popular influence by military enterprize, and were permitted 
to be powerful statesmen because they were fortunate generals. Their speeches 
were brief, simple, bold ; adorned with few ornaments, (Anach. II. 257) accom- 
panied with little action. Such was Pisistratus, whose valor in the field and 
eloquence in the assembly raised him to an authority utterly inconsistent with 



r 

h 



2UG HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

the republican principles of his country. Such too was Themistocles. In him 
predominated t lie bravery and art of the military chieftain. It was his policy 
and energy, that saved Greece from the dominion of Persia. He acquired un- 
limited sway as a statesman and orator, because, in proposing and urging the 
plans which his clear and comprehensive mind had once formed, he could not 
jut be eloquent, and because he never offered apian, which he was not ready and 
able to execute with certain success. His eloquence, like his policy, was vigo- 
rous, decided, bordering on the severe, but dignified and manly. It was alto- 
gether the most distinguished of the age ; and the name of Themistocles is there- 
fore selected to mark this era in the history of Grecian eloquence. 

§ 89. Of the second portion of the period in view, as well as the first, we have 
no remains, which are acknowledged to be genuine, if we except the harangues 
of Antiphon. The number of eminent public speakers was however increased, 
and there began to be more preparation by previous study and effort for the busi- 
ness of addressing the popular assemblies. In this age the orators were men, 
who had devoted their early years to the study of philosophy, and whose attain- 
ments and political talents raised them to the place of statesmen, while this ele- 
vation still imposed on them the duties of the soldier and the general. 

The most celebrated among them were Pericles, who flourished first in order 
of time, and after him successively Cleon, Alcibiades, Crilias, and Theramenes. 
Pericles and Alcibiades exerted the greatest influence upon the condition and 
interests of the Athenians. The latter, ambitious of glory and fearless of dan- 
ger, ardent and quick in feeling, and exceedingly versatile in character and 
Erinciple, was able, in spite of a defective pronunciation (Anach. I. 305) and a 
esitating delivery, so perfectly to control a popular assembly and mould their 
feelings by his own will, that he was regarded as one of the greatest of orators. 

§ 90. But to Pericles must be granted the honor of giving a name to this era 
of eloquence. His talents were of the highest order, and he qualified himself 
for public influence by long and intense study in private. He disclosed his pow- 
ers in the assemblies with caution, and whenever he spoke, impressed the hear- 
ers with new convictions of his strength and greatness. His information was 
various and extensive, his views always liberal .and elevated, his feelings and 
purposes in general highly patriotic and generous. Cicero remarks of him, that 
even when he spoke directly against the will of the populace and against their 
favorites, what he said was popular; the comic satirists, while they ridiculed 
and cursed him, acknowledged his excellence; and so much did he shine in 
learning, wisdom, and eloquence, that he ruled Athens for forty years almost 
without a rival. 

Pericles pronounced a funeral eulogium over those who fell in the first battles 
of the Peloponnesian war. This oration Thucydides professes to give us in his 
history (ii. 35), but most probably we have the fabrication of the historian, and 
not the actual production of the orator. The piece, however, may indicate the 
peculiarities of Pericles and the other speakers of the age. 

§ 91. The distinguishing qualities of their eloquence were simple grandeur 
of language, rapidity of thought, and brevity crowded with matter to such an ex- 
tent even as to create occasional obscurity. They had very little of artificial 
plan, or of rhetorical illustration and ornament. Their speeches are seldom 
marked by any of the figures and contrivances to produce effect, which the rules 
of sophists brought into use among the later orators. They have less of the air 
of martial addresses than the harangues of the first period we have noticed, but 
far more of it than appears in the third. Their character is such as to show, 
that while the orator was a statesman of influence in the civil council, he was 
also at the same time a commander in war. Such was the eloquence of the era, 
which is designated by the name of Pericles. 

§92. But the third is the most glorious era, and is marked by a name, which 
has been allowed to stand pre-eminent in the history of human eloquence, that of 
Demosthenes. It was an age fruitful in orators, of whose talents there still re- 
main rich and splendid monuments. The orator was no longer necessarily united 
with the general; but was able to control the deliberations of the people, although 
he never encountered the perils of the camp. 



ORATORY. 207 

It was now, that oratory became a regular study, and numbers devoted them- 
selves to the business of teaching its rules. These teachers, known by the name 
of Sophists and Rhetoricians, made the most arrogant and ridiculous pretentions, 
professing to communicate the art of speaking copiously and fluently on any 
point whatever. But we must not affix to all, who went under this name, the 
idea of a vain and pompous declaimer. There were some honorable exceptions; 
e. g. Isocrates, who taught the art and whose influence upon the oratory of this 
period was so great, that Cicero gives him the honor of forming its general 
character. His school was the resort of all, who aimed at the glory and the re- 
wards of eloquence. 

Isocrates, Lysias, Isseus, vEschines, and Demosthenes are the bright names in 
the constellation which marks this era. Andocides, Dinarchus, Hyperides, and 
Lycurgus are also recorded as eminent speakers. These, with Antiphon of the 
preceding era, form the illustrious company of the ten Athenian orators. They 
could have been, however, only a small part of the number in the profession in 
this period, as we might judge, even had no names been recorded, from the fact, 
that at its very close there were at least ten, and according to some thirty, whom 
the Macedonian conqueror demanded to be delivered up to him as hostile to his 
supremacy.— Schall,ii. p. 265. 

§ 93. In the age before us, the general characteristics are to be found in the 
state and circumstances of the profession, rather than in the form or nature of 
the eloquence. Each of the more eminent orators had his distinguishing pecu- 
liarities, which makes it difficult to mark the prominent traits, which might be 
stamped upon all. It is easy, notwithstanding, to notice the influence of the sys- 
tems of art, to which the speakers of this age thought it necessary to attend. 
There is in their orations too little of the plain and direct simplicity of former 
times, and much, often far too much, of the ambush and artifice of logic, the 
flourish and sound of mere rhetoric. You discover also, frequently, the orator's 
consciousness of influence arising from his skill in speaking. It was an age, 
when the populace flocked to the assemblies and the courts of justice for the mere 
sake of hearing and being affected; when even the unprincipled demagogue 
could, by the spell of his tongue, raise himself to the archonship of Athens. 

§ 94. This period furnished a greater number and variety of occasions for 
the display of oratorical talents. Numerous state prosecutions, similar to that 
in which Lysias engaged against Eratosthenes, grew out of the disturbances and 
revolutions connected with the Peloponnesian war, and these necessarily drew 
forth the genius of opposing advocates. Public discussions, likewise, became 
frequent upon different subjects relating to war, politics, and government, which 
opened a wide field not merely for harangue, but for studied and labored compo- 
sition. 

At the close of the period, the encroachment of Philip on the Grecian rights 
afforded an ample theme both for the ambitious demagogue and the zealous pa- 
triot. This circumstance was perhaps the cause of the peculiar energy and 
warmth of feeling, which distinguished much of the oratory of the period. Al- 
though the writers and speakers differed in opinion as to the true policy of the 
Greeks, their orations breathe a common spirit of national attachment and na- 
tional pride and confidence. Indeed the patriotism and the genius of Greece 
seem to have exhausted themselves in the efforts of this last day of her indepen- 
dence and her glory. In Demosthenes she heard the last tones of her favorite 
art, as she did the last remonstrance against her submission to servitude, 

§ 95. Such is a glance at the rise and progress of eloquence in Greece. Late 
in its origin, confined chiefly to Athens, flourishing only for a comp aratively short 
time, marked successively by the eras of Themistocles, Pericles and Demosthe- 
nes, it ended its career when the country lost its independence, but with a glory 
that is gone out into all lands, and will survive through all ages. 

It should be observed, however, that Cicero and other writers speak of the 
eloquence of the period immediately subsequent to Philip and Alexander ; and 
here is the place for a few words respecting it. 

§ 96. True eloquence, says Schoell (iii. 239), that which speaks to the hearts 
and passions of men, and which not merely convinces but carries away the hear- 



JOS HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

or, ceased with the fall of liberty. Under the successors of Alexander, not 
finding any object worthy of its exertions, it fled from the scenes of politics to 
tke retreats of the schools. Athens, degraded from her eminence, no longer 
was the exclusive residence of an art, which had once thrown such lustre over 
her name and history. From this time instead of the orators of Attica, we hear 
only of the orators of Asia. In reality, however, instead of orators at all, among 
the Greeks any w lure, we find, after this time, only rhetoricians. 

The most famous ot the schools just alluded to was that of Rhodes, founded 
byJEschines. In these institutions the masters gave out themes, on which the 
young pupils exercised their talents. These were frequently historical subjects. 
Often the questions, which had exercised the great orators of the previous age, 
were again debated. But such performances had notfor their object to convince 
judges,' or force aji assembly on to action. The highest aim now was to awaken 
admiration in hearers, who wished not to be moved, but to be entertained. The 
noble simplicity of the old orators was exchanged for a style overcharged with 
rhetorical ornaments. 

Hegesias of Magnesia, is regarded as the father of the new style of eloquence 
and composition, which now appeared, and which, as has been already mention- 
ed, was termed Asiatic. His discourses are lost. 

§ 97. But the principal name worthy of notice after the time of Alexander 
is Demetrius Phalereus, who was appointed governor of Athens, by Cas- 
sander king of Macedonia. He was the last of the great orators of Greece. 
Cicero speaks of Demetrius with considerable commendation, as the most learn- 
ed and polished of all after the ancient masters. But he describes (Brutus, 9) 
his influence as substituting softness and tenderness instead of power; culti- 
vating sweetness rather than force, a sweetness, which diifused itself through, 
the soul without stirring the passions ; forming an eloquence, which impressed, 
on the mind nothing but its own symmetry, and which never left, like the elo^ 
quence of Pericles, a sting along with the delight. 

§ 98. We pause here in our general glance at Grecian oratory, becauseevery 
thing pertaining to the subject, in the periods after the capture of Corinth B. C. 
146, will be more properly introduced in speaking of the Sophists and Rhetoricians. 

But it is important to allude to the three branches, into which Grecian oratory 
was divided by the teachers. They were the deliberative, the legal or judicial, 
and the demonstrative or panegyrical. Demosthenes is the unrivalled master in 
the first. Lysias and Isaeus present rich specimens of the second. The best 
performances of Isocrates belong to the third. But no orator was confined, to 
either branch ; according to preference, he might thunder in the assembly of 
the people, argue in the court of justice, or declaim before the occasional and 
promiscuous concourse. 

On the legal oratory of Greece, see Quarterly Rev. Vol. xxix.— Panegyrical, same,. VoLxxvii. 

c) 99/ We now proceed, according to our prescribed plan (§8), 
to notice individually the principal orators, of whom there are exist- 
ing remains. But it will be proper to give first some references to 
sources of information respecting them, and to the printed collections 
of their performances. 

The chief original sources of information are the fragments of a treatise of 
Dionysius Halycamasseus, in which Lysias, Isocrates, Isaeus and Demosthenes 
were critically examined, ar.d the lives of the ten orators ascribed to Plutarch. 
We may refer also to Ruhnken, Historia critica oratorum Grsec. in his ed. of 
Rutilius Lupus. Leyd. 1768. 8.— Dissertations sur l'orig. et les progres de la 
rhet. ehez. les Grecs, in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Ins. T. 13-36.— Manso, ueber 
die Bildung der Rhe.torik unterden Griechen, in his- vermischten Abh. u. Aufs. 
Bresl. 1821. 8.—Schall, Hist. Litt. Gr. ii. 197. 

The following collections may be named ; Aldus Manutius, Ven. 1513. 3 vols, 
fol. very rare.— H. Stcphanus, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1575. fol. Isocrates and Demos- 
thenes not included.— J. J. Reiske, Oratorum Grac. qua? supersunt monumenta 



ANTIPHON. ANDOCIDES. LYSIAS. 209 

ingenii, etc. Lips. 1770-75. 12 vols. 8. contents detailed by Schoell, ii. 260.—/. 
Bekker, Oratores Attici. Oxf.and Lips. 1822. 7 vols. 8. Cf. Dibdin. I. 483.— IT. 
S, Dobson, Oiatores Attici et quos sic vocant Sophistae. Lond. 1828. 16 vols. 8. 

§ 100. Antiphon, of Rhamnus in Attica, was born about B. C. 480. 
In the year 41 1 or 410 B. C. he was condemned and put to death as 
a traitor. He was celebrated at Athens as an orator and a teacher of 
eloquence. The ancients ascribed to him a treatise on rhetoric, Te%vr\ 
'qrjtoqixri, said to have been the first written on the subject. He also 
prepared orations or speeches to be used by others, for which he re- 
ceived payment. Of the fifteen, which are still extant, three belong to 
criminal cases actually occurring and brought to trial; the other 
twelve seem rather to be imaginary speeches adapted to supposed cases. 

1. Antiphon was a pupil of the sophist Gorgias, andf is said to have been the 
first to apply the art of rhetoric to judiciary proceedings. Thucydides was in- 
structed in his school. During the Peloponnesian war, Antiphon repeatedly had 
the command of Athenian troops. He was a member of the council of the 400, 
the establishment of which was, in a great degree, owing to his influence. He 
is said to have been the first, who for money composed orations to be read or 
spoken by others; this became afterwards a frequent practice and a source of 
great emolument. 

2. His orations are given in Reiske, cited § 99, vol. vii. p. 603. — Bekker, vol. i. 

See P. V. Spaan, Diss, de Antiphonte, Lugd. Bat. 1765. 4. also in Reiske 

vii. 795, and Ruhnken's Opusc. orat. phil. et crit. Lug. B. 1807. 8.— Cicero, 

Brutus. 12. — Thucydides, viii. 68. French translation of some parts, in 

Auger's (Euvres completes d'Isocrate, avec &c. Par. 1781. 3 vols. 8. 

§ 101. Andocides an Athenian of illustrious birth, later than An- 
tiphon, about B. C. 468. He was distinguished as a statesman and 
orator, but too restless in his political character. He suffered many 
vexations and finally died in exile, B. C. about 396. "We have four 
speeches from him, which commend themselves by their simplicity 
and force of expression, and which are of much value in illustrating 
the history of the times. 

1. One of the discourses of Andocides is against Alcibiades, Karli'^4Xxi^i- 
u<Sov, another respecting the peace with Sparta, Jleoi EiQfais ; the other two were 
in self defence; JTeji y.a&OtSov, treating of his second return to Athens, after hav- 
ing fled from the prison into which he was thrown by the 400. and IIsqI pvoTijQimv, 
relating to the mysteries of Eleusis, which he had been accused of violating. 

2. His discourses are in Reiske, vol. iv. — Bekker, vol. i. — Dobson, vol. 1. — 
Cf. J. O. Sluiter, Lectiones Andocidese. Lug. B. 1804. 8.—Hauptmann de Ando- 
cide, in Reiske, vol. viii. p. 535— Quart Rev. vol. xxix. p. 326.— Mil 'ford's 
Greece, ch. xxii. sect. 2 (vol. 4. p. 95. ed. Bost. 1823). 

$ 102. Lysias, a native of Athens, son of Cephalus from Syra- 
cuse, lived between 458 and 379 B. C. He was a teacher of rhetoric. 
Many years in the early part of his life he spent at Thurium in Mag- 
na Graecia. Above 200 discourses are said to have been written by 
him, all in advanced life ; only 34 of them aTe extant. These justify 
the reputation he enjoyed on account of the beauty of his style and 

27 



210 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

his power in convincing and persuading. Cicero (Brut. 9) gives hirm 
the praise of having almost attained the ideal of a perfect orator; yet 
he is inferior to Demosthenes in simplicity and energy. 

1. The father of Lysias removed to Athens on the invitation of Pericles, and 
belonged to the class oi' inhabitants termed furoixot, metics, or foreign residents. 
At the age of 15, Lysias went out with the colony established by the Athenians at 
Thurium. Here lie remained 30 years studying and practicing oratory. He 
then returned to Athens, and in partnership with his brother Polemarchus vested 
some of his property in a manufactory of shields, in which above a hundred 
slaves were employed. The wealth of the brothers became so great, that they 
were included among the 300 richest men of the city, on whom was cast the 
burden of paying all the expenses of the state. Their wealth at last exposed 
them to the lawless avarice of the thirty tyrants. Polemarchus was condemned 
to drink hemlock. Lysias escaped by flight. On the overthrow of the thirty, 
he returned to Athens and spent the rest of his days in the employment of a rheto- 
rician. He lived to the age of 81. His orations were written for the use of 
others, and he is said to have spoken but one himself, that against Eratosthenes. 
The Atyog imratpiog, or funeral oration over the Athenians who were slain un- 
der the command of Iphicrates, is considered his chef-d'oeuvre. — For the life of 
Lysias, see Taylor's eel. cited below. — Mitford, vol. iv. p. 46. 

2. Editions; the Best; J. Taylor, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1739. 4— The Princeps, 
Aldus cited § 99.— Given in Rciske, 5th and 6th vols. — Bekker, 1st vol. — Dobson, 
3d.— Separately, Auger Gr. & Lat. Par. 1783. 2 vols. 8.— Alter, Vien. 1785. 8.— 
Translations; English, J. Gillies, Lond. 1778. 4. French, Auger, Par. 1783. 8. — 
German, some of the orations, ia Wieland's Att. Mus. Th. 1. — Cf. Harles, Brev. 
Not. p. 139. 

§ 103. Isocrates was born at, Athens about B. C. 436, and died 
B. C. 338. He was a scholar of Gorgias and Prodicus. From his 
diffidence and the weakness of his voice he rarely or never spake in 
public. But he acquired great honor by giving instruction in elo- 
quence, and contributed thereby to the perfection of the art. More 
than other rhetoricians, he encouraged attention to the harmony of lan- 
guage. In this lies the greatest excellence of his own discourses, 
which are distinguished rather for accuracy and polish, than native 
ardor and warmth. Yet his school marked an epoch in Grecian 
eloquence. He wrote partly as a master for his scholars, and partly 
for the use of others. There are extant 2 1 orations ascribed to him. 

1. In youth he was a companion of Plato, and like him was a great admirer 
of Socrates. He is said to have died, by voluntary starvation, in grief for the fa- 
tal battle of Chseronea. — There is an anonymous life of Isocrates, found in 2d 
vol. of J. C. Orelli, Opuscula graec. vet. sententiosa ac moralia, Lips. 1819. 2 
vols. 8. — G. B. Schirach, 2 Diss, de vita et genere scribendi Isocratis. Hal. 1765. 
4. —F. G. Freytag, Orator, et rhetor, graec. quibus statuae honoris causa positae 
fuerunt, decas. Lips. 1752. 

2. The most finished of his pieces is that styled navyyvoixbg, i. e. a discourse 
before all the assembled people ; it was pronounced at the Olympic games ; ad- 
dressed to all the Greeks, yet exalting the Athenians as entitled to the first rank 
among the states. This oration, with five of the others, may be placed in the class 
of deliberative, av^i^ovXivrixot. Four may be termed encomiastic, \yxwfitaoTtxbi; 
among these is the Ilava6^vaixbg, a eulogy on the Athenians, one of the best pie- 
ces of Isocrates, but imperfectly preserved. Eight belong to judicial cases, 3-byot. 
Sixanxoi; one of these, ntql t>;s avriSigiwg, on the exchanging of property, relates 
to his own personal affairs. 

The remaining three are parecnetic, naoonviTixbg. One of these, TJqbg Jr/fiirt- 



ISOCRATES. ISMVS. LYCURGUS. 211 

«ov, is by some critics ascribed to another Isocrates. That styled Nixoxljc, and 
sometimes KvnQiog Xoyog, written for the use of Nicocles king of Salamis in Cy- 
prus, is said to have procured from the prince in return a present of 20 talents. 
Besides these orations, there is a discourse against the Sophists, Kara -cS>v oocpta- 
rmv. An art of rhetoric, Tixvy, is also quoted by Gluintilian. Ten epistles, 
likewise, are preserved as having been written by Isocrates.— Schcell, ii, 208 — 
Mitford, vii. 212. 

3. Editions; Best; W. Lange, Halle, 1804. 8.— Coray, Par. 1807. 2 vols. 8. 
entirely in Greek, with a preface in modem Greek.— Early ; Princeps, Demetr. 
Chalcondylas, Mediol. 1493. fol.— In Aldus, Rhet. Greec. cited § 99.—Hieron. Wolf, 
Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1570. fol.— P. Stephanus, Gr. &. Lat. Genev. 1604. 8.— Later ; 
TV. Battie,Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1749. 2 vols. 8.— Auger, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1781. 3 vols. 

8. — Given also in Bekker, 2d vol. and Dobson, 3d vol. The discourse neql av- 

Tidooso)?, incomplete until the discoveries of a modern scholar, Mustoxydes, 
(Schasll, ii. p. 263), was published separately by J. C. Orelli,7,ttr. 1814. 8.— The 
HavtiyvQixbg, by Morus, Lips. 1786. 8. impr. by Spohn, Lips. 1817. 8. — For other 

editions of separate parts, see Harles, Brev. Not. p. 144. Translations; 

German, W. Lange, Berl. (commenced) 1798. 8.— French, Auger, Par. 1781. 8. 
— English, Gillies, in work cited § 102. 2. 

§ 104. Isceus, a native of Chalcis in Eubcea, but resident at Athens, 
was a scholar of Lysias and Isocrates, and the teacher of Demosthe- 
nes. Born about 400 B. C. he probably died in the former part of 
the reign of Philip. He took Lysias for his model, but excelled him 
particularly in dignity and elevation. 

1. Of 50 orations by Isseus extant in the time of Photius, only eleven now re- 
main. They all relate to the subject of inheritances {Zoyoi xXtjQixoi), and con- 
tain much information respecting the laws of heirship at Athens, the customs 
relative to the adoption of children, to testaments and bequests and almost every 
thing connected with the transferring of property. They present also a melan- 
choly picture of the fraud and cruelty frequently indulged by guardians, execu- 
tors and contending heirs. The style is full of nerve. Demosthenes is said to 
have chosen him as a master in preference to Isocrates, on account of this trait. 
— Cf. Q.uart. Rev. voL xxvi. 

2. Ten of the orations are in Reiske, vol. 7 ; one of them, however, the in/ieri- 
tance of Cleonymus, was first published in full by A. Mai, Mil. 1815 ; the eleventh, 
the inheritance of Menecles, was published by Tyrwhiti, Lond. 1785. 8. — They 
are given in Bekker, 3d vol. — Dobson, 4th vol. — Translations ; French, Auger, 
(with Andocides, and Lycurgus) Par. 1783. 8. — English ; Sir Wm. Jones, Oxf. 
1779. and in his works, 4th vol. 

§ 105. Lycurgus, descended from an ancient Athenian family, 
died at an advanced age, B. C. about 330. He was a pupil of Isocra- 
tes and Plato, and a friend of Demosthenes. He was warmly devoted 
to the interests of the commonwealth, and was rewarded with the ho- 
nors of the state. Of his orations, 1 5 remained in the time of Plu- 
tarch ; but only one has been preserved to us ; that against Leocrates, 
for his deserting Athens in her distress after the fatal battle of Chasro- 
nea. His oratory was marked by strong moral feeling and patriotism, 
without much effort to be eloquent. 

1. He fearlessly resisted all the claims of Philip and Alexander, and was one 
•of the orators demanded by Alexander after the capture of Thebes. His chil- 
dren, to whom he left no property, were educated by the state. It is supposed 
that one of the inscriptions, which Fourmont caused to be copied at Athens, is 
an account of the administration of LyGurgus, in which he received and ex- 



212 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

pended, according to the inscription, 13,900 talents. (Cf. P. I. 5 90. 7 (c).— Scholl, 
n. 819. 

2. The oration is in Reiske, 4th vol.— Bekker, 3d vol. — Dobson, 4th vol.— Sepa- 
rately, Hauptmaim, Lpz. 1753. 8. — For schools, A. G. Becker, Magd. 1821. 8>~ 
Translation, German, F. A. Simon, Hamb. 1811. 8. 

§ 106. Demosthenes was born B. C. 385, in the Attic borough 
Paeania, and died B. C. 322, in the island of Calauria, by poison self- 
administered, in order to escape the vengeance of Antipater. Isaeus 
was his master in rhetoric, but he received instruction also from Isoc- 
rates and Callistratus. His celebrity was much greater than that of 
any other Grecian orator, on account of the fire, vehemence, and 
strength of his eloquence, which he especially exerted in rousing the 
Athenians to Avar with the Macedonians, and in defeating his rivals 
bribed by the latter. We have 61 orations of Demosthenes, and 65 
introductions, which are probably not all genuine. The characteris- 
tics of this orator were strength, sublimity, and a piercing energy and 
force, aided by an emphatic and vehement elocution. His peculiar- 
ities, however, sometimes degenerated into severity. 

1. At the age of seven he lost his father. His guardians wasted his property, 
and at the age of 17 he appeared before the courts against them, and urged his 
own cause successfully. Thereby encouraged to speak before the assembly of 
the people, he failed entirely. He retired and studied and toiled in secret for 
many years. At the age of 25 he came forward again and commenced his 
brilliant career. — The life of Demosthenes is given by Plutarch, and also in the 
Lives of the ten Attic orators ascribed to him. There are also two other lives 
anciently written, and a eulogy by Libanius. — For a good view of his history, 
see Scholl, ii. p, 224. and Heeren, trans, by Bancroft, p. 276. — Cf. A. G. Becker, 
Demosthenes als Staatsmann und Redner, Hal. 1816. 2 vols. 8. 

2. Seventeen of the orations belong to the class of deliberative ; 12 of these 
relate to the contests between Philip and the Greeks, 3 styled Olynthiacs, and 4 
called Philippics, the rest of the 12 bearing different titles ; the whole 12 were 
spoken between B. C. 351 and 340. Forty-two are judicial speeches ; 30 of these 
relate to private or individual interests, where the case was termed dixy; among 
them are the 5 pronounced against his own faithless guardians, showing plainly 
the hand of Isaeus in their style: the other 12 relate to public or state affairs, 
where the case was termed xarrjQoy la; among these was the oration TtsQi om- 
(payov, in which Demosthenes defends Ctesiphon against the accusation of Ms- 
chines, and in making the defencp justifies his own policy in reference to Philip, 
notwithstanding the disastrous issue of the battle of Chaaronea; it is considered 
as the best of his orations, and a master-piece of eloquence. Only two of the 
extant orations of Demosthenes belong to the kind called, demonstrative, both of 
them probably spurious; one is the eulogy (emrucfiog) upon those who fell at 
Chaeronea.— We have also six letters of Demosthenes, five of them written dur- 
ing his exile to the people of Athens.— Scholl, ii. 231. 

3. Editions ; Best ; Reiske, as edited by Schafer, Lond. 1822. 3 vols. 8.— Dobson, 
Lond. 1827. —Early; Princeps, by Aldus, Ven. 1504. fdl.—Hervagius, Basil. 
1542. with the Commentaries of Ulpian.—H. Wolf, Gr. & Lat. (containing also 
.ffischines) Basil. 1549. fol. and better, Francof. 1604, fol.— Later; Taylor, Gr. 
&. Lat. Camb. 1748-57. 4. 2d and 3d vols, only ; 1st never appeared.— Auger, 
Gr. & Lat. Par. 1790. 1st vol. only. Usually purchased to complete Taylor's.— 
There have been many editions of particular orations ; of de Corona, some of the 
best are, Harles, Gr. & Lat. Alt. 1769. repr. Lpz. 1814. 8.— Stock, Gr. &Lat. Dubl. 
1769. 2 vols. 8.— Wolf, Gr. & Lat. 1798. 8.— Bekker, Hal. 1815. 8.— Trans- 
lations; German, Reiske, Lemgo. 1764-69. 5 vols. 8.— F- Jacobs, Lips. 1805. 8. 
13 orations and Philip's Letter, with notes.— A. G. Bekker, Hal. 1823. 8. the 
Philippics.— French, A. Aueer, Par. 1804. 6 vols. 8.— English, Ph. Francis, 
Lond. 1776. 2 vols. 4.— Th. Leland, 1802. 2 vols. 8. 



SOPHISTS AND RHETORICIANS. 213 

§ 1G7. JEschines lived at Athens at the same time with Demos- 
thenes, and was a pupil of Isocrates and Plato. He became the most 
distinguished rival of Demosthenes, although by no means equal to 
him in powerful eloquence. Demosthenes obtained a complete tri- 
umph over him by the oration concerning the crown in the trial of 
Ctesiphon, and iEschines retired to Rhodes, where he gave instruction 
in rhetoric. He died in the island Samos. In the judgment of 
Q,uintilian, he deserved the first rank among Grecian orators, next to 
Demosthenes. His great merit may readily be seen in the three ora- 
tions preserved to our time. 

1. iEschines was 12 or 13 years older than Demosthenes, being born B. C. 
395, and lived a year or two later, dying at the age of 75. In early life he does 
not appear to have enjoyed much success or reputation. His opposition to Philip 
first brought him into notice; yet he afterwards became a partizan for him in 
opposition to Demosthenes. — The most important of his orations is that against 
Ctesipkon, kotos Krrjat(favrog, to which Demosthenes replied in his oration upon 
the crown.— Vatry, Recherches surla vie et sur les ceuvrages d'Eschine, in Mem. 
de PAcad. des Insc. T. xiv. — Schmll, ii. 215. — Matthiae, de iEschine oratore, in 
Reiske, vol. iv. 

2. The remains of ^Eschines are given in Reiske, vol. 3d and 4th. — in Bekker, 
vol. 3. — Dobson, vol. 12th, which is probably the best edition. — also in H. Wolf, cited 
§106. 3.— Separately, Reiske's, Lpz. 1808. 8. 2vols. — T.H. Bremi, Z(lr. 1823. 8. 
— The oration against Ctesiphon often published with Demosthenes on the crown; 
Stock, cited § 106. 3.— Bekker, Hal. 1815. 8.— Alex. Negris, Bost. 1829. with a 
preface in modern Greek and English notes. — Translations ; German, Reiske, 
with Demosthenes, cited § 106. 3. — F. V. Raumer, (iEsch. and Dem. in the case 
of Ctesiphon) Berl. 1811. 8.— French, Auger, with Dem. cited § 106. 3.— English, 
Andrew Portal (iEsch. and Dem. concern. Ctes.), Oxf. 1755. 8. 



III. — Sophists and Rhetoricians. 

§ 108. The term Sophist, as has been mentioned (§ 92), was originally applied 
in Athens to those, who taught the art of speaking. One of the earliest, that at- 
tained eminence in this profession, was Gorgias of Leontium in Sicily, about 430 
B. C. Prodicus of Ceos, and Hippias of Elis flourished in the same period. 
' All these,' observes Mitford, ' are saidto have acquired very considerable riches 
by their profession. Their success therefore invited numbers to follow their 
example, and Greece, but especially Athens, shortly abounded with those, who 
under the name of sophists, professors of wisdom, undertook to teach every sci- 
ence. The scarcity and dearness of books gave high value to that learning, 
which a man with a well stored mind and a ready and clear elocution could com- 
municate. None without eloquence could undertake to be instructors; so that 
the sophists in giving lessons of eloquence were themselves the example. They 
frequented all places of public resort, the agora, the gymnasia, and the porticoes, 
where they recommended themselves to notice by an ostentatious display of their 
abilities in disputation with one another, or with whoever would converse with 
them. In the competition thus arising, men of specious rather than solid abili- 
ties would often gain the most extensive estimation. Many of them would take 
either side of any question, and it was generally their glory to make the worse 
appear the better cause.' 

§109. It is easy from this account to see how the name of sophist should 



2U HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

soon become a term of reproach, as it did, more particularly, after the time of So- 
. rates. The term rhetorician was also applied to the same class of teachers. 
But a distinction has been made between the two words, which seems to have a 
just foundation. The term rhetorician is applied to those, who simply gave pre- 
cepts in the a ns of composition and oratory ; the term sophist to those, who ac- 
tually practiced the art of speaking. In this sense the name of sophists is given 
to all the speakers we read of after the decline of oratory as already explained 
(§ 9<>). After the supremacy of Rome over Greece, and especially under the 
emperors, there was a great number of these. Their talents were confined to a 
limited sphere, to the exercises in the schools, or discourses, lectures, and decla- 
mations before promiscuous assemblies, which formed a part of the public 
amusements. Some of them traveled from city to city like modern lecturers, 
and received a liberal pay for their services. The various performances, in which 
they engaged, were distinguished by different names applied for the purpose , e. g. 
fniirii, a declamation carefully written, in which the writer bears an assumed 
character; auoragi?, a little discourse or address, in which the writer recommends 
himself to another; oxMaopa, an extemporaneous speech; (JtaJUijic, a sort of dis- 
sertation, &c. 

4 110. Between Augustus and Constantine there were several distinguished 
authors, who may be properly classed among the sophists, as Dio Chrysostomus, 
Lucian, and Athenseus. Lesbonax and Herodes Attieus belong to the same 
class. The emperor Adrian often exercised his talents in such performances as 
employed the sophists of the age. Polemo, iElius Aristides, and Flavius Phi- 
•lostratus may also be mentioned ; the latter is spoken of as an eloquent speaker. 

In the time of Constantine, and afterwards, there were also numerous authors, 
whom we must refer to this class. Among them, Themistius, Himerius and 
Libanius are the most distinguished. The emperor Julian may be properly 
ranked here. Subsequent to these are found many names, yet none of much ce- 
lebrity, except such as are known by writings of another class, as Basilius Proco- 
pius, Theophylactus, and Theodoras Prodromus. — Schasll, L. vi. c. 77, 

§ 111. By rhetoricians, in distinction from sophists, are meant, as has been 
stated (§ 109), those who gave precepts on eloquence rather than attempted to 
practice it. Rhetoric, or instruction in the art of eloquence, originated in Greece 
later than eloquence itself, as Cicero has justly remarked ; esse eloquentiam non 
ex artificio, sed artificium ex eloquentia natum. Empedocles is commonly con- 
sidered as the first Greek rhetorician, who taught the rules of oratory orally. 
His scholars Corax and Tisias, about 400 B. C. are said first to have committed 
such rules to writing. Gorgias the Sicilian, and those termed sophists generally 
in the flourishing age of Greek letters, taught the art of oratory. Isocrates a 
pupil of Gorgias, and generally classed among the orators, was a distinguished 
teacher of rhetoric, and had the honor of forming in his school the greatest ora- 
tors of Greece. Antiphon, also ranked among the orators, was a teacher of 
rhetoric, and wrote a treatise which is quoted by the ancients. 

§ 112. In glancing at the list of Greek authors on the subject of rhetoric, we 
find Aristotle, the philosopher, and the teacher of Alexander, one of the earliest. 
Demetrius Phalereus occurs next. (§ 97). After him we find none important to 
notice until the time of Augustus, when we meet the names of Gorgias, who 
taught a school of rhetoric at Athens, and Apollodorus and Theodorus, who had 
rival schools, the former at Pergamus, the latter at Rhodes. Whatever they wrote 
is lost. The principal author was Dionysius of Halycarnassus, known also as a 
historian. 

After Augustus the eminent writers were Hermogenes and Longinus. Many 
other names occur, as Apthonius, Theon, Numenius, Menander, Minucianus, 
and Apsines, who all wrote on some of the topics of rhetoric ; only inconsidera- 
ble fragments, however, now remain. Of the vast mass of compositions by the 
ancients on the art of speaking and writing, but a small portion has come down 
to us, 

§ 113. Before noticing more particularly individuals of the class 
now before us, we will give some general references. 



GORGIAS. ARISTOTLE. DEMETRIUS PHaLEREUS. 215 

On the Sophists ; Enfield, Hist. Philos. B, ii. c. 4.— Gillies, Hist. Greece, Ch, 
13.— L. Cresollii Theat'rum vet. rhet. declam. i. e. Sophistarum, de eorum disci- 
plina ac discendi docendique ratione. Par. 1620. 8. and in Gronovius, Thes. vol. 
x.—G. N. Kriegk, Diss, de Sophistarum eloquentia. Jena. 1702. 4. Collec- 
tions of the remains of the rhetoricians; Aldus, Rhetores Greed, 1508. 2 vols. fol. 
— Leo Allatius, Excerpta graec. Sophistarum et rhetorum declamationes. Rom. 
1641. 8.—H. Stephanus, Polemonis, Himerii et aliorum declamationes. Par. 
1567. fol.— Th. Gale, Rhetores Selecti, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1676. 8. repr. (ed. J. F. 

Fischer) Lpz. 1773. 8. The most important precepts of rhetoric, drawn from 

Greek and Roman authors, in F. A. Wiedeburg, Praecepta rhetorica. Brunsw. 
1786. 8. Cf. J. Ch. Th. Ernesli, Lexicon technologies Graecorum rhetoricae. Lips. 
1795. 8.— See also Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, vol. iv. p. 45. 

6 114.' Gorgias, of Leontium in Sicily, a philosopher, statesman, 
orator and rhetorician, nourished at Athens about B. C. 430, as 
a teacher of eloquence. Cicero celebrates his oratorical talents, but 
charges him with too great attention to the rounding of .his periods. 
We have two declamations ((ieXezui) ascribed to him, a eulogy on 
Helen, and an apology for Palamedes. 

These pieces are given in Reiske, cited § 99, vol. 8. — Belcker, vol. 5. — Dobso7i's 
Oratores Attici, vol. 4, 666. — Gorgias was greatly admired, and honored with a 
golden statue at Delphi. He is said to have died B. C. 400, aged 108. Eschen- 
burg, in the original of the above, represents him as known at Athens in the Per- 
sian war; the translation is conformed to the more common statements. — Cf. 
Milford, Ch. xviii. Sect. 1. — Barthelemy, Anacharsis. Ch. vii. 

§ 115. Aristotle, born at Stagira in Macedonia, B. C. 385, went 
to Athens while young, and became one of the most distinguished pu- 
pils of Plato. He was subsequently the instructer of Alexander the 
Great, after which returning again to Athens he founded the Peripa- 
tetic sect in philosophy. He died in Chalcis, B. C. 322. His name 
belongs especially to the history of philosophy, but is introduced here, 
on account of his treatise on rhetoric. This consists of 3 books, and 
is a work of much merit. His treatise on poetry also may be pro- 
perly mentioned here ; it is a fragment of a large work. 

The Rhetoric is given in Aldus, Rhetores Graeci, cited § 113. and in the editions 
of Aristotle's works. — Separately, Goulston, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1619. 4.—BaUie, 
Gr. & Lai. Camb. 1728. 8. repr. Oxf. 1809. 8.— The Art of Poetry, in the edi- 
tions of A's works. — Separately, Harles, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1780. 8.— Tyrwhitt, 
Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1794. 8.—GrdJenhan. Lpz. 1821, 8. French translation of the 
Poetics, Abbe Batleux, Les duatres Poetiques d'Aristote, d'Horace, d'Vida, de 
Despreaux, avec remarques. Par. 1771. — English, H. J. Pye, Lond. 1788. 8. — 
Th. Twining. Lond. 1789. 4. 1812. 8. 

§ 116. Demetrius Phalereus, of Phalertrrn, one of the harbors of 
Athens, nourished B. C. about 300. He was a pupil of Theophras- 
tus, and by his eloquence rose to distinction. Driven by Antigonus 
from the authority at Athens, which he received from Cassander (§ 97) 
and had enjoyed for several years, he retired to Alexandria, where he 
was patronised by Ptolemy Soter. But being banished by the next 



0|6 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

king, Ptolemy Philadelphia, to a distant province, he put an end to 
his life by the bite of an asp, B. C. 284. Many works were composed' 
by him, which are lost. There is extant a treatise on elocution, Hbqp 
iofiijreiaa;, which has been ascribed to him ; but its real author was 
perhaps a later Demetrius, who lived at Alexandria in the reign of the 
emperor Marcus Antoninus. It contains many ingenious and acute 
remarks on the beauties of composition, particularly on the structure 
of periods. 

1. Demetrius is said to have suggested to Ptolemy Soter the idea of founding 
the Library and Museum of Alexandria. The displeasure of Philadelphus was 
incurred by his having favored the claims of an elder brother to the throne. — 
Bonamy, sur la vie de Demetrius de Phalere, in Mem. de l'Acad. des Insc. T. viii. 

2. Among the lost works, are a treatise on the lonians, one on the laws of 
Athens, and another on Socrates. A little piece on the Apophthegms of the Seven 
Sages, is preserved in Stobaeus, as having been written by Demetrius. — Schcell, 
hi. 241. 

-3. The treatise HcqI eQfirjvelag is given in Aldus, Gale, and Fischer, cited § 113. 
— Separately and best, J. G. Schneider, Altenb. 1779. 8. with a commentary. 

§ 117. Dionysius Halicarnasseus, in the time of Augustus, cele- 
brated as a historian, was also a rhetorician. He wrote several trea- 
tises, which may be properly classed in this department, particularly 
a work ITepl avvdeue ug ovoftaTuv, de compositione verborum, on the 
arrangement of words, and another styled T&x v H 'QrjTo^txrj, art of 
rhetoric, which has come to us in a very defective state. 

1. Two other rhetorical pieces of Dionysius were T<Sv Ttal.aiZv XaqaxT!jQeg r 
Characters of the ancients, still extant, and IIsqI iwv 'Attixwv c Qt]roQmv imop.vr\- 
fiaTiopol, Memoirs of the Attic orators, in three parts, of which we have only the 
first and a fragment of the second. There are also several letters, in which he 
criticises the style and writings of different authors. — Schae.il, iv. 316. — Chr. 
Leuschner, Pro Dionysio Halicarn. ejusque in rhetoricam promeritis. Hirschb. 
1752. 4. 

2. Editions of the whole works of Dionysius will be noticed in speaking of him- 
as a historian. — The pieces on the arrangement of words, and on rhetoric, were 
first published by Aldus as cited § 113. — Separately, HeqL ovv&iaews oroparwv, J. 

Upton, Lond. 1702, 1748. 8.— better, G. H. Schafer, Lpz. 1809. 8.—Fr. Gatter, 
Jena. 1815. 8. — in French translation, with remarks, Abbe Batteux, Par. 1788. 12. 
— Tixvt) 'q>]toqix>i, H. A, Schott, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1804. 8. — Tmvnalaiav Xaqax^ 
T>7e*s, first in H. Stephanus, Dion. Hal. scripta quasdam critiea. Par. 1554. 8. — 
Holwell, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1778. 8. with a dissertation on the use of the middle 
verb.— Heal row 'Atnxmv 'QijroQwr, E. R. Mores, Oxf. 1781. 2 vols. 8.— The Let- 
ters, in Ch. G. Krieger, Dion. Hal. historiographica. Hal. 1823. 8. 

§ 118. Dion, surnamed on account of his eloquence Chrysostomus 
(xgvaoazo/iog), lived in the 1st and beginning of the 2d century after 
Christ. His birth-place was Prusa in Bithynia. After following the 
pursuits of a sophist, he became at length a Stoic philosopher. He 
fled from the cruelty of Domitian into Thrace, but under Nerva and 
Trajan lived again at Rome, enjoying particularly the favor of the 
latter. Of his writings, we have 80 dissertations or declamations on 
various topics, displaying much rhetorical ability. He is, however, 



HERODES ATTICUS. jELIUS ARISTIDES. LUCIAN. 217 

often deficient in simplicity, and his style wanting in brevity and clear- 
ness. 

1. The titles of Dion's discourses are given in Schasll's History of Greek Lite- 
rature. That styled "FoSiaxog is pronounced his chef-d'oeuvre; it condemns 
the custom practised by the Rhodians of using ancient statues with new inscrip- 
tions in honor of their contemporaries, — Scholl, iv. 210. 

2. The best editions are C. Morel (printer ), Gr. &Lat. Par. 1604, 1623. fol. 
with a commentary of I. Casaubon, and notes of Fred. Morel, ; the translation 
that of Klrchmayer or Naogeorgus, published Bas. 1555. fol. — J. J. Reiske, Lpz. 
1784, 1798. 2 vols. 4. — A German translation of 13 of the discourses is given in 
Rehke's Hellas, Mitau. 1778. 8. — English, some of the discourses, G. Wakefield, 
Lond. 1800. 8. 

§ 119. Herodes Alliens, a native of Marathon in Attica, was a 
distinguished sophist in the age of the Antonines. He was appointed 
consul at Rome, A. D. 141. We have from him only a single dis- 
course and some fragments. 

1. The full name was Tiberius Claudius Atlicus Herodes. After obtaining 
his education and traveling abroad, he gave public lectures at Athens on elo- 
quence. Such was his reputation, that he was invited to Rome as teacher to 
Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. He died at Marathon, B.C. 185, at an 
advanced age. His life is given by Philostratus.—Schazll, iv. 228. 

2. The remains of Herodes are given in Reiske, vol. 8. — in Dobson, vol. 4. 
p. 555.— Separately, R. Fiorillo, Lpz. 1801. 8.— The inscriptions of Herodes 
have been already mentioned (P. I. § 92. 4J. 

§ 120. JElius Arislid.es, of Hadrianoplis in Bithynia, lived at 
Smyrna in the 2d century, held in great estimation as a speaker. There 
remain from him 54 declamations, which evince a successful imitation 
of the ancient masters in Greek eloquence, but betray also in the au- 
thor too high an idea of his own excellence. We have also from him 
some letters and a treatise in two books, entitled IleQl nolmxov xal 
dyslovg loyov, ' Du style politique et du style simple.' 

1. His contemporaries considered him as equal to Demosthenes, and he' was 
honored with many statues. Some unedited pieces of Aristides were discovered 
by Mai in a palimpsest or rescript manuscript of the Vatican. — Schmll, iv, 234. 

2. The best edition is that of «S. Jebb, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1722, 30. 2 vols. 4,— 
The Princeps or earliest, by E. Boninus (print. Ph. Junta) Flor. 1517. fol. con- 
taining 52 of the uif.srai, with the anonymous scholia termed vTzo&lottq. — Corn- 
ier, Gr. & Lat. Genev. 1604. 3 vols. 12.— The two books on style, in Aldus Rheto- 
res Graec. cited § 113.— Separately, L. Normann, Upsal. 1688.' 8.— The discourse 
against Lcptincs, first by J. Morell, Ven. 1788. 8.—F. A. Wolf, Halle. 1769. 8. 

§ 121. Lucian, of Samosata in Syria, flourished in the 2d century 
He at first engaged in the business of an advocate at Antioch, but re- 
nounced it for the more congenial employment of a sophist, and 
finally professed to embrace philosophy. He is said to have been pro- 
curator of Egypt under Marcus Aurelius. He was neither a pagan 
nor a christian, nor did he espouse any sect in philosophy. He was 
distinguished by acumen, lively wit, and a power at ridicule and satire, 



218 IllsToKV OK HUEKK LITERATURE. 

which he often indulged too freely an ^ wantonly, against men and 
god* alike. Mostof the numerous pieces, which we have from him, 
are in the form of dialogues. His Dialogues of the Gods and Dia- 
logues of the Dead are the most remarkable. His pure Attic and 
tasteful .style is the more praiseworthy from the circumstance, that he 
was not a native Greek. 

1. Leaving Antioch, Lucian traveled in Asia, Greece, Gaul and Italy, deliv- 
ering his discourses in various places, and afterwards settled at Athens. It was 
in advanced life, that he was put in office under Aurelius. 'One of the chief 
characteristics of Lucian,' says Schoell, ' is that species of originality which the 
English term humour.' — It has been supposed by some, probably without founda- 
tion, that Lucian once embraced Christianity and afterwards apostatized. In the 
pieces styled Ileal ti}s JTfotygiVot! rti.e vTtj$, and <t>iXonarqtg, he makes unsparing 
attacks upon christians ; the genuineness of the latter has been doubted. — Schoell, 
iv. 248. where is a brief analysis of his several pieces ; given also in Anthon's 
Lempriere. 

2. Editions. Best; Hcmsterhuls (with J. M. Gessner fy J. Reitz),Gr. & Lat. 
Amst. 1743. 3 vols. 4. to which is added as a 4th vol. the Lexicon Lv.cianeum of 
C. R. Reitz,mtiai, 1746. 4. f The edition of Schmid, Mitau, 1776-80. 8 vols. 8. 
and the Bipont edition, 1789-93. 10 vols. 8. are chiefly reimpressions of Hem- 

sterhuisV — I. G. Lehmann, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1822 ss. 10 vols. 8. Early; Priw- 

ceps, (neither printer nor editor known) Flor. 1496. fol. — second, Aldus, Ven. 
1503, 1522. fol. — Between this and that of Hemsterhuis were several. Cf. Schosll, 
iv. 280.— A good edition of the Gk. text is Fr. Schmieder, Hal. 1800. 2 vols. 8. 
with promise of a commentary. 

Of select parts of Lucian there have been many editions ; among the best are 
Seybold,Gotha. 1*185. 8.— FA. Wolf, Hal. 1791. 8.— Gehrich, Gcetting. 1797. 8. 
Dialogues of the Dead, by J. Gail, Par. 1806. — J. G. Lehmann, Lpz. 1813. 8. — 
Dialogues of the Gods, by Lehmann, 1815. 8. — E. F, Poppo, "Lpz. 1817. 8. — 
Lucius, or the Ass, by Courier, Par. 1818. 12. 

Translations ; German, C. M. Wieland, Lpz. 1788. 6 vols. 8. — French, J. N. 
Belin de Ballu,Va,x. 6 vols. 8.— English, Th. Franklin, Lond. 1780. 2 vols. 4. 

§ 122. Hermogenes, of Tarsus, lived about the middle of the 2d 
century. He left a celebrated work on rhetoric, consisting of five 
parts, which was written when he was but 17 years old. At the age 
of twenty-five, he lost memory, language and understanding. 

1. Hermogenes lived to advanced age in this state, a striking and melancholy 
example both of the power and of the weakness of the human intellect. The 
account we have of him is drawn from Philostratus, Suidas, and Hesychius. — 
The parts of his Ti/vti 'QyToQiy.tj were 1. TLooyvfivaa^ara, Preparatory exercises; 
2. JTtpJ oT&atwv, On the states of the question; 3. Iltpl svoioeuiv, On invention, the 
most valuable part of the work; 4. Ileol ISeiov, De Formis ; 5. Utol pt663ov dei- 
i otijtos; De effectu. This work was long used as a text-book in the schools of 
rhetoric, and several commentaries were written upon it. 

2. Under the title, which the first part of Hermogenes bears, there exist two 
separate rhetorical works of two later authors ; viz. the HooyvpvaonaTa- of Aph- 
thonius, based upon or extracted from Hermogenes. and the Hqoyv^iraa^iaxa of 
Theon, explaining the principles of both the preceding.— Schosll, iv. 322, ss. 

3. The 1st part of Hermogenes was published first by Heeren in the Bibl. der 
alten Lit. u. Kunst. viii. and ix.— afterwards in Class. Journal (v— viii), 1812.— 
Separately, G. Vesenmeer, Nuremb. 1812. 8.— Ang. Krehl, (with works of Prisci- 

an) Lpz. ^ 2 vols. 8. The other 4 Parts were printed first by Aldus as cited 

§ 113.— The best editions are J. Sturmius, Gr. & Lat. Strasb. 1570,71. 4 vols. 8. 
—and G. Laurentius, Gr. & Lat. Genev. 1614. 8. — The Progymnasmata of Aph- 
thonius and Theon were published together by J. Schaffer, Upsal, 1680. 8. 



ATHEN^DUS. LONGINUS. 219 

$ 123. Athenaus, a grammarian and rhetorician, may be placed 
perhaps as well heie as in any department, although he was properly 
an encyclopce&ian compiler. He was a native of Naucratis in Egypt, 
and lived at the beginning of the 3d century. His JsinvocrocpHnai, 
or Banquet of the Sophists or Learned, in 15 hooks, is a treasure of 
various and useful knowledge. It is a rich source of information on 
topics of philosophy, history, poetry and antiquities, and preserves 
many interesting fragments and monuments, which the stream of time 
must otherwise have borne away from us. It is to be regretted, that 
the work has several lacuna or places wanting or defective, especially 
in the last book. The two first books also, and the beginning of the 
third, are extant only in an abridgment or epitome, made by some 
grammarian at Constantinople. 

1. The work is in the form of dialogue. A number of learned men, above 
20, lawyers, physicians, poets, grammarians, sophists and musicians, meet at a 
banquet given by a rich citizen of Rome named Laurentius, and, in noticing the 
different instruments, materials and preparations of their feast, remark upon al- 
most every thing pertaining to the knowledge or customs of the ancient Greeks. 
— Scha.ll, iv. 297. — Ed. Rev. vol. iii. 

2. There have been but few editions of Athenseus. Princeps, by Aldus (Mu- 
surus assisting as ed.), Ven. 1514. fol. — Bedrotus (^ Herlinus), Bas. 1535. fol. — 
Is. Causaubon, Gr. & Lat. 1597-1600. 2 vols. fol. very celebrated. The Latin 
version by Dalecampius (Dalechamp), first printed 1583, at Lyons; the 2d vol. 
printed 1600. contains Casaubon's Commentary. — Same, repr. Lyons, 1612-21, 
and 1657-64.— G. H. Schcefer, Lpz. 1796. 8. only 1st vol. published. The plan 
contemplated three parts, each consisting of 3 volumes ; comprising the text, the 
commentary of Casaubon with notes, and the French version of Villebrune first 

printed Par. 1789. 5 vols. 4. The last ed. is Schweighceuser, Gr. & Lat. Argent. 

(Strasb.) 1801-7. 14 vols. 8. Cf. Schcell, iv. 300. Dibdin, i. 335. Monthl. Mag. 
Jan. 1803. 

§ 124. Long inus ( Dionysius Cassius) a rhetorician and critic, who 
embraced the Platonic philosophy, and flourished in the 3d century. 
His birth-place was probably Athens, although it is not certain. Lit- 
tle is known of the circumstances of his life, excepting that he was a 
teacher and counselor to Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, and was put to 
death by order of her conqueror Aurelian. Many works, now lost, 
were written by him. The treatise Ilegl vipovq, on the sublime, 
which has come down to us only in a defective state, is a celebrated 
production. It does great honor to the judgment and fine critical 
powers of the author, and well illustrates the nature of the sublime in 
thought and composition by principles and examples. 

1. Longinus spent a considerable part of his life as a teacher of rhetoric and 
criticism at Athens, before he became preceptor to Zenobia. — Of the various 
works, of which we have merely the titles, with a few fragments, the most im- 
portant was that styled <t>0.ol6yoi, or <t>i).oloyoi ouiXlai, consisting of 21 books, 
containing criticisms upon authors of his own and more ancient times. — Ruhnken 
(under the fictitious name Schardam), Diss, de vita et scriptis Longini. Lug. Bat. 
1776. and in Weiske, cited below. Cf. Schmll, IV. p. 329. 



280 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

9. Edition* Host; 1). Wtiske, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1809. 8. Repr. Lond. 1820. 

E&rly ; Prince])!;, Robortelltis, Bas. 1554. 4. — P. Manutius, Ven, 1555. 4. — 

Em. Port us, Gen. 1569. 8. basis of all subsequent till that of Pcarcc. — G. de 
Petra,GtT. &Lat. Gen. 1612, 8.—Tollius, Gr. & Lat. Traj. Rhen. 1094. 4.— 
Pearct, Gr. & L^t, Lond. 1724. 4. much valued and often repr. in 8. — (Tumer- 
mtuiii \ Kianigj Gr. Lat. Gall. & Ital. Veron. 1733. 4. — Toup, Gr. & Lat. 
Oxon. 1778. 4, and 8. celebrated. Repr. 180G. 

Translations; German, best, J. G. Schlosscr, Lpz. 1781. 8. — French, Boileau, 
Amsi. 1701. 8. and in Tumermann cited above. — English, W, Smith, Lond. 
1739. 8. often reprinted. 

^ 125. Themistius, surnamed Euphrades, was a celebrated orator 
and sophist of the 4th century, a native of Paphlagonia. He acquir- 
ed great reputation at Constantinople by his philosophy and" his in- 
structions in rhetoric. He enjoyed also the favor of several emperors, 
especially Constantius. Besides several commentaries, or paraphra- 
ses, illustrating Aristotle, we have from him 34 discourses, marked by 
clearness, order, and richness of expression. 

1. He was highly regarded by Julian and his successors, down to Theodosius 
the Great, who entrusted him, although a pagan, with the education of his son 
Arcadius. He was the master of St. Augustin, and a friend of Gregory Nazi- 
anzen, who styled him BaoUtvg ?.6yi»v. He resided for some time at Rome. He 
must not be confounded with Themistius, a deacon at Alexandria in the 6th cen- 
tury, and founder of the sect of Agnoetce. 

The titles and arguments of his discourses are stated by Schasll. — The para- 
phrases avefour in Greek, and two extant only in Latin versions. — Schxll, vi. 141. 
vii. 121. 

2. The first edition was the Aldine under the title, Omnia Themistii Opera 
(cur. V. TrincaveUi) Ven. 1534. fol. containing the 4 Greek Paraphrases, and 

8 Discourses. — The Latin Paraphrases were printed, Ven. 1558, and 1570. 

Of the discourses, subsequent editions, H. Slephcmus, Par. 1652. 8. (14 Disc.) — 
Dionys. Pelavius, Par. 1618. 4. (19 Disc.) — T. Hardouin, Par. 1684. fol. (33 
Disc. Cf Scha.ll, vi. 159. Harles Brev. Not. 479) — A Discourse found and pub- 
lished by Mai, Milan, 1816. 4. — A complete edition of Themistius is wanting. 

§ 126. Himerius, a native of Prusa in Bithynia, flourished at 
Athens as a sophist and speaker, under the emperor Julian in the 4th 
century. He was an imitator of iElius Aristides. 

1. Like other sophists he traveled about, pronouncing discourses and ha- 
rangues. Afterwards he was established at the head of a school in Athens. Ba- 
sil, Gregory and Nazianzen were among his pupils. He left above 70 discourses ; 
of which we have only 24 entire, and 10 imperfect. One ot the most interesting 
is that in honor of Julian and the city Constantinople. His style is affected, and 
loaded with erudition.— Schcell, vi. 182. 

2.. The only complete edition is that of Gottl. (Theopk) Wemsdorf, Goett. 
1790. 8. — Wemsdorf, a professor at Dantzig, had spent many years in preparing 
this work, accompanied with a version and commentary, but died -1774, without 
having found a publisher. In 1783, Harles published a specimen of the work, 
which induced a book-seller to publish the whole. 

§ 127. Julianus [Flavins Claudius), more commonly known by 
the name of Julian the Apostate, became emperor of Rome on the 
death of Constantius, A. D. 361. He possessed undoubted abilities, 
and a philosophical turn of mind, yet was by no means free from so- 



JULIAN. LIBANIUS. 221 

phistvy and bigotry. He wrote discourses, letters and satires. One 
of the most celebrated of his pieces is the satire called the Caesars, 
Kaluugeg, or 2vfin6ffiov. 

1. The epithet Apostate^ Anoarurrn) was given to Julian on account of his 
openly renouncing the christian leligion, in which he had been educated by his 
uncle, Constamine the Great. He made great exertions in various ways to over- 
throw Christianity. He intended by rebuilding Jerusalem to disprove the pre- 
dictions of the sacred scriptures, but his efforts were all defeated by the most sig- 
nal disasters. He died in consequence of a wound received in battle, in an expe- 
dition against Persia, A. D. 363, at the age of 32. Gibbon has very speciously 
and artfully drawn his character.— Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch, xxiii, xxiv.— Cf. 
Warburton's Discourse entitled Julian, Lond. 1751. — For the life of Julian, Am- 
mianus Marcellinus is considered good authority. — His life written in French, by 
Ph. C. de La BleUerie, Amst. 1735. 12. — Same, transl. by A. V. Desvccux, Dubl. 
1746. 8. — Also, in French, by Tourlet, as cited below.— A. Neander, uber den 
Kaiser Julianus und sein Zeitalter, Lpz. 1812. 8. 

2. Julian composed a work expressly against the faith ot christians. It is 
lost, and most, that is known respecting it, is learned from a refutation written by 
Cyri.ll of Alexandria. In the last century a French author, the Marquis D'Argens, 
undertook to restore the wor^ of Julian, and published his performance, Berl. 
1764. ,8. It was soon refuted by G. F. Meir, Beurtheilung den Betrachtungen 
des Marq. v. Argens ueber den Kaiser Julian, Hal, 1764. 8, and by W. Crichton, 
Betrachtungen ueber des Kaiser Julian Abfall von der Christlichen Religion &c. 
Hal. 1765. 8. 

Among the most singular of his discourses are the two, Hlgxov paaOAa "HXiov, 
to the monarch, the sun, and Elq ti,v fiijTlQu6sa>v,tothe mother of the gods (Cybele) ; 
they exhibit his bigoted or hypocritical attachment to the grosest pagan absurdi- 
ties. — Of the letters, one peculiarly interesting is addressed to a pagan priest, in- 
structing him how to sustain the cause of paganism against the christians. — 
Schmll, vi. 186.— Cf. Chr. Sped. vol. 5. p. 539. 

3. There have been 3 editions of his works ; Martinius <$• Cantodarus, Par. 

1583. 8. — Dion. Peiavius (Petau) Par. 1630. 4. Best, Ez. Spanhcim,, Lpz. 

1696. fol. with the work of Cyril! mentioned above. — But neither of these con- 
tains all the letters. Several, not in Spanheim, are given by Muratori, Anecdota 
Graeca, Petav. 1709. 4. and others still, in Fabricius, Lux salutaris Evangelii, 

Hamb. 1731. 4. Of separate pieces, we notice the following ; The Caesars, 

by B. Picart, Amst. 1728. 4. with Plates and French Tr. — J. M. Heusinger, 
Gr. Lat. &Fr. Gotha, 1741. 8. — The Caesars and Misopogon, by H. I, Lasius, 
Greifsw. 1770. 8, The Eulogy on Constantius, by G. H. Sdiccfer, Lpz. 1802. 8. 

with D. Wyttenbach's notes. Translation, in French, of complete works, 

H. Tourlet. Par. 1821. 3 vols. 8. 

§ 128. Libanius, of Antioch, lived also in the 4th century, and 
mostly at Constantinople. He belonged to the profession of sophists, 
and was distinguished beyond all his contemporaries in eloquence. 
His writings were various. Besides a treatise styled ngoyvfivaafid- 
rav naQadeiyficna, Examples of rhetorical exercises (or prceexercita- 
tiones), and numerous Letters, we have also many of those pieces, which 
were called Msleral, Harangues or Declamations. We may observe 
in the style of these discourses an affectation of Attic purity and ele- 
gance, by which the charms of natural ease and freedom are often 
lost. 

1. Libanius suffered from the envy of rivals, by whose influence he was ban- 
ished from Constantinople, A. D. 346. He retired to Nicasa and then to Nico- 
rnedia,but was aftei wards recalled to Constantinople. Subsequently, however, 



222 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

he withdrew unit passed the remnant of his days at Antioch, his native city. He 
was admired and patronized by Julian the apostate, and in common with the lat- 
ter rlierished the hope of restoring the reign of paganism in the Roman empire. 
He lias left an auto-biography, styled Jiyoc mol rijg savrov rv/tjg, which is plac- 
ed among his discourses. — SchOll, vi. 159. — See also Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. xxiv. 
— Tilkmont, Hist, des Empereurs, T. iv. p. 571. — Lardner, Heathen Testimo- 
nies, vol. iv. p. 576. 

2. Schcell gives the Greek titles of above 60 of the discourses or harangues. 
In the Rhetorical examples are 13 sections, each devoted to examples of a sepa- 
rate kind. The letters are about 2000, some of them to christian Fathers; Ba- 
sil and Chrysostom both were pupils of Libanius. He left also Arguments to the 
orations of Demosthenes, which are usually given in the editions of this orator. — 
Sch.mll, vi. 176. 

3. There is no edition of the whole works of Libanius. The most complete 
edition of the Discourses is that of -J. J. Reiske, Altenb. 1791-97. 4 vols. 8. pub- 
lished after his death by his widow. It contains the Rhetorical exercises. — Two 
additional discourses have been since published, one by Ch. Siebenkees, in his 
Anccdota Graeca, Norimb. 1798. 8 ; the other by A. Mai, in his Fronto, Rome, 

1823. The most complete edition of the Letters is that of J. Ch. Wolf, Amst. 

1738. fol. — In the Libraries of Spain are discourses and probably other writings 
of Libanius hitherto unpublished. 

A German translation of 5 of the discourses by the wife of Reiske, in the 
Hellas, Lpz. 1791. 



IV. — Gramm arians. 

§ 129. Next to the rhetoricians, it will be proper to notice the writers called- 
grammarians, rqa^anxol. This class included not merely such as treated of 
the subjects now comprehended under mere grammar, but all who devoted them- 
selves to any of the various branches of philology (P. I. §71). This depart- 
ment of study began to be more specially cultivated in the period after Alexan- 
der, and particularly at Alexandria. It was in this period, that catalogues were 
first formed of authors regarded as classical; these catalogues were called canons. 

§ 130. Among the various works of these grammarians, were Jtoo&wocig, re- 
visions of the text of classical authors ; c YTtopvttfiara and 'E'itiyijgeig, commenta- 
ries; Sxokia, explanatory notes; Z^n'/fiara, Avong, investigations and solutions of 
particular difficulties ; JTAwooai and M^sig, which treated of dialectic and pecu- 
liar forms and single words ; 2vfi.fuxra, collections of similar phrases and passa- 
ges from different authors. Some wrote upon the subject of grammar in the 
more limited sense ; some upon different specific topics included in it, as syntax, 
metre, dialects and the like. These authors undoubtedly exerted considerable 
influence upon the language and literature of their own and subsequent times; 
and their works are of value to us as containing much information respecting 
earlier periods and authors. 

§ 131. The most distinguished that flourished before the fall of Corinth, B. 
C. 146, were Zenodotus founder of the first school of grammar at Alexandria, 
Aristophanes of Byzantium his disciple, and Aristarchus of Samothrace a dis- 
ciple of Aristophanes. Crates, Philemon, Artemidorus and Sosibius are names, 
which occur also in this period. That of Zoilus has been preserved as a com- 
mon name for a severe and captious critic ; he made himself notorious, in an 
age abounding with admirers of Homer, by his criticisms and declamations a- 
gainst that poet, and thus gained the epithet Homeromastix. Whatever the gram- 
marians of this age composed, nothing remains to us but trivial and scattered 
fragments.— Schmll, Liv. iv. Ch. 35. 

In the next period of Grecian literature, particularly after the time of Augus- 
tus, the list of grammarians is altogether larger. Only a few names can here 



GRAMMARIANS. 223 

be given. Of those who may be called lexicographers, Apollonius snrnamed 
the Sophist, Erotianus, Timacus and Julius Pollux are the principal. Tryphon 
son of Ammonius, Phrynicus the Arabian and iElius Mceris wrote on dialects, 
Among the scholiasts and commentators may be mentioned Ptolemy VII, Didy- 
mus, Apion, and Epaphroditus. Of the writers on different topics of grammar 
we may select Dionysius Thrax, Tryphon above named, Apollonius Dyscolus 
and his son Herodianus, Arcadius of Antioch author of a treatise on accents, 
and Hephaestion, whose Manual on Metres comprises nearly all that is known 
on the subject. Some of the above mentioned will be noticed separately. — Scka.ll, 
Liv. v. ch. 59. 

§ 132. After the time of Constantine letters continued to be cultivated by 

• the grammarians. Constantinople was now the seat of erudition. A sort of 
University was founded here, in which all the branches of human knowledge 
were professedly taught. The teachers or professors were styled Oixovfievixoi, 
universals, A valuable library was also established. Philology in its various 
parts was among the sciences taught by the oecumenical professors. These 
studies were not renounced with the destruction of the library and the decline 
of the royal College, but were continued with more or less attention until the 
final capture of the city by the Turks. The writers during this long period 
were very numerous; only a few have acquired celebrity ; while many of their 
productions yet remain in manuscript. The names and works of the most im- 
portant authors will be given below. 

It may be proper to observe here, that the Greek literati, who fled from Constan- 
tinople on its capture in 1453, and exerted an important influence on the study of 
Greek letters in Italy and western Europe, belonged chiefly to the class denomi- 
nated grammarians. Their labors in their new asylums in the west, were chiefly 

• of a •philological character. 

§ 133/ We shall place here some general references, and then 
proceed to notice separately a few of the Grammarians. 

Collections; Lexicographical, Aldine; Dictionarium Graecum etc. Ven. 1497. 
fol. — Dictionarium Graecum etc. Ven. 1524. fol. — H. Stephanus, Glossaria duo 
esinu vetustatis etc. 1572. fol. — Vulcanius, Thesaurus utriusque linguae etc. Lug. 
Bat. 1600. fol. — Cf. C. F. Matthia, Glossaria graeca minora etc. Rig. 1774. 8. — 
J. A. Emesti, de gloss. gra?c. vera indole et recto usu. Lips. 1742. 8. — Fabriclus, 

Bibl. Gr. vi. 141. — Scholl, Hist. L. G. vi. 281 ss. Grammatical, Aldine, C. 

Lascaris Erotemata, etc. Ven. 1494. 4. — Theod. Gaza. Introd. Gram. etc. Ven. 
1495. fol. and 1525. 8.— Thesaurus Cornucop. et Horti Adonidis. Ven. 1496. 
fol. — Erotemata Chrysolorae, etc. Ven. 1512 and 1517. 8. — H. Stephanus, in the 
Appendix to his Thesausus (§ 7. 3). — Phil. Giunta or Junta, Enchiridion gram- 
mat. Introd. etc. Flor. 1514, 1517, 1540. fol. — Ber. Junta, Theod. Gaza, gram- 
mat, etc. Flor. 1526. 8. — !V . Vacosanus, Thomae Magistri et Moschopuli Ectogae, 
etc. Lut. 1538. — Villoison, Anecdota Graeca etc. Ven. 1781. 2 vols. 4. — J.Bekker, 
Anecdota Graeca. Berl. 1812-21. 3 vols. 8. — W. Dindorf, Grammatici Graecu 
Lips. 1823. 8. — See C. D. Beck, Commentarii de Uteris et auctoribus Graec. at- 
que Latinis. Sect. I. p. 47. — Cf. remarks and references given § 7. 2 at close. 

§ 134. Hephastion, of Alexandria, lived about the middle of the 
2d century. He is to be distinguished from the my tho graphical wri- 
ter, who had the same name. His Manual on Metres, 'EyxeiQidior 
nsgl fiixQuv, contains almost every thing which is known respecting 
the rules and principles of the ancient critics on this subjeet. 

The first edition was in B. Junta, cited § 133. — A. Tournebouf, Par. 1533. 4. 
with scholia, —Best edition, Gaisford, Oxf. 1810. 8. 

$ 135. Apollonius Dyscolus was also of Alexandria, and flourish- 
ed in the 2d century under Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. He has 



224 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

left us four grammatical treatises, viz. HsqI aurrdSsoig, Of Syntax; 

IIsqI uriMi-vfiias, Of the pronoun ; HsqI ovvSBO[twv, Of conjunc- 
tions : ami //."(,>< ' Fnin^fidiiav, Of adverbs. We have also a compi- 
lation styled 'Inogiat 6avftdaiui, or Wonderful Histories. 

1. The treatise on Syntax, was published by Aldusin Thesaurus Cornuc. cited 
§133.— sulhiti", Prancf 1590. i.—J. Bekker, Berl, 1817. 8.— That on the Pro- 
noun bv ././>'>/./.</■ in the Museum Antiquitatis Btudiorum. Berl. 1808. vol. 1. 
p. 925. — The other two by the same in his Anecdota cited § 133. — The historical 
compilation, by Tcuchcn, Lpz. 1792. 8. 

'2. We have a work on Grammar from an earlier author, the TV/i<j; roaitfta- 
tixi, of Dionysius Tkrax, who lived at Alexandria, B. C. about 60. — published 
in Fa It rif ins,' B ibl. Gr. (Harles ed. vol. vi). — in Villoison and Bekker as cited § 133. 

§ 136. JFAius Herodianus was a son of the Apollonius just men- 
tioned. He enjoyed the favor of the emperor Marcus Aurelius Anto- 
ninus. There was another person of the same name, who was a his- 
torian, and must not be confounded with the grammarian. Of many- 
works written by the latter, the treatise JJegl poi'iJQovg Xe^sug appears 
to be the only one that has been preserved entire. 

This treatise is found in Dindorf, as cited 6 133. — The titles of several other 
treatises are given by Schcell, v. 28. Fragments of some of which are given in 
Bekker, and Villoison, as cited § 133, and in G. Hermann, De emendanda ra- 
tione gram. Gr. Lips. 1801. 8. — The piece styled 'Em^eQiofioL was published by 
Edw. H. Becker, Lond. 1819. 3— Cf. Schcell, v. p. 27. 

§ 137. Julius Pollux (or Polydeuces, Ilolvdevxng), of Naucra- 
tis in Egypt, flourished in the 2d century, at Athens. He was in pro- 
fession a sophist, but is chiefly known by his Greek Dictionary, enti- 
tled ' Ovofiaanxdv. This is divided into 10 books, according to sub- 
jects. It is very useful, not only in illustrating Greek words and 
phrases, but also in explaining many subjects of general antiquities. 

1. The following are some of the topics of the books respectively. I.Gods, 
Kings ; Commerce, Mechanic Arts; Houses; Things relating to War; Agri- 
culture. 2. Age of men ; Members and parts of the human body. 3. Family 
Relations, Friends; Travels; Roads; Rivers. 4. Sciences. 5. Animals; the 
Chase. 6. Repasts; Crimes. 7. Of various trades. 8. Things relating to the 
administration of Justice. 9. Cities, Edifices, Money, Games. 10. Furniture, 
Utensils, &c. 

2. The last and best edition is J. H. Lederlein and T. Hemsterhuis, Amst. 
1702. fol. — Previous; Princeps by Aldus, Ven. 1502. fol. — Junta, Flor. 1520. fol. 
— Seber, Francf, 1608. 4. with the Latin version first published by Walther, Bas. 
1541. 8. 

3. We have before named (§ 131) as lexicographers, in the ; period of Greek 
literature designated by the epithet Roman (% 9), three authors besides Pollux; 
Apollonius Sophistes, Erotian, and Timaeus. — From Apollonius Sophistes, in the 
time of Augustus, we have a Homeric Lexicon, JQsig ' Ofirjqiital, published by 

Villoison, Par. 1773. 2 vols. 4.— H. Tollius, Leyd. 1788. 8. From Erotian, 

in the time of Nero, we have a Glossary to Hippocrates, published last by Franz, 

Lpz. 1780. 8. From Timaus, who lived later, in the end of the 3d century, 

we have a Platonic Lexicon, Ji'isig HXarmvixiu, published by Ruhnken, Leyd. 
1754. 8. 



M(ERIS. HARPOCRATION. HESYCHIUS. AMMONIUS. 225 

fy 138. jElius Maris, suvnamedthe Atticist, flourished about A. 
D. 190. His work, styled Ae$eig Aizixat> xal 'Ellijvwv, is pre- 
served. 

1. It was first published by J. Hudson, Oxf. 1712. 8. — next by J. Fischer, Lpz. 
1756. 8. with the Lexicon of Timaeus. — best by J. Pierson, Leyd. 1759. 8. 

2. Tryphon and Phrynieus the Arabian were mentioned (§ 131) in connec- 
tion with Moeris as having also written on dialects. There are some remains 
from them noticed by Scholl (v. 11). The principal is the JltioTTaQaoxivlj auquo- 
tix>i, ' Apparatus sophistique ' of Phrynieus, in the latter part of the 2d century; 
published by Bekker as cited § 133. vol. I. 

§ 139. Harpocration, of Alexandria, probably flourished as a 
contemporary of Libanius in the 4th century. He was the author of 
a Lexicon entitled As^stg iw dsxa 'qtjtoqojv, useful in reference to 
the Greek language generally, and the Attic orators in particular. 

Published by Aldus, (with Ulpian's Comm.) Ven. 1503. M,—Blancard, Leyd. 
1683. 4.— Better, by J. Gronov, Leyd. 1696. 4.— A new edition, Lips. 1824. 2 
vols. 8. 

$ 140. Hesychius lived at Alexandria, as is generally supposed, 
towards the close of the 4th century. He compiled a Greek Lexicon 
or Glossary from the more ancient grammarians, and illustrated his se- 
lections by examples from the best Greek authors. Additions were 
made to this work by later hands, among which are probably the nu- 
merous theological glosses (glossce sacra). Perhaps, in its present 
state, it is the work as enlarged by some christian author. 

1. The best edition, J. Alberti (completed by Ruhnkcv>\, Leyd. 1774-76. 2 vols, 
fol. — A new ed. has been expected from Gaisford. — Previous; Princeps, by Aldus, 
Ven. 1214. fol. [ed. M. Musurus). — Junta, Flor. 1520. fol.— Schrevelius, Leyd. 
1688. 4. — The results of a collection of Atberli's, edition with the only manuscript 
existing (in Lib. St. Mark, Venice) was published by Nic. Schoiv, Lpz. 1792. 8. 
— The glossce sacra were collected by J. C. G. Ernesti, Lpz. 1785. 8. with a Sup- 
plement, 1786. 8. — Cf. also ScAleusner, Observ. in Suid. et Hesych. Wittemb. 
1810. i.—Schcell, vi. 282. 

2. The author of the Lexicon must not be confounded with Hesychius of Mi- 
letus, in the 6th century, under Justinian, from whom we have some remains not 
very important. Published by J. Orelli, Lpz. 1820. 8.— Scholl, vi. 404. vii. 75. 

§ 141. Ammonius, of Alexandria, probably lived in the latter 
part of the 4th century. He is said to have been an Egyptian priest, 
and to have fled from Constantinople on the destruction of the pagan 
temples. He was the author of a work, entitled Tle^i dfioiuv xai di- 
acpoQwv legswv. It is a work of some value in the criticism of words. 

It was published in Aldus, Dictionarium etc. cited § 133. — H. Stephanus, in 
App. to Thes. cited § 7. 3. — The best edition is Valckenaer, Lug. Bat. 1739. 4. 
Repr. (ed. Schafer), Lpz. 1822. 8. — A good abridgment of Valckenaer' shy C, F. 
Ammon, Erlang. 1787. 8. — There is a treatise by Ammonius, ZIuqL' AxvqaXoyiaq^ 
Chi improper use of words, never printed. 

29 



226 HISTORY OF CiREEK LITERATURE. 

sN 142. Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, died A. D: 891. 
He may be placed in the class of writers now under notice, although 
he was a man of letters in general rather than a grammarian. His 
Mvqi6{irf)>ov, Bibliotheca or Library, is in many respects valuable. 
It contains ciitical notices of about 280 works of ancient writers, ac- 
companied with extracts. Of a number of these works we should 
otherwise have scarcely known the titles. His Lexicon, Ai^euv av- 
vayuyij, although in a mutilated state, is useful in the study of the his- 
torians and orators. 

1. The life of Photius presents a series of interesting incidents. His charac- 
ter was not without some blemishes, and he experienced great vicissitudes of for- 
tune. From a layman he was raised to the office of patriarch. He was deposed 
and banished, after 10 or 11 years recalled and reinstated, but again deposed and 
confined in a monastery, where he died.— Gibbon, Rom. Empire ch. ix. — Milner, 
Ch. History. 

2. Besides the works above named, we have also from Photius a work styled 
Nomocanon, a collection of Canons of the church, and a number of letters, homi- 
lies and (he like, of minor value. — For a particular account of the MvQi6(li(li.or } 
see Scholl, vi. 305.— Fabricius, in Bibl. Gr, X. 678. ed. Hades.— Cf. Ed. Rev. 
No. 42. 

3. There is no edition of the whole works of Photius.— Of the Library, there 
have been, until recently, but three editions. D. Hczschel, Augsb. 1601. fel. — P. 
Stephanus, Genev. 1611. fol. with the version of A. Schott, first publ. Augsb. 1696. 
— Same, repr. by Berthelin, Rouen, 1553. fol. — A new ed. was commenced by 

Bekkcr, Berl. 1824. 4. The Lexicon was first published by G. Hermann, 

with the Lexicon of Zonaras, Lpz. 1808. 3 vols. 4. (by Tittmann <$• Hermann.) 
Photius the. 3d vol.— Better, R. Parsons, Lond. 1822. 2 vols. 8. (ed. by Dobrec).— 
The Nomocanonwas printed Par. 1620. fol. with Balsamon. — The Letters (248) 
by Montacutius {Montague), Lond. 1651. fol. 

§ 143. Suidas probably lived about A. D. 1000, although it cannot 
be made certain. He was the author of a Lexicon, compiled from 
various authors, grammarians, commentators and scholiasts. It is not 
executed with much judgment, accuracy or skill in arrangement. 
Yet it is of considerable value on account of its store of literary and 
antiquarian information ; and many of its defects, especially in the ap- 
parent want of method, may be owing to interpolations and additions 
made by tranjjribers and others. 

There have been the following editions; Princcps, by Dem. Chalcondylas, Mil. 
1496. fol.— Aldus, Ven; 1514. M.—Frobenius, Bas. 1544. M.—Mm. Portus, Gr. 
& Lat. Gen. 1619. 2 vols, fol.— Best, L. Kusten, Gr. & Lat. Camb. 1705. 3 vols, 
fol. — The following works further illustrate Suidas. — Toup's Emend. &c. Lond. 
1760-75. 4 vols. 8. also in his Opusc. crit. Lpz. 1780. 2 vols. 8. and ed. by Burgess, 
Lond. 1790. 4 vols. 8.— Schweighceuser , Emend, et Obs. in Suidam, Argent. 1789. 
8. — Reinesii Observ. in Suidam (ed. C. G.Mueller) Lpz. 1819. 8. 

§ 144. In this connection we ought to notice the work of an un- 
known author, who lived about A. D. 1000. It is a Greek Glossary, 
styled 'Exvfj.oloyiy.6v (isya, the Etymologicum magnum. Besides its 
value as a grammatical work, it is still more useful because it has pre- 



EUSTATHIUS. GREGORIUS. THOMAS MAGISTER. 237 

served many passages of ancient authors, and furnished solutions of 
many difficulties in history and mythology. 

1. Editions of the 'Erv/.ioi'.oyixbv ; Princeps, by Z. Calliergus (ed.M Musurus) , 
Ven. 1499. fol.— P. Manutius (ed. Torrisani), Veil. 1549. fol. — Commelin led. 
F. Sylburg), Heidelb. 1594. fol.— Panagiola (.of Sinope), Ven. 1710. M.—Schee- 
fer, Lpz; 1816. 4. a repr. of Sylburg's. To this last ed. the two following works 
may be viewed as the 2d and 3d volumes ; F. W. Sturtz, Etymologicum ling. Gr. 
Gudianum etc. Lpz. 1818. 4. — By same, Orionis Etymologicum. Lpz. 1820. 4. — 
Cf. Schcell, vi. p. 277. 294. 

2. In the Libraries of Europe are several Lexicons or Glossaries, still re- 
maining in manuscript, particularly in the Royal Library of France. — We may 
also mention here one first published by Villoison in his Anecdota cited § 133; the 
> Imvia, or Violarium, by Eudocia, wife of the emperor Constantine Ducas, and 
his successor for a short time, but soon after placed in a convent. In this retreat 
she wrote her work, a sort of historic-mythologic compilation, supposed to be of 
much value before Villoison published it. — Schcell, vi. 296, 318. 

§ 145. Eustathius, of Constantinople, flourished in the 12th cen- 
tury, and became finally bishop of Thessalonica. He is particularly 
celebrated for his copious and learned Commentary on Homer, enti- 
tled flags xfiolal sig t^v 'Ofirjgov , IlnxSa and sig jtjv ' Odvocrsiav. 
We have also from him a less valuable commentary on Dionysius Pe- 
riegetes. 

1. The Comm. on H. was first published, Rome, 1542-1550. 3 vols. fol. contain- 
ing the index of Devarius. (Cf. §50.. 5.)— This repr. Bale, 1560. 3 vols, fol.— 
An ed. commenced by Polili, Flor. 1730; but never finished.--Extracts from the 
Comm. often published with Homer. — Cf. Bulletin des Sciences Historiques, vol. 
4. p. 337. A commentary by Eustathius on Pindar is lost. — Schall, vi. 269. 

2. John Tzetzes may be named in connection with Eustathius ; he was a 
grammarian at Constantinople in the same century (§ 81]. 

§ 146. Gregorius, surnamed Pardus, and afterwards CorinUnvs 
from being the bishop of Corinth, lived about the middle of the 12th 
century. Of his many works two only have been published ; one 
is a treatise on the Greek dialects, IIeqI Jialev-Tcav, and the other a Com- 
mentary on the last part of the rhetoric of Her mo genes (§ 121. 1). 

The treatise on dialects, edited by G. Koen, Leyd. 1766. 8. better than any ed. 
previous. — By G. H. ScAcefer, Lpz. 1811. 8. still better.— The commentary given 
in Reiske (cited § 99) vol. viii, 

§ 147. Thomas Magister, or Theodulus, may be mentioned here. 
He lived in the beginning of the 14th century (about 1310). After 
holding the place of Magister officiorum under the emperor Androni- 
cus Palseologus, he became a monk with the name of Theodulus. A 
work by him is extant, called' Exloyal ovo/ndroov 'Awixiav. 

First published by Calliergus, Rome, 1517. 8. — Best, by J. S. Bernard, Leyd. 
1757. 8. and /. G. S. Schvabe, Allenb. 1773. 8.— Cf. G. 'Hermann, Progr. de pne- 
ceptis quibusdam Atticislarum. Lpz. 1810. 4. 



228 msTOKY or greek literature- 



V. — Writers of Epistles and Romances. 

§ 148." We shall next introduce the class of writings called Letters or 
EpistUs. There are many extant, ascribed to distinguished men of ancient 
times. Rut a great portion of them are spurious, being the productions of the 
sophists and grammarians of later periods. Some of them, however, are un- 
questionably genuine; as e. g. those of Isocrates, Demosthenes and Aristotle. In 
these (the genuine), there is generally a noble simplicity of manner, entirely free 
from the art and labor, which are betrayed in the epistles fabricated in the age 
of the later sophists. The latter class were composed with designed reference 
to publication, and treat of various subjects, particularly subjects of a historical 
and romantic character. We shall mention below some of the principal authors 
of Greek epistles, either real or supposed. 

§ 149. As the form of epistles was so often adopted by the sophists and others 
in composing pieces which were, properly speaking, works of fiction, we shall 
mention the names of the principal writers of romance in the same connection. 
The species of composition termed romance was unknown in the most flourishing 
periods of Greek literature. A modern writer has pointed out the reason. ' In. 
the most refined ages,' says he, ' the whole empire of fiction was usurped by the 
ingenious polytheism of the Greeks. This filled every imagination and satis- 
fied the love of the marvelous so natural to man. Every festival renewed the 
tale of some god's singular adventures. The theatre owed its charms, in great 
measure, to the strange union of the heroic daring of mortals, and the interven- 
tion of deities. In a nation so happily adapted for the elegant arts, fiction natu- 
rally assumed the garb of poetry, and the beautiful fables so well sung by the 
poets left no place for recitals in prose, composed, as it were, of vulgar dreams. 
The people, it must also be remembered, were all engrossed in public and active 
life. Retirement and solitude were almost unknown. The state, so to speak, 
made it a business to amuse its citizens in public. While such was the publicity of 
the master's life, the universal prevalence of domestic slavery, and the degraded 
and immured condition of the female sex, rendered private life a uniform and 
monotonous scene. Thus, while there was no opportunity to imagine any won- 
derful adventure, or very singular character and destiny, without violating proba- 
bilities, there was at the same time but little scope for the passion of love, which 
holds so important a place in modern romance.' ( Villemain, quoted by SchOll, iv. 
p. 304. 

§ 150. It was not until the fifth period of our outline (S 9), that works of this 
description made their appearance, and scarcely any thing of the kind is earlier 
than the time of Augustus. These works are called in general erotic tales. But 
we may include in the same class, not only romances properly so called, or formal 
love stories, but also amatory letters, Milesian or magical tales, and imaginary 
voyages. 

Of imaginary voyages one of the first authors was Antonius Diogenes, whose 
work, Tit vniq SovXtjr aniara, the incredible things beyond Thule, is quoted by 
Photius. It seems to have contained a tissue of absurdities, in forty-four books. 
Lucian also wrote an imaginary voyage, entitled * AXrfirfi loroQia, in two books; 
a satire upon voyagers, who relate marvellous stories, full of grotesque represen- 
tations, with malignant allusions to the miracles of the sacred Scriptures. 

Milesian tales are so called because a certain Aristides of Miletus, of whom 
little is known, wrote a series of stories, the scene of which was Miletus. A 
specimen of this sort of tale is found in the piece of Lucian styled Aoxlxio? i) 
"Ovof (Cf. § 121. 2). The Latin work of Apuleius, styled the Golden Ass, be- 
longs to the same class of fictions. 

Of amatory letters the only specimen, before the time of Oonstantine,is given 
in some of the letters of Alciphron. In the next period, not long after Constan- 
tine, we find a work of this class, entitled 'Emarolal 'townxal, ascribed to Aris- 
taenetus. 

§ 151. A work of Parthenius, in the age of Augustus, may be considered as 



ANACHARSIS. 229 

\ 

a precursor of the formal romdnce, being a collection of amatory tales, entitled 
Ileql iqamx&v Ila&tjuaTuiv, chiefly of a melancholy cast. But the most ancient 
writer of the proper romance was Jamblichus of Syria, in the reign of Trajan. 
His work styled ' laroQiai Bafivf.wvixai, or the Loves of Rhodane and Sinonis, 
is quoted by Photius. The next author in order of time is probably Xenophon 
of Ephesus, to whom is ascribed a Greek romance, called 'Equataxa. 

In the period after Constantine, we find several romancers. Three, whose 
works were in verse, have already been named (§ 33). Besides these, there were 
at least/our prose writers, whose romances are extant, Heliodorus, Achilles Ta- 
tius, Longus, and Eumathius. The romance ascribed to Chariton also was pro- 
bably written in the same period. Xenophon, already named, is by some like- 
wise placed here. Heliodorus is considered by many as the best writer of the 
whole class, and his work is said to have been the model, not only of the Greek ro- 
mances, but also for the early French romances of the 16th century. (Cf. §258.2). 
Others pronounce Longus to be decidedly the first among the Greek romancers. 

fy 152/ The following are references on the class of authors and 
works now under notice. The principal names will be given in the 
following sections, the real or supposed writers of epistles first, and 
the romancers after them. 

1. On the epistles attributed to ancient Greeks, Schmll, ii. 273. — Schmnhcydoi, 
in the N. Biblioth. d. sch. Wiss. vol. 5.— Collections of Greek Epistles; Aldus, 
Epistolarum gracarum collectio. Ven. 1499. 2 vols, 4.— Reprinted, Gen. 1606. 
fol. with Lat. version ascribed to Cujacius. — Camerarius,*Ey.).oyij SiayuQwv inio- 
roi.wvetc, Tubing. 1540. 8. — Stepk. Prevoteau, Ttay i?J.7]vix<ov~tnioTo?.wv Ar&olo- 
yia. Par. 1583. 4.—EUL Ltibinus, Gr. & Lat. Heidelb. 1609. 3 vols. 8. rarely 
found complete. —L. Allatius (Allazi), Socratis et aliorumEpistolae, Gr. & Lat. 
Par. 1637. 4. — J. C. Orelli, collectio epist. grsec. Gr. & Lat. 1815. 8.— Savage, 
Letters of the Ancients. Lond. 1703. 8. 

2. On the Greek romance, Villemain, Essai litteraire sur les Romans Grecs 
(in the collect, des R. Gr. &c. cited below). — Ckardonla Rockelte, Melanges de 
crit. et dephilol. — Meiners, Gesch. d. Kuenst. u. Wissensch. in Griech. u. Rom. 
vol. 1. p. 216.—Ramdohr's Venus Urania, Th. 3. Abth. l.—Mdnso's Abhandl. 
ueber d. griech. Romane, in 2d Bd. of his Vermisch. Schnften. Leipz. 1801. 
2 Bde. 8.— Warton's Hist. Eng. Poetry, vol. II. p. 183.— Dunlop, History of Fic- 
tion. — Foreign Quart. Rev. vol. 9. — Schmll, Hist. Litt. Gr. iv. 304, iv. 228. 

On the origin of romance, D. Huel, de Origine Pab. Romanensium. Hag. Com. 
1682. 8. Tr. French. Par. 1693. 12.— Warton's Diss, on Orig. Fiction in Europe, 
pref. to Hist. Eng. Poetry. 

Collections of Greek romances ; Ck. G. Mltsckertich, Scriptores erotici gra?ci. 
Gr. & Lat. Bip. 1792. 4 vols. 8. containing A. Tatius, Heliodorus, Longus, and 
Xenophon. — Biblioteca de' Romanzieri greci, tradotti in Italiano. Flor. 1792. — 
Biblioth. des Romans Grecs. Traduits en Franc. Par. 1797. 12 vols. 12. — Collect, 
des R. Gr. trad, en Franc, avec des notes par Courier, Larcher, &c. Par. 1822-28. 
14 vols. 16. 

§ 153. Anacharsis, a native of Scythia, resided some years at 
Athens in the time of Solon, B. C. about 600, and was celebrated for 
his wisdom. There are nine letters ascribed to him, but they are not 
genuine. 

1. These Letters are given in most of the collections above named. — Sepa- 
rately, Par. 1581. 4. Gr. & Lat.— One of them (5th) is translated by Cicero 
{Gluaest. Tusc. vj ; another (9th) is contained in the life of Anacharsis by Dioge- 
nes Laertius. — He is said to have written a work on the laws of the Scythians, 
and a poem on war, which are lost. 

2. The name of Anacharsis is applied to a fictitious personage, imagined by 
the Abbe Bartkelemi, as the basis of a sort of plot for a very interesting work on 
ihe history, literature and arts of Greece, called the Travels of Anacharsis the 



230 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

Yinmgtr, The author imagines the Scythian to arrive in Greece some years be- 
fore the birth of Alexander, to reside in. Athens, making occasional excursions 
and journies in different parts of Greece, until alter the conquests of Philip, 
then to return to Scylhia and give an account of his observations. — One of the 
besl editions of this' work is Travels &c. translated from the French, Lond. 1806. 
7 vols. 8. with a vol. of Plates, 4. 

§ 154. Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, respecting whose age 
there is uncertainty, probably lived B. C. about 560. To him are as- 
cribed 1 48 letters, which, were they really his, would show him to 
have been, not only far removed from the cruelty, with which common 
tradition has charged him, but a man of the noblest feeling. But they 
are undoubtedly the work of some sophist of later times. On this 
point there is no longer any dispute ; the vehement and ill-natured 
controvery between Bentley and Boyle respecting it gave the inquiry 
an importance, which the subject in itself did not possess. 

1. The wits and scholars at the time of the famous controversy were gene- 
rally against Bentley, who wholly denied the genuineness of the letters ; but his 
arguments have been considered by all since that time as perfectly conclusive. 
For an account of the controversy, see Monk's Life of Bentley, Lond. 1830. — 
Lond. Quart. Rev. No. 91. — Cf. Bentlfy's Diss, on Phalaris, cited § 63 (2). 

2. The letters were first published in Latin, without date ; the 2d ed. 1470. — 
in original Greek first 1498. 4. Ven. — in Aldus 1499. 4. cited § 152. 1. also in 
the other collections there named. — C. Boyle, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1695. 8. repr. 1718. 
8. — J. D. V. Lennep <$• L. G. Valckenaer, Groning. 1777. 2 vols. 4. the 2d vol. con- 
taining a Latin translation of the tracts of Bentley. — G, H. Schcefer, Lpz. 1823. 
8. are-impr. of the 1st vol. of the preceding; and is probably the best edition. 
—SchasU, ii. 277. 

§ 155. Themistocles, the Athenian generaland orator (§ 88), flour- 
ished B. C. about 480. There are 21 letters extant, ascribed to him. 
They purport to have been written during his banishment, and their 
contents are chiefly of a historical nature. Their genuineness is very 
questionable ; it was fully examined and controverted by Bentley. 

1. The letters of Them, published, first by J. M. Caryophilus, Gr. & Lat. 
Rom. 1626. 4.— E. Ehinger, Frankf. 1629. 8.— Ch. Schattgen, Lpz. 1710. 8.— J. 
C. Bremer, Lemg. 1776. 8. — Cf. Bentley on Phalaris, above referred to. 

2. The letters ascribed to Isocrates (103. 2) and Demosthenes (§106. 2) are 
genuine, and most, if not all, of the 12 attributed to JEschines. — The latter were 
published separately, J. S. Sammet, Ldz. 1771. 8. Those of Isocrates, C. F. Mai- 
Ma, Mosc. 1776. 8. 

§ 156. Socrates, the most distinguished sage of Greece, was born 

B. C. 469, and drank the cup of hemlock under judicial sentence, B. 

C. 399. He committed nothing to writing, and probably had not the 
least agency in the composition of the 7 letters, which are ascribed to 
him. Like most of the letters, which are called Socratic, professing 
to come from Antisthenes and other followers of Socrates, they are 
the production of some of the sophists. 

The letters termed Socratic are 41 in number ; among (hem, besides the 7 as- 



CHION. ARIST^INETUS. ALCIPHRON. IIELIODORUS. 231 

cribed to Socrates, are 7 of Xenophon, and 12 of Plato. Cicero quotes one of 
the latter (CLuasst. Tusc. Vl. Letters of Antisthenes and jEschines the philoso- 
pher are. also included.— -Schmll, ii. 280, 361, 414. 

They are found in the collections of Allalius and Orelli, cited § 152. 1. 

§ 157. Chion, of Heraclea on the Pontus Euxinus, a contempo- 
rary and scholar of Plato, having slain Clearchus, tyrant of Heraclea, 
was himself put to death, B. C. 353. He was probably not the au- 
thor of the 17 letters, which bear his name. They treat particularly 
of the benefits of philosophical culture, and are inspired with ardent 
political enthusiasm, but not without merit as to thought and style. 

Published by J. Caselius, Rost. 1583. 4.— Fr. Morel, Par. 1600. 4.— J. Got tl. 
Cober, Dred. 1765. 8. — A. G. Hoffmann, joined to J. C. Orelli's fragments of 
Memnon, Lpz. 1816. 8. — This is the best edition. 

§ 158. Aristanetus, of Nicsea in Bithynia, was a sophist of the 4th 
century, who perished in an earthquake at Nicsea, A. D. 358. His let- 
ters, in two books, are of the erotic class ($ 150), and in [a manner of 
writing rather light and sportive. They have, however, only the 
form and superscription of letters, being without that peculiar vivacity 
and interest, which is imparted to personal correspondence. Possibly 
they are the work of a sophist of a still later age. 

All the editions have been taken from a single manuscript still existing at 
Vienna; first published by J. Sambucus, (printer Plantin) Antw. 1566. 4. — Bet- 
ter than any previous edition, F. L. Abresch, Zwoll, 1749. 8. a vol. styled Lec- 
iionum Aristmnetearum libriduo, and another entitled Vir. erud. ad Arist. Epist. 
conjecturae, Amst. 1752. 8. — The most recent and complete, Boissonade, Par. 
1822. 8.— Schmll, vi. 249.— German translation, I. F. Herel, Altenb. 1770. 8.— 
Harles (Brev. Not. p. 471) cites a French transl. Lond. 1739. 12. — Fuhrmann, 
(Kl. Handb. 522) an English, Lond. 1771. 8. 

§ 159. Alciphron was a contemporary of Aristasnetus, and a wri- 
ter of the same class. Many of the letters are of the amatory kind. 
The style is agreeable, but too much ornamented, and showing too 
much of sophistic affectation. They reveal, however, many little pe- 
culiarities, otherwise not made known, in the private life of the Greeks. 

1. Schmll places Alciphron much earlier, in the same age with Lucian in the 
2d century ; because, in the letters of Avistsenetus, Alciphi'on and Lmcian are rep- 
resented as corresponding with each other. — The letters are 110 in number, and 
styled ' EttiotoIcu UXitimxal xal svaiQizal. 

■ 2. Editions of Alciphron, firstby Aldus cited § 152, l.—Bergler, Lpz. 1715. 8. 
with a commentary, repr. Utrecht. 1790. 8. — I. A. Wagner, Lpz. 1798. 2 vols. 8. — 
There are materials for a better edition. — Schmll, iv. 314. — Translations; Ger- 
man, I.F. Herel, Altenb.. 1767. 8. — French, Abbe de Richard, Par. 1785. 3 vols. 
12.— English, Ph. Monro and W. Beloe, Lond. 1791. 8. 

§ 160. Heliodorus, of Emesa in Syria, bishop of Tricca in Thes- 
saly, lived at the close of the 4th century, In early life he wrote his 
iEthiopica, AiQionwd, in 10 books, respecting the love of Theagenes- 



233 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

and Chariclea, It is very meritorious as a narrative, and still move 
so vo. account of its pure morality . Yet its diction has traces of the 
artificial taste and false eloquence of the sophists. 

Editions; Princtvs, by V. Obsopanis (printer Herva gins) Bas. 1524. 4. from a 
manuscript obtained from aspldier, who took it at the pillage of the library of 
Matthias Con-inns, at Buda, in 1526. (Schmll, vi 2'29).— J. Commelin, Heidelb. 
1596. 8. with the Lat. vers, of a Pole named Warszewicki, first printed Bas. 
1552. t'ol. — ./. Bonrdrlot, Par. 1619. 8. erroneous. Repr. without correct. Lpz. 
1772. S. ed. Schnid.— The edition of Mitscherlich, Gr. & Lat. in 2d vol. of the 
Scri/iloirs Erolicl, cited § 152, 2. is better.— The best is said to be by D. Coray, 
Par. ISO I. 2 vols. 8. with notes &c. all in Greek, repr. Lpz. 1805. 2 vols. 8. 
Translations; German, Meinhard, Lpz. 1767. 2 vols. 8.— A". W. Gmttling, Frankf. 
1822. 8.— French, Mercier, in the Biblioth. des Romans, cited § 152. 2.--English, 
(Anonymous) Lond. 1791. 2 vols. 12. — On Heliodoms, cons. Schoell, vi. 228. — 
For. diuni. Rev. No. 9. 

$ 161. Achilles Tatius was a native of Alexandria, but of an 
uncertain age, although commonly placed in the '3d century, before 
Heliodoms. His history is almost entirely unknown. He composed 
a romance, in 8 books, entitled, Td nurd Aevxinnrjv xcu KlenoytivTa, 
or the story of Leucippe und Clitophon. It is not without ingenuity 
and invention, and the style is agreeably animated, although its ex- 
cellence is marred by frequent affectation of beauty and ornament. 

Editions ; Princeps, by J. Commelin (ed. Bonnvitius,) Heidelb. 1601. 8. with 
Lat. vers, of Croce fCruceus] that had been previously published, and Longus. — 
Salmasius, Leyd. 1640 12.— B. Gottl. L. Boden, Lpz. 1776. 8.— Mitscherlich, as- 
cited § 152. 2— Fr. Jacobs Gr. and Lat. Lpz. 1821. 2 vols. 8. the best edition.— 
Translations ; German, Ast and Gttldenapfel, Lpz. 1802. 8. — French, besides sev- 
eral others, Mercier, in 2d vol. of Biblioth. des Rom. cited § 152, 2. — English, 
(Anonymous) Lond. 1720, 12.— See Schmll, vi. 232— For. Cuart. Rev. No. 9. — 
Villemain, as cited § 152. 2. 

§ 162. Longus was a sophist of the 4th or 5th century. He is 
the best erotic writer of the Greeks. His romance in 4 books, com- 
monly called the Pastorals of Daphnis and Chloe, is an attractive work, 
written with care, but sometimes too exact, and having some pas- 
sages, which are exceptionable on account of their freedom. 

1. The period when this writer lived is wholly uncertain; the name is not 
mentioned by any ancient writer, and is by some supposed to have originated in 
mistake. The celebrated manuscript now existing at Florence, does not name 
the author of the work, but bears the title Jtapiaxwv >qtoriisSv Ibyoi $' (4) ; and it 
is possible that by some copyist the last word was taken for the name of the wri- 
ter.— Schoell. vi. 238.— Cf. For. Quart. Rev. No. 9. 

2. Editions ; Princeps by Columbanus, (printer Junta) Flor. 1598. 4. — Three 
editions in the 17th cent.— Nealmus, (Neaulme, publisher',) Par. 1754. 4. with Lat. 
vers, and plates.— Boden, Gr. and Lat. Lpz. 1777. 8—Villoison, Gr. and Lat. Par. 
1778.2 vols. 4. one of the best editions.— Mitscherlich as cited § 152.2 — G. H. 
Schafer, Lpz. 1803. 8, a better text— A splendid ed. with plates printed by Didot, 
Par. 1802. 4. 

Translations; German, J. C. Krabinger, Landsh. 1809. 8.— Fr. Passow with the 
Greek text. Lpz. 1811. 12.— French, J. Amyot, Par. 1559. 8. often repr.— English, 
G. Thomley, Lond. 1617. 8. 



XEN0PH0N. CHARITON. EUMATHIUS. 233 

§ 1 63. Xenophon of Ephesus, whose period of nourishing is un- 
known, was the author of the story of Anlhia and Abrocomas, in 5 
books. 

1. Some have placed this writer as late as the 5th century ; others suppose he 
must have lived before the time of Constantine ; Peerlkamp, the latest editor of 
this romance, thinks that its author was the earliest writer of the class, and that 
Xenophon is merely an assumed name. — Schoell, iv. 310. — Dunlop, Hist, of Fic- 
tion. V 

2. Editions; first, Ant. Cotchi, Gr. &Lat. 1726. 8' — Two next editions faulty. 
— (Fourth) Mitscherlich, cited § 152. 2. — A. E. de Locelta, Gr. & Lat. Vindob. 
1796. 4. one of the best.— P. H. Peerlkamp, Harl. 1818. 4. good.— Schall, iv. 311. 

Translations; German, J. G. Krabinger, Milnch. 1820. 8. — French, Jourdan, 
Par. 1748. 12. and in Biblioth. cited § 152. 2.— Italian, Salvini, Lond. 1723. 12. 
before 1st edition of the original. 

§ 164. Chariton, of Aphrodisia, is another romance writer of 
whom nothing is known. The work bearing his name is the love- 
story of Chareas and Callirrhoe, T&v Ileal Xcuqeav xai KalXi^gor/v 
ioonwiov dt,riyr)imT(av loyoi r\, in 8 books. 

This was first published by J. Ph. d' Orville (Doruillius) Amst. 1750. 3 vols. 4. 
with a Lat. trans, by Reiske, and a very learned commentary. — Repr. of same, 

ed. C. D. Beck, Lpz. 1783. 8. Translations, German, Heyne, Lpz. 1753, 8 — 

Schmieder, Ebend. 1806. 8. — French, Larcher, Par. 1763. 8. — English, Lond. 
1764. 2 vols. 12. (Fuhrmann, p. 528.)— Schall. vi. 246.— For. Quart. Rev. No. 9. 

§ 165. Eumathius, or Eustathius, of Egypt, also of an uncertain age, 
was a writer belonging to the same class. This person must not be 
confounded with Eustathius the celebrated commentator upon Homer. 
He wrote the tale of Hysmine and Hysminias, To xud" 'Yo^lvijv xal 
c Yafitviav doafta, in 1 1 books. 

The romance of Eumathius, of little value, has been printed but seldom ; G. 
Gaulmin, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1617. 8. repr. Vienn. 1791. — L. H. Teucher, Lpz. 1792. 

8. (Gaulmin's without notes). Translations; German, Madam Reiske, in. the 

Hellas, (Th. 1. p. 101), Lpz. 1778.— French, in the Biblioth. and Collect, cited 
6 152. 2.— Schall, vi. 247. 



VI. — Philosophers. 

§ 166. 2 * Grecian philosophy was not properly speaking of native origin, but 
was introduced by various colonists from Egypt, Phoenicia and Thrace. It first 
appeared in the poets who treated, in their verse, of the nature of things, the ori- 
gin of the world, the system of the gods, the principles of morals, &c. Linus, 
Musseus, Orpheus and Hesiod belong to this class, and even Homer may be in- 
cluded. The poets of Greece, it may be truly said, were her first philosophers. — 
Cf. P.I. §§40—42. 

See D. Tiedcmann, Griechenland's erste Philosophen, oder Leben und Systeme des Orpheus &c. 
Lpz. 1780. S.—Tcnnemann. Hist. Phil. (Fr. vers.cf Cousin. Sect. ib.—EnfieW, Hist. Phil.B. II. ch. 1 

30 



284 HISTORY OF OREEK LITERATURE. 

6 1H7 It mav also be remarked with propriety, that the next philosophers of 
Greece were her priests and Legislators. Grecian philosophy had a religious as- 
pect in its vciv beginnings, in I he fanciful speculations of the poets respecting the 
ori-iii of tilings and the nature and offices of the gods. The notion of a multi- 
titiide of supernatural spirits, having each an appropriate department in govern- 
in" the world could not but affect the philosophical reasonings of all embracing 
it It whs nei feel Iv natural to inquire how these superior agents would make 
known their will, and predictto man the future, or warn him of danger. Thus 
was furnished a fruitful field of speculation upon the various subjects of augury, 
omens oracles and the whole system of divination. The ideas, which became 
incorporated into the popular belief, were indeed but a mass of absurdities not de- 
serving the name of philosophy, yet it was about such ideas that the early Greeks 
expended much thought, or rather indulged in much imagination. Upon this 
foundation arose a curious fabric; divination, under the ingenuity of priests, 
who united to personal shrewdness and foresight some knowledge of physical na- 
ture «rew into a sort of regular science. The institutions termed mysteries had, 
in tneir nature and design, some intimate connection with this early religious 
philosophy. (Cf. PI. §41). " 

When the progress of society demanded the care of the lawgiver, and began 
at the same time to furnish the talents and knowledge requisite to frame success- 
ful codes then philosophy assumed anew aspect. The moral and social nature ot 
man began to be studied more. Reflecting minds examined into the motives, 
by which men may be actuated, and contemplated the nature, proper punishments 
and preventives of crime, the theory of government and of education. In learn- 
ing the character of this political philosophy, we must consider particularly the 
ci vil institutions of Lycurgus and Solon, and the character and doctrines of those, 
who are called by way of eminence the wise men of Greece. 

A glance at the former shows us, that very particular reference was had to the 
training of vouth for their future circumstances. The two legislators differed 
widely in th'eir systems. The Spartan aimed to foim a community of high- 
minded warriors; the other sought rather a community of cultivated scholars. 
Their plans of education varied accordingly. Lycurgus enjoined abstinence 
and hardships ; Solon furnished books and teachers. It must not be forgotten, 
however, that the Spartan system was two hundred years earlier than the Athe- 



nian 



The seven sages belong to the age of Solon, who was indeed himself one of 
them. They were all actually employed as magistrates and statesmen ; but they 
were also the philosophers of the age. They were not merely speculative like 
the disciples of the different sects afterwards, nor did they like the preceding 
poets indulge in fanciful dreams; they were rather men of shrewd practical ob- 
servation. Hence the character of their philosophical fragments, which are 
wholly proverbial maxims, adapted for the conduct of life in manners and mor- 
als. Their precepts were not always given in formal statements, but sometimes 
clothed in symbolic expressions, which were understood only by those, to whom 
they were explained. Fabulous tales were also sometimes employed for the 
same purpose ; such were those of iEsop, in which moral and political maxims 
are drawn out into allegory. 

On the political philosophy of the Greeks, Enfield Hist. Phil. B ii. teh. 2— Warburton, Div. Lega- 
tion of Moses, B. ii. sect. 1—3. Chevalier Ramsay, Travels of Cyrus, B. iv. and v.— C. G. Heyne, De 
ZaleucietCharondaelegibusatqueinstitutis, in his Opusc. Academ. T. ii— Is. de Larrey, Histoire 
des sept sages, t with rem. by Beamnarchais) Lahaye, 1734. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 168. The next aspect, in which we find Grecian philosophy, presents it 
as exhibited in the different schools and sects. This aspect was not distinctly assum- 
ed until a little after the age of Solon, during our third period of Greek Litera- 
ture (§9j. The first origin of different schools is commonly ascribed to the clash- 
ing interpetations, which were put upon Homer by the Rhapsodists (§21), who af- 
ter rehearsing passages from the great poet and master, added their own explan- 
ations and comments. These interpeters disagreed in expounding the Homeric 
philosophy, and soon had followers or advocates among those not belonging to 
their particular profession. 

At length two very eminent men arose and became each the head of a school 
in philosophy, about the same period: viz. Tholes and Pythagoras, 



PHILOSOPHERS. 235 

who died, the former about 540, the latter about 500 B. C. — Thales founded 
what is called the Ionic school, and Pythagoras the Italic school. From 
these two original schools all the sects may be derived. We will first slightly 
notice these two, and then briefly speak of the sects that subsequently grew out 
of each. 

§ 169. The Ionic was the earliest of the two schools. Thales, its founder, was 
a native of Miletus, possessed of wealth, and great talents. He traveled in 
Crete and Egypt. Ranked among the seven sages, he devoted much thought to 
political philosophy. But he also took up all the inquiries about the physical and 
material world, which were agitated by the Rhapsodists. The precept yvia&i 
otavrov is attributed to him. 

Philosophy as studied in this school included in reality every branch of sci- 
ence, not only morals and politics, but rhetoric, mathematics, astronomy and 
all that is now comprehended under natural philosophy and natural history. — It 
was a grand point of inquiry among the disciples to ascertain what was the first 
principle of all things in the universe. Some found it in one or other of the ma- 
terial elements ; others recognized a divine mind, as prior to all other causes. 
The principal philosophers were Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, and 
Archelaus of Miletus. 

Erifteld, B. ii. ch. 9.—Cudvjorth's Intellectual sytem, Ch. I. §22, and ch. iv. §20.— H. Ritter, Histoire 
de la Philosophie Ionienne, Berl. 1821. 8.— Abbe de Canaye, sur le philosophe Thales, in Mem. de l'Acad. 
des Inso. T. x,— Cowsm's Tennemann, Sect 85—37. 

§170. The iMieschool was still more celebrated. Its founder, Pythagoras, 
was a native Samos. After traveling, especially in Egypt, he taught morals and 
politics at Samos. For some cause he afterwards went to Italy, and established his 
school at ( .'rotona in Magna Gracia. The pupils, whose numberssoon amount- 
ed to 600, dwelt in one public building, and held their property in common. Their 
business for each day was very regularly planned. They were divided into two 
classes, probationers and initiated ; the latter only were admitted to all the privi- 
leges of the order, and made acquainted with its highest knowledge. This es- 
tablishment was at length broken up by popular violence. 

Under philosophy the Italic school, like the Ionic, included every object of 
human knowledge. But Pythagoras considered music and astronomy of spe- 
cial value. He is supposed to have had some very correct views of astronomy, 
agreeing with the true Copernican system. The beautiful fancy of the music 
of the spheres is attributed to him. The planets striking on the ether, through 
which they pass, must produce a sound ; this must vary according to their differ- 
ent magnitudes, velocities and relative distances; these differences were all ad- 
justed with perfect regularity and exact proportions, so that the movements of 
the bodies produced the richest tones of harmony ; not heard, however, by mor- 
tal ears. 

One of his distinguishing peculiarities was the doctrine of emanations ; God 
is the soul of the universe, pervading all things, incorporeal ; from him emanated 
four different degrees of intelligencies, inferior gods, daemons, heroes, and men. 
Another was the doctrine of ^rettyji^waig, or transmigration of the soul. Gene- 
ral abstinence and self-government were strongly urged. — Some of his apoph- 
thegms and symbolic precepts are preserved. (Cf. § 58. 1). 

Some of the principal disciples were Empedocles (§ 64), Ocellus, Archytas, 
and Philolaus. The latter is said to have sold to Plato the records and books of 
the Pythagorean school. 

EnJield,B. ii. ch. 12. Ramsay, Trav. of Cyras, B. vi.— Heeren,by Bancroft, ch. xiv, p. 297 — J. Schrf- 
fer, de natura et constitutione philosophise Italicae. Vitemb. 1701. 8 —Dacier, La vie de Pythagoie ses 
symbols &c. Par. 1706. 2 vols. 12— Th. Kiessling, Jamblichi de Vita Pyth. liber. Lips. 1815. S.—Cous 
in's Tennemann, §§ 88-95. 

§ 171. The first school, that drew its descent from the Ionic, was the Socratic. 
This is so named from its founder Socrates, who was a pupil of the last public 
teacher of the Ionic school. Socrates is entitled to the praise of being the best 
man of pagan antiquity; the charges brought by some against his purity being 
without evidence. 

He was first trained to the manual employment of his father, a common statu- 
ary; but was afterwards patronized by a wealthy Athenian, named Crito, and 
enjoyed the instiuclion of eminent teachers. He was several times engaged in 



236 HISTORY OK GREEK LITERATURE. 

war as a soldier; m one engagement he saved Alcibiades when wounded ; in an- 
other Xenophon. Alter he bewail to teach, most of his lime was spent in public, 
ami he was always ready and Tree lo discourse. In the latter part of his lite lie 
u as called to civ il olliees. His domestic vexations from his wife are proverbial, 
but very possibly exaggerated. 

The trial, condemnation ahddeathof Socrates are themes of intense interest 
both to the scholar and the philanthropist, and have fixed an indelible blot on the 
character of the Athenians. At trial he had no advocate, but made his own 
plea. Lysias had prepared an oration for his use, but he declined the favor; 
Plato would have spoken, but the court forbade it. 

The Socratic mode of instruction has been mentioned before (P. I. § 73). One 
of the grand peculiarities of Socrates was, that he confined the attention of his 
pupils chiefly to moral science. Reconsidered the other subjects included in 
the studies of the old Ionic school as comparatively useless. He seems to have 
believed, but with some doubtings, the immortality of the soul. He left nothing 
in writing ; but we have an authentic source of knowledge respecting his views 
in his Memoirs, ' \Anoftvriftovtvnara, by Xenophon. The writings of Plato cannot 
be so much depended on for this object, because he was himself the founder of a 
new sect. Those disciples of Socrates, who adhered to their mastersimply with- 
out advancing notions of their own, are sometimes denominated pure Socratic. 
jEschines, Cebes, and Xenophon are the principal. 

Enfield, B. ii. ch. 4.— Rollin, B. ix. ch. 4.— Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. xxiv.— Mitford, ch. xxii. § 3.— 
J. G. Cooper, Life of Socrates &c. Lond. 1771. S.—G. Wingers, Socrate comme horame, citoyen ct phi- 
losophe. Rost. 1807.— is. Nares, Essay on the Demon of Socrates, Lond. 1712. 8.— Cudworth, Int. Syst. 
ch. iv. §83.— Cousin's Tennemann, §§ 113-118. 

§ 172. The Socratic school was soon divided into numerous branches. No 
less than five sects appeared, headed by philosophers who had listened to Socra- 
tes, and two of these ere long gave birth each to a new sect, thus raising the 
number to seven. These maybe divided into two classes, and perhaps well de- 
signated as Minor Socratic, and Major Socratic sects, the original and proper 
school of Socrates being called Pure Socratic. 

The Minor Socratic were three, the Cyrenaic, Megaric, and Eliac. 

The Cyrenaic had its name from Cyrene, in Libya, the native place of its foun- 
der Aristippus. The peculiarities of this sect favored indulgence in pleasure. 
Its author was fond of luxury and ornament. The sect was of short duration. 
They were sometimes styled 'Hdovixol. 

The Megaric took its name likewise from the native city of its founder Euclid, 
who was born at Megara. It was also called Eristic from its disputatious char- 
acter, and Dialectic, from the form of discourse much practiced by its disciples. 
This sect was famous for its subtleties in the art of reasoning. Some of their 
futile sophisms are recorded; e. g. the Horned; what you have never lost, you 
have ; horns you have never lost, therefore you have horns. These philosophers 
also agitated the controversy about universals and particulars ; the same sub- 
stantially as that, which was so acrimonious in the middle ages, between the 
nominalists and the realists. 

The Eliac was so called from Elis, the place where its founder, Phsedo, was 
born and delivered his lectures. It is sometimes called Eretriac, from the cir- 
cumstance that Menedemus, a disciple of Phsedo, transferred the school to Ere- 
tria, the place of his own nativity. It opposed the fooleries of the Megaric phi- 
losophy, and the licentiousness of the Cyrenaic, but never acquired much im- 
portance. 

On the Cyrenaic sect; Enfield. B. ii, ch. s.—Fr. Mentz, Aristippus philosophus Socraticus, Hal. 
1719. 4.— Cousin's Tennemann § 121.— On the Megaric; Enfield,, B. ii. ch. 6.— X G. Hager, Dissert, de 
modo disputandi Euclidis.Lpz. 1736. 4.— Cousin's Tennemann, § 125.— On the EMac; Enfield, B. ii. ch. 7. 

§ 173. The Major Socratic sects were four, viz. the Cynic and Stoic, Aca- 
demic and Peripatetic ; each of which was founded at Athens, and will deserve 
a short notice. 

The Cynic originated with Antislhenes, a pupil of Socrates. He maintained 
that all the philosophers were departing from the principles of that master. He 
assumed the character of a reformer ; severe in manners ; carefully negligent of 
dress, so much so as to provoke the ridicule of Socrates. 

The Cynics were rather a class of reformers in manners, than a sect of phi- 



PHILOSOPHERS. 237 

iosophers. Their name is said by some to have been occasioned by their severi- 
ty and sourness, which were such as to bring upon them the appellation of Dogs. 
They had two grand peculiarities; one was, that they discarded all speculation 
and science whatever ; the other, that they insisted on the most rigid self denial. 

One of the most famous of this sect was Diogenes. He carried the notions of 
Antisthenes to extravagance. Made up of eccentricities, he was always a cen- 
sor, and his opposition to refinement often degenerated into rudeness. He sati- 
rized the instructions of other philosophers; having heard Plato define a man to 
be a two legged animal without wings, he stripped a cock of feathers, and taking 
it into the Academy, exclaimed, ' See Plato's man.' 

There are no writings of this sect except some fragments of Antisthenes. 

On the Cynics; Enfield, B ii. ch. 10'.— Barthelemy, Trav. of Anach. ch. vii.— Schasll, Hist. Litt. Gr. 
ii, 360.— The remains of Antisthenes are two discourses, given in ReisJce (cited § 99), 8th vol. and some 
sentences, given in J. Orelli, Opuscula &c. cited § 103. 1. The letters ascribed to him are in /. Orelli, 
Collectio&c. cited § 152 1. 

§ 174. The Stoic sect maybe said to have sprung from the Cynic. Its foun- 
der was Zeno, anative of the island of Cyprus. Brought to Athens by the mer- 
cantile pursuits of his father, he was accidentally introduced to the school of the 
Cynics, and from them he borrowed many of the notions of the sect he estab- 
lished. Zeno, however, visited the other schools which then existed, and bor- 
rowed from all. The name of Stoic was drawn from the Portico (P. I. § 7-1), 
where he gave his lectures. 

The Stoics differed from the Cynics, in as much as the former devoted them- 
selves much to speculative studies, which the latter wholly discarded ; but they 
resembled the Cynics in some degree in their general austerity of manners and 
character. Indifference to pleasure or pain, adversity or prosperity, they incul- 
cated as the state of mind essential to happiness. The doctrine of fate was one 
of their grand peculiarities; they considered all things as controlled by an eter- 
nal necessity, to which even the Deity submitted ; and this was supposed to be 
the origin of evil. — Their system of morals was in general strict and outwardly 
correct, but one which was based upon and which greatly fostered a cold self- 
relying pride. It approved of suicide, which was perpetrated by Zeno himself. 
Yet it stimulated to heroic deeds. — In logic they imitated the quibbles and soph- 
isms of the Megaric sect. The story of the sophist Protagoras and his pupil 
well illustrates the absurd trifling of their dialectics. Their system, however, 
presents a division of things similar to that of Locke, into four kinds, substances, 
qualities, modes and relations. 

The later Stoics are supposed to have borrowed some views from Christianity. 
They speak of the world as destined to be destroyed in a vast conflagration, and 
succeeded by another new and pure. One of them, addressing a mother on the 
loss of her son, says, ' the sacred assembly of the Scipios and Catos shall wel- 
come the youth to the region of happy souls Your father himself Ifor there, all 
are known to all) shall embrace his grandson, and shall direct his eyes, now fur- 
nished with new light, along the courses of the stars, with delight explaining to 
him the mysteries of nature, not from conjecture, but from certain knowledge.' 

Among the most distinguished of the early disciples of this school were Cle- 
anthes, immediate successor to Zeno(§ 72), and Chrysippus, who also became the 
public teacher in the school at Athens. The latter was celebrated as a dispu- 
tant ; ' give me doctrines,' said he, ' I will find arguments tesupport them.' His 
industry, it is said, produced many hundred treatises; of which nothing remains 
except a few scattered citations. 

Nor have we any written productions from Zeno or any of the early stoics. 
The principal authors, whose works remain, are Epictetus and Antoninus, who 
lived after the christian era. 

On the Stoics, Enfield, B. ii. ch II.— Cudworlh, Int. Syst. ch. iv. § 25.— Adam Smith, Theory of Mo- 
rat Sentiments, P. vii. Sect. 2. ch. 1. (p. 115. ed. Bost 1817).— Th. Brown, On the Philos. of Hum. Mind. 
Lect. xcix. (p. 547. 3d vol. ed. And. 1822) —Epictetus, and Antoninus, cited in subsequent sections. 

§ 175. The Academic sect originated with Plato, a native of Athens, descen- 
ded on his father's side from Codrus, and on his mother's from Solon. In youth 
devoted to poetry and painting, he wrote a poem, but after comparing it with 
Homer, committed it to the flames. Captivated by the lectures of Socrates, he 
left poetry for philosophy. After much travel, through the East and also in 



M3S HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

Magna Gtascia, he opened his school in a public grove, from which the sect de- 
rived the name of the Academy (P. I. § 74). Over his door was the inscription 
Oiittli : ,'t)- f «7iMi,ii,u)v ■mohbi; so much did he value mathematical scieuceas a 
inundation for higher studies. 

One of the peculiarities of the Platonic philosophy respected the relations of 
matter to mind ; the system recognized a supreme intelligence, but maintained 
the eternity of matter"; matter receives all its shapes from the will of the intel- 
ligence, yet contains a blind refractory force which is the cause of all evil. The 
human soul consists of parts derived from both these, the intelligence and the 
matter; and all its impurity resulted from the inherent nature of the latter 
constituent. — A very striking peculiarity was the doetrine respecting ideas. It 
was briefly this; that there exist eternal patterns, or types, or exemplars of all 
things; these exemplars are the only proper objects of science; to understand 
them is to know truth :. on the other hand, all sensible forms, the appearances 
made to the several senses, are only shadows ; the forms and shadows are ad- 
dressed to the senses, the exemplars or types to the intellect. These exemplars 
were called ideas. 

The doctrines respecting matter and ideas essentially controlled the system of 
study in this sect, and their practical morality. To gain true science, one must 
turn away from the things around him and apply his mind in the most perfect 
abstraction to contemplate and find out the eternal original patterns of things. 
And to gain moral purity, he must mortify and deny the parts of the soul derived 
from matter, and avoid all familiarity with the shadows. Hence probably the 
readiness to embrace the Platonic system manifested among the christians of 
the middle ages, when the mystic notion of cleansing the soul by solitude and pe- 
nance became so common. 

The Academic sect was very popular, and eminent philosophers successively 
taught its doctrines in the grove. Some adhered closely to the views of Plato, 
and were called disciples of the Old Academy, while others departed from them 
and formed successively the Middle and the New Academy. The Old was be- 
gun by Plato B. C. about 400 ; the Middle, by Arcesilaus, B. C. about 300; the 
New, by Carneades, B. C. about 180. — The distinguishing point of difference 
between the three branches was their opinion respecting the certainty of human 
knowledge. The Old Academy maintained that certain knowledge can be ob- 
tained, not of the sensible forms, but only of the eternal exemplars; the Middle, 
that there is a certainty in things, yet it is beyond the attainment of the human 
mind, so that positive assertion is improper ; the New, that man has the means 
of knowledge, not infallible, but sufficiently certain for all his wants. 
On the Academic sect, Enfield,, B. ii. ch. 1— Middleton'shife of Cicero, sect, xii — Gillies, Hist. 

Greece, ch. xxxii J. F. Herbart, De Platonici Systematis fundamento. Gcstt. 1805. a.— Cousin's Ten- 

nemann §§ 128-138, and references there given. 

§ 176. The Peripatetic sect grew out of the Academy, Aristotle its founder 
having been long a pupil to Plato. Having closed his labors as the teacher of 
Alexander, he returned to Athens, and his master, Plato, being dead, he com- 
menced his lectures in the Lyceum (P. I. § 74). He taught for 12 years. Ac- 
cused of impiety by enemies and rivals, he retired to Chalcis, where he remain- 
ed until his death. 

The Peripatetics, according to the established practice of the philosophers, 
had their public and their secret doctrine, or the exoteric and esoteric (P. I. § 72). 
In his morning walk, Aristotle imparted the latter to his particular disciples; in 
his evening walk, he proclaimed the former, his public doctrine, to a mixed 
crowd of hearers. Very contradictory accounts have been given of the essen- 
tial principles of Aristotle and his sect. But nothing perhaps was more distinc- 
tive, than the system of syllogistic reasoning, which was introduced by the foun- 
der, and became so celebrated in subsequent ages, and for so long a period held 
the highest place in the plans of education. 

Of the early disciples of this sect, Theophrastus and Strato were among the 
most eminent. They succeeded Aristotle as teachers in the Lyceum. Dicsear- 
chus, the geographer, and Demetrius Phalereus, the rhetorician (§ 116), were 
also distinguished Peripatetics. 

On the Peripatetics, Enfield, B. ii. ch. 9.— Gillies, ch. x\.—Cudworth, ch. iv. 24.— Smith, Theory 
Mor. Sent. P. vii. Sect. 2. ch. \.—Mitford, ch. xli. § l.— Ed. Encycl. Aristotle.— Cousin's Tennemann. 
% 139-150. -- On the Logic of Aristotle, Reid's Analysis of A.'s Logic— Stewart, Elements of Phil 
Hum. Mind. Vol. ii, ch. 3.—/. CUUies, Analysis &o, in his Translation of A.'s Ethics and Politics.' 
Lond. 1797. 2 vols, t, 



PHILOSOPHERS. 239 

§ 177. We will next notice the sects which were derived from the Italic 
school (§ 168). They were four, the Eleatic, the Hcraclltean, the Epicurean, and 
Sceptic. 

The Eleatic was founded by Xenophanes of Colophon, who early left his na- 
tive country for Sicily, and thence passed over into Magna Grascia. Here he 
became a celebrated disciple in the Pythagorean school, but advanced new and 
different views in his own lectures. The sect derived its name from the place 
where some of his most distinguished followers belonged, Elea in Magna Graecia. 

The doctrines of the Eleatic sect were atheistical. Matter is made up of in- 
finitely small atoms, which have no property but a tendency to move. By the 
eternally varying motions of these atoms, every existence and every effect in 
the universe is caused. Yet there is no real change except in our senses. The 
soul of man is material. 

The most distinguished supporters of this sect were Parmenides, Zeno of 
Elea, Leucippus, who is said to have been the chief author of the atomic theory, 
and Demoeritus of Abdera, commonly called the laughing philosopher. Another 
eminent follower of this sect was Protagoras of Abdera, who acquired great 
power and wealth at Athens in the profession of sophist, but was finally banish- 
ed, his writings having been publicly burned, on account of his impiety. 

The Heraclitean sect was instituted at Ephesus by Heraclitus, from whom it 
took its name. It is but little noticed as a separate sect. The doctrines were 
atheistic, and many of them more absurd than those of the Eleatic philosophers. 
One of the notions was, that all nature is full of souls or daemons. Fire is the 
principle from which all things are produced, and those souls are the best, which 
have the least moisture, and approach nearest to the primary fire. 

The most celebrated name among the Heraclitists was Hippocrates, who in 
some points agreed with this sect, but was not properly speaking a disciple. 

On the Eleatic sect, Enfield, B. ii. ch. 13.— Cudworth, ch. i. §8. eh. iv. § 20.— J. G. Buhle, com- 
ment, deortu et progressu pantheism! indo a Xenophane prirao ejus auctore usque adSpinozam. Gcett. 
1790. 4.— Cousin's Tennemann, §§ 37-102, 104, 105.— Fragments of their writings, in H. Stephanas, 
Hoitjgtg (pMooipog, cited § 47. Cf. 64. 2,—Schoell, ii. 316. 

On the Heraclitean, Enfield, B. ii. ch. 14.— Cudworth, ch. i. § 16. iii. 8. iv. 13.— Ch. Gottl. Heyne, 
Progr. de animabus siccis ex Heraclites placito optime ad sapient, ac virt. instructis. Gcett. 1781. fol. 
and in his Opusc. Acad. vol. 3d.— Cousin's Tennemann, § 103.— Fragments of writings, Stephanus as 
just cited. -Letters ascribed to Heraclitus, in the collections cited § 152. l. 

§ 178. The Epicurean sect had its name and origin from Epicurus, born near 
Athens. He first gave lectures at Mitylene, but afterwards opened hisschool at 
Athens in a garden, in which he lived, and often supported large numbers of 
young men, who flocked to hear him; 

The doctrines of this sect were derived from the atomic theory of the Eleatics, 
and were on the whole atheistic, although not so fully and formally. All happi- 
ness was founded in pleasure. This principle opened the way for the great li- 
centiousness of the latter disciples of this school. Epicurus explained and lim- 
ited his language so as to recommend the practice of virtue, 'It might have 
been his pleasure to be chaste and temperate. We are told it was so ; but others 
find their pleasure in intemperance and luxury; and such was the taste of his 
principal followers.' 

The sect became popular, and existed to a very late period. Of the writings 
of the sect only trifling fragments remain. Yet Epicurus alone is said to have 
written several hundred treatises. Hermachns, or properly Hermarchus, was 
successor to Epicurus, and inherited his books and garden. 

On the Epicureans, Enfield, B. ii. ch. 15.— Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. xl.~ Smith, Theor. Mor. Sen'. 
P. vii. Sect. 2 ch. 2.— Brown, Intell. Phil. Lect. 99.— Cousin's Tennemann, §§ 151-157.— Fragments of 
Epicurus, J.G. Schneider, Epicuri physica et meteorologia duabus epistolis ejusdam comprehensa. 
Lips. 1813. 8.— J. C. Orelli, Epicuri fragmenta librorum ii et xi de natura &c. Lpz. 1818. 8.— Cf. Schatll, 
iii. 321. 

§ 179. The Sceptic sect was so named from its doctrine; it was also called 
Pyrrhonic from its founder Pyrrho. He was educated in the Eleatic sect, and 
particularly admired the notions of Democritns, from whom he drew the ele- 
ments of his system. He was also instructed in the dialectic sophistries of the 
Megaric sect, and seems to have been disgusted with their frivolous disputes. 

The doctrines of this sect were very similar to those of the middle Academy 



840 HISTORY OK GWBEK LITERATURE. 

(§ 175), and many real sceptics concealed themselves under the. Dame of the 
Academy, as their owe seel was rather unpopular. Their essentia) peculiarit] 
« as, thai nothing is certain, and no assertion can be made. Happiness they placed 
in tranquillity or mind, ana i his could be obtained only by absolute indifference 
to all dogmas. They ridiculed the disputes and contradictions of the other 
seeis, especially the boasted confidence of the Stoic, and the proud sophistries of 
theMegaric. Bui Seneca well remarked in comparing the Megaric and the 
Sceptic sects, ' I prefer a man who teaches me trifles, to him who teaches me 
nothing. II' the Dialectic philosopher leaves me in the dark, the Sceptic puts 
out my eyes.' 

One of the eminent disciples of this sect was Timon already mentioned as a 
poet (§ 15). The sect had its professors and teachers down to the time of Sexlus 
Empiricus, whose writings are a principal source of information respecting the. 
views of the Sceptics. 

On the Sceptics, Enfield, IS. li. ch. 16.— Gillies, oh. x\.—R. Bo-Jersen, rte philosopliia Pyrrhonia. 
Kit. lsiu. i.— Cousin's Tennemann, § 124.— Langhelmich cited § is.—hchcell, iii. iv*,, 

§ 180. We have given a view of thesectsas they grew one out of another. 
It may be remarked here, that four of them arose after the commencement of 
the 4th period in our division of the history of Greek literature (§9), viz. the 
Peripatetic and Stoic, descendants of the Ionic school, and the Epicurean and 
Sceptic, offspring of the Italic ; all the others existed before the time of Alex- 
ander. It was in the 4th period also, that the middle and the new Academy 
appeared. 

In the 5th period, i. e. after the Roman supremacy, Grecian philosophy lost 
much of the dignity and importance it had enjoyed. Its professors were viewed ■• 
more in the light of mercenary teachers. The spirit of honest inquiry gave 
place to the prevalence of scepticism. Visionaries and impostors assumed the 
garb of philosophers, and new sects were formed under the old names, the out- 
ward forms and technical expressions being retained, with almost nothing else. 
Such especially were the New-Pythagoreans. As eminent among these may be 
mentioned particularly, Sextius, in the time of Augustus, Sotion af Alexandria, 
under Tiberius, and Apollonius Tyanensis, the famous impostor. 

On the New-Pythagoreans, Enfield, B, iii. ch. 2. sect. 2.— Cousin's Tennemann, § lb4. — Schcell, Liv. 
v. ch. 60. 

§ 181. The New-Platonists also appeared under the Roman emperors. These 
professed to disentangle the pure doctrines of Plato from the additions and cor- 
ruptions of the later Academicians ; but they themselves mingled much that was 
foreign to his system, and soon prepared the way for the Synchrelistic, or Eclectic 
school. 

The principle of the Eclectics was to select whatever was true in the various 
conflicting doctrines of all the sects and thus form a harmonious union. .The 
first projector of this plan is said to have been Potemo, a Platonist of Alexandria. 
But Ammonius, of the same city, surnamed Saccas, is considered as the actual 
founder of the Eclectic school. He had been educated among Christians, and en- 
deavored to incorporate in his system some of the principles of Christianity. 
And this sect numbered among its disciples both Christians and pagans. The 
more eminent of the pagans, before the time of Constantine, were Plotinus, Por- 
phyry, and Jamblichus. 

On the New-Platonists and Eclectics, Enfield, B. iii. ch. 2. sect. 3, 4.— Cousin's Tennemann, § 185, 
200-219:— Schozll, Liv. v. ch. 61, 62. 

§ 182. There were also during the same period, under the Roman emperors, 
followers and advocates of the principal ancient sects, as (besides the Academic), 
the Peripatetic, the Cynic, the Stoic, the Sceptic, and especially the Epicurean. 
It is not important in this glance to notice them separately; indeed the Eclectic 
principles held a great sway with the age, and under the prevalence of these, on 
the one hand, and of a christian philosophy on the other, the adherents to the old 
names had but a limited influence. After the time of Constantine, who died 
A. D. 337, the New-Plalonists, who were generally great enemies of Christianity, 
established their school at Athens. The most distinguished philosopher was 
Proclus. This school was at length suppressed by Justinian (P. I. § 82). 



PHILOSOPHERS. 241 

Of the other systems the Peripatetic was the most in vogue among the Greeks 
especially at Constantinople. Indeed it was not long after Constantine when all, 
who did not embrace Platonism, were included under the general name of Pe- 
ripatetics. Many writers employed themselves in attempting to explain and en- 
force the system. 

In the 8th and 9th centuries the Peripatetic philosophy was introduced among 
the Arabians, and the works of Aristotle were translated into the Arabic lan- 
guage. By them it was propagated in the west of Europe in the 11th and 12th 
centuries. Here it gave rise to that scholastic philosophy, which exhibited such 
a singular union of acuteness and folly, and which reigned in Europe until the 
revival of letters. 

On the several sects above named, underthe Emperors before Constantine, Enfield, E. iii. ch. 2. sect. 
5-9.— Schcell, Liv. v. ch. 63-67. 

On the christian philosophy, of the same period, Schcell, Liv. v. ch. 38.— Enfield, B.vi. ch. 2. Cf. § 288. 

On the New-Platonists after Constantine, Enfield, B. iii. ch. 2. sect, 4 — Schcell, L vi. ch, 93— On 
the Peripatetics, Schcell, L. vi. ch. 94. Cf. Hallam, Vie w of Europe in Middle Ages, Ch, ix. P. 2. (p. 
352. 2d vol. ed. Phil. 1824, 

§ 183/ We shall now mention some of the principal sources 
of information respecting the Greek philosophy, and also some of the 
more important works on the History of philosophy, and then proceed 
to notice the more distinguished Greek philosophers, of whom we 
have written remains. 

• Original sources. Diogenes Laertius in his Lives of the Philosophers. He 
flourished, probably, m the beginning of the 3d century; little is known of his 
lile. His work is in 10 books, and contains the biography of the principal phi- 
losophers of the various sects, together with their most remarkable apophthegms 
Their contents are briefly stated by Schcell, vol. 5. p. 226. The whole of the 'last 
book is devoted to Epicurus.— There have been many editions. Princcps bv 
i^feMthesonsof), Bas. 1553. 4,— H. Stephanvs, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1570-94. 2 vols 

7~ £. e best are - M Mcibomlus, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1692. 2 vols. 4. — Lon- 
golms Gr. & Lat. (text of Meib.). Hof. 1739. 2 vols. 8. with engravings of heads 
—Hilbncr Lys. 1828. 2 vols. 8.— There are several translations. It was first 
published in the Latin of Ambrosius (Travcrsari) before 1475 which had a 2d 
ed. Ven 1475. toL— Walter Burley, in the beginning of the 14th cent, translated 
or closely followed Diogenes, in his work De vita et moribus philosopkorum &c. 
printed at Cologne,1472.4; and is supposed by some to have had a better text of the 
original than is now possessed (Cf. Half's Anal. Litt. vol. li. p. 227) —German 
ilJr m £ m B i° r7 iZ ck >J ien - andPr - 18 07. 2 vols. 8.— French, {oMomymousS Amst'. 

1/61. 3 vols. 12.— English, Lond. 1688. 2 vols. 8. Cicero, in his philosophical 

writings, especially De Finibus, & Quaeslioncs Academico.e, may also be consid- 
ered as a valuable source. 

Modern works on the History of philosophy. Th. Stanley, History of Philo- 
sophy Lond, 1655. fol.-3d ed. 1701. 4,-^. Brucker, Historia Critica Philoso- 
pniEE &c.L,pz. 1742-6/. 6 vols. 4.— By same, Institutiones hist. Philos. Lpz 1756 

,4 ( ?J- 5 '?) i 790 - 8 — W - infield, History of Philosophy &c. Lond. 1791. 2 
vols. 4. Dubl. 1/92. 2 vols. 8. (a translation and abridgement of Brucker) — W. 
G. Tennemann, Geschichteder Philosophie. Lpz. 1798-1819. 11 vols. 8 one of 
the best works in this department.— By Same, Grundnss der Gesch. d. Phil (3d 
ed. by Wcndt) Lpz. 1820. 8. Trans. into French by Cousin. Par 1819 8—J.G 
Buhlc Lehrbuch der Gesch. d. Philos. und ihrer Literalur. Gott. 1796-1804 8 
™° ls \ 8 -— °f» e? 'f "A Histone Comparee des svstemes de la Philosophie. 2d ed 
Par. 1822. 4 vols. 8.-~ W. T.Krug, Geschichte der Philosophie alter Zeit vor- 
nchmlichimterGnechen und Rcemern. Lpz.I815.8. —The following abridgements 
may be added. F. Ast, Grundriss einer Geschichte der Phil Landsh 1807 8 — 
/. G Gurhtt^ Abriss der Gesch. d. Phil. Lpz. 1786. S.-G. Socher, History of the 
systems of Philosophy from the time of the Greeks down to Kant Mun 1802 8 
(in German),— W. Anderson, Philosophy of Ancient Greece, Lond 1791 4 — 
Fenclon, | Abridged Lives of the Philosophers, Par. 1795. 8. Tr into En- bv 
Cormack.— For other references, see Cousin's Tennemann, S§ 37 38 ° 

31 



242 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

■J 1 184. slhop, a Phrygian, generally supposed to have lived B. 
C at Least 600, do< s aot strictly belong to the class of Greek philoso- 
phers ; yet he may properly he named here, on account of the princi- 
ple of moral and political philosophy embodied in his Fables. 

I''. He was Nun a slave, and served different masters; the last of whom, 
ladmon of Samos, a philosopher, gave him his freedom. The other circum- 
stances of Ins life are bul imperfectly known, although they are detailed with 
considerable fullness in the biography of him ascribed to Maximus Planudes, a 
monk' of Constantinople in the 4th century; upon which, however, little reliance 
can be placed. 

The same Planudes also collected aad enlarged the fables of iEsop, never, 
probably, committed to writing by himself. They had been put into Choliam- 
bic verse by Babrius (improperly called Babrias and Gabrias), who lived in the 
time of Augustus (§ 31). From this metre they were gradually reduced again 
to prose, and received their present form from Planudes. 

2, The editions of .Esop have been drawn from several different manuscript 
collections, containing different numbers of Fables, an account of which is given 
by Scholl, vol. 1. p. 252. ss. 

The best editions are, J. M. Heusinger, Gr, & Lat. Lpz. 1741, 1799. 8.— Er- 
nesli, Lpz. 1781. 8.— F. De Furia, Gr. & Lat. Flor. 1809. 2 vols. 8. from an an- 
cient Ms. at Florence in the library of the Cassini monks, and supposed to pre- 
sent the Fables as they were before the changes made by Planudes. Repr. Lpz: 
1810. with additions; Dibdin says ' this appears to be, upon the whole, the very 
best.'— There are later editions; Coray, Par. 1810. 8.— J. G. Schneider, Bresl. 
1812.8, after the Augsburg Ms. and containing 231 Fables of iEsop, with 50 of 
Babrius. — G. H. Schafer, Lpz. 1821. 8. Therp have been numerous transla- 
tions. The most ancient was probably that of Hildebert, of Tours, 12th cent, in 
Latin verse; published Rome, 1473. 4.— German, J. C. Bremen, Gtuedl. 1788. 8.— 
I. F. W. Molz, Lpz. 1794. 8.— French, A. le Grand, Par. 1801. 8.— English, S. 
Croxall, Lond. 1722. 8.-1788. 12— Cf. Sulzer, Allg. Theorie, JEsop— JNachtr. zu 
Sulzer, or Char, vornehmst. Dicht. vol, v. p. 269.— Th. Tyrwhitt, Diss, de Babrio. 
Lond. 177G. 8. 

3. There is another collection of Fables in Greek, being a version of those 
Oriental tales commonly ascribed to an ancient brahmin of India, named Pilpay. 
This version was made by Simeon Sethus, of Constantinople, in the 11th cen- 
tury, under the title Sriipavirrig xal '.T^vjjAut?;? (le Vainqueui et V Invesligateur). 
The Greek text has been published once, Starke, Berl. 1697. 8.— There are trans- 
lations of Fables in all the modern languages.— Schisll, vii. 187.— Sulzer, Allg. 
Theorie, Fabel. 

§ 185. Ocellus Lucanus, a pupil of Pythagoras, lived B. C. about 
490. To him is ascribed an extant treatise Ileql Tfjg tov navjog cpvcreug, 
On the nature of things. If genuine, it must have been written in 
the Doric dialect, and been changed into the common by some gram- 
marian of subsequent times. Notwithstanding all its errors, it evinces 
much acumen, and contains some very valuable precepts upon educa- 
tion. Yet it is quite probably the work of a later author. 

1. The question of the genuineness of this work has been much agitated. 
The conflicting opinions are examined by Rudolphi, in a Dissertation in his edi- 
tion of the work. He ascribed it to Ocellus. —Schmll, vol. ii. p. 311. 

2. Editions. Best ; Abbe Batteux, Gr. & Fr. Par. 1768. 3 vols. 12.— A F. W. 

Rudolphi, Lpz. 1801. 8. Gr. only. Early, Princeps, Par. 1539. 8. h. Nogarola, 

Ven. 1559. 4. with vers, and notes. Repr. by Commelin, Heid. 1596.8.— Th. Gale, 

in his Opuscula Mythologica. Camb. 1671. 8. Later, Marquis d'Argens (Dar- 

gensius), Berl. 1762. with Fr. vers, and Commentary. 



XENOrilON. .ESCHINES. 243 

§ 186. Xenophon, an Athenian, was born B. C. 450, and died 
B. C. 356. Besides his great merit as a military commander, and as 
a historian, he is worthy of special notice as a philosopher, and one of 
the most excellent among- the pupils of Socrates. The discrimina- 
tion, solidity, precision, and mildness of manner so remarkable in his 
master, he acquired himself, and transfused into his writings. From 
the writings of Xenophon especially, we may learn the true spirit of 
the Socratic philosophy (§ 171). 

1. He was born at the borough Ercheia. While a youth his personal comeli- 
ness attracted the attention of Socrates, who one day accidentally met him in the 
street, and invited him to his lectures. He accompanied Socrates in the Pelopon- 
nesian war, and was saved by his master in the battle of Delium (P. I. § 90. 6). 
At the age of 43, he engaged in the service of Cyrus the younger, and after the 
disastrous battle of Cunaxa, conducted the famous retreat of the Ten Thousand. 
Four or five years after his return to Greece, he entered into the service of Agesi- 
laus, king of Sparta, as a warrior. By this incurring the displeasure of the 
Athenians, he was accused for his former connection with Cyrus, and banished. 
He was received into protection by the Spartans, and enjoyed a pleasant retreat 
at Scillus, where he composed most of his works, and died at the age of 90. — 
MUford's Greece, ch. xxiii, xxviii. sect. 9 (p. 273. vol. v. ed. Bost. 1823;. 

2. The works strictly belonging to the department of philosophy are 5, viz. 
'AvtoinniuovtifiaTa Swy.Qurovg, Memoirsof Socrates ; 2wzQurovg ' Anoloyta nQog 
toi)? Staaatug, Apology of Socrates, not so much a defence from the charges laid 
against him, as a justification of the motives which induced him to choose death; 
^Oixovo^iixog Xoyog, Discourse on Economy, a treatise on morals applied to rural 
life; the two last have been considered by some to have formed originally parts 
of the Memoirs; 2vfinoaiov (piXoaoipmv, The banquet of philosophers, of peculiar 
excellence as to style, and designed to illustrate the purity of Socrates ; ' Hqvw 
fj TviJawog, Hiero or The Prince, comparing public and private life, with remarks 

on the art of governing. There are 6 other pieces, which may be mentioned 

here, although less strictly of a philosophical character, J7f(u ' Innncijg, 'Jn7raQ- 
X ixt >g, KwyycTixbg, IIoqoi ij 7Ji(>l nqoaubiav, On the revenues of Attica, JaxeSai- 
fioviuv no?.iT£ia, and 5 Adrjva'iav nolniia; the two last, however, may not be the 
productions of Xenophon; although the former of them seems to be a grateful 
return for the asylum furnished to him on his banishment from Athens. His in- 
tercourse with the King of Sparta was the occasion of a eulogy styled, Joyog elg 
Ayi\o'iXaov. 

3. Editions, whole works; Best, J. G. Schneider, Lpz. 1815. 6 vols. 8. — B. 
Weiske, Lpz. 1798-1804. 6 vols. 8.— Gail, Gr. Lat. & Fr. Par. 1804-16. 11 vols, 
small 4. to which must be added a 12th vol. styled Recherches historiques &c. Par. 
1821. 4.— The Princeps was Junta, Flor. 1516. fol.— next, Aldus, Ven. 1525. fol. 
— then Brubachius (with pref. by Ph. Mela-ncthon) Hal. Suev. 1540. 3 vols. 8. the 
first which actually contained all. — Afterwards were, H. Stcphanus, Gr. & Lat. 
Par. 1581. M.—Leunclavius, Gr. &Lat. Par. 1625. fol— Wells, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 
1703. 5 vols. 8, — Thieme, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1763. 4 vols. 8. — memorabilia. Best, 
Schneider, (ed. by Benwell) Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1804. 2 vols. 8.—Schutz, Hal. 1822. 
8. — apology, Zeune, (Zeivnius) Lpz. 1782. 8, with the Banquet, Hicro, Economy, 
and Agesilaus. — banquet, Dindorf, Lpz. 1823. 8. — polity of the Athenians arid 
of the Lacedemonians, Zeune, Lpz. 1778. 8. with the Revenues, and the treatises 

on horses and the chase. Translations, German, Whole works by A. Ch. $■ K. 

Borheck, Lemg. 1778-1808. 6 Th. 8.— Memorabilia by 1. I. Hottinger, Zuer. 1819. 

8. — French, Whole works, by Gail cited above. A valuable help in illustrating 

this author is P. W. Sturz,. Lexicon Xenophonteum, Lpz. 1801-4. 4 vols. 8. 

§ 187. JEschines, the philosopher, is not to be confounded with 
the orator of that name (^>107). He was born at Athens, and became 
a pupil of Socrates. We have under his name three philosophical 



'J 14 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

dialogues, which are probably the work of another. They are char- 
acterised by their clearness of style, ease of manner, and instructive 
contents. The titles arc UsqI 'Aqsrrjg, 'Egv^iotg rj nsgl ttIovtov, and 
' A£io%os ■>] nefjl Oukxtov, on virtue, riches, and death. 

These dialogues are found in many of the editions of Plato. They were pub- 
lished separately firstbjj. Leclerc, Amst. 1711.8. — The best edition is J. F. 

Fischer, Lpz. 17!Hi. 8. The Eryxias and AxiocAus are given by Aug. BccckA, 

in the work entitled, Smonis Socrakci dialogi iv. &c. Heidelb. 1810.8. — Cf. Ch. 
JFV, M iners, Judicium dequibusdam Sucraticoium reliquiis, imprimis deiEschi- 
nis dialogis, in Comment. Soc. Go3tt. 1782. 

§ 188. Cebes, of Thebes, also a pupil of Socrates, B. C. 435, was 
the author of three dialogues. The third only is extant, entitled 
niva$, The Table, nor is it certain that this is genuine. It treats of the 
state of souls before their union with bodies, of the character and 
destiny of men during life, and of their exit from the world. The 
plan is ingenious, and it is executed in an instructive and useful man- 
ner. 

The Picture or Table is commonly published along with Epictetus (§ 193). — 
The more important editions are, Gronovius, Amst. 1689. 12. — Johnson, Gr. & 
Lat. Lond. 1720. 8. — MessercAmid, Lpz. 1773. 8. — especially, Schweighttuser, Ar- 
gent. (.Strasb.) 1806. 12. first publ. in his Epictetus. — and G.F. W. Grosse, Meiss. 

1813. 8. Translations, German, M. H. Thieme, Berl. 1810. 8. with orig. 

text. — French, de Vlllebrune, Par. 2 vols. 12. with text and Epictetus. Cf. 

FuArmann, Klein. Handb. p. 243. — SchmU, ii. 346. 

§ 189. Plato lived from 430 to 347, B. C. He was the son of 
Aristonof Athens, a disciple of Socrates, and founder of the Academy. 
He threw happily into a written form the oral discourses of that great 
master. Plato laid the first foundation for a scientific treatment of 
philosophy. Antiquity bestowed on him the epithet divine, and all in 
modern times have acknowledged his merit and admired his writings. 
His works consist of numerous dialogues, on different subjects, meta- 
physical, political, moral and dialectic. They are exceedingly valua- 
ble for both style and matter, rich in thought, and adorned with beauti- 
ful and poetical images. Cf. §175. 

1. We have 35 dialogues of Plato, besides the letters ascribed to him (§156). 
Several of the dialogues have been pronounced spurious by some critics, while 
others have strongly defended their genuineness. On this subject, and on the 
different schemes of classifying the dialogues and also for an analysis of their 
contents, we must refer to Schasll (vol. ii. p. 375. ss). 

2. There are six ancient biographies of Plato; the earliest byApuleius in 
Latin ; the other five in Greek, including that of Diogenes Laertius, one by Olym- 
piodorus, another by Hesychius of Miletus, and two anonymous. — Many commen- 
taries on this philosopher have perished ; yet many still remain. There are also 
excellent scholia, collected in the most complete form by D. RuAnken, and pub- 
lished after his death. (Schol. in Plat. Amst. 1800. 8.) The Platonic Lexicon 

of Timaeus has been mentioned (§137. 3). Cf. ScAmll, ii. p. 416. 

3. It has been made a subject of inquiry, whether Plato did not derive some of 



TIMjEUS. ARISTOTLE. 245 

his notions from the Hebrews.— Cf. Enfield, Hist. Phil. B. ii. ch. 8.— Ramsay, 
Disc, on Theology of the Pagans. — Jakn's Bibl. Archaeology, § 313. — Prideaux, 
B. vi. P. l.—Kidd, On the Trinity, p. 526. ss. — Chateaubriand, Beauties of 
Christianity, B. i. ch. 2.—Eusebius, Prseparatio Evangelica, B. 14. 

4. Editions. Best, /. Bekker, Gr. & Lat. Bed. 1816-18. 10 vols. 8. Repr. 
(Priestley) Lond. 1827. with notes of various editors.— The Bipont ed. 1781-87. 
12 vols. 8.— Very good also are those of F. Ast, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1819-24. 7 vols. 

8.— and of G. Siallbaum, Lpz. 1821-25. 8 vols. 8. Early; PHnceps, Aldus, 

Ven. 1513. 2 vols. io\.—Grynceus, Bas. 1534. fol.— H. Stephanus, (ed. Serranus) 
Par. 1578. 3 vols. Gr. & Lat.— Many of the dialogues have often been printed 
separately; only a few of the editions can be named; Symposium <$• Alcibiades, 
by Ast, Landsh. 1809. 8.— Crito & Phcedo, by Fischer, 1783. 8. Several others 
also by Fischer at different times. — Phadrus with 3 other dial, by Heindorff, Berl. 
1802. 8. others also by Heindorff since. — Gorgias,by Routh, Oxf. YiM.--Ph.cedo 
by Wyttenbach, Lud. Bat. 1810, 8.— A new edition of Phcedo is promised by 
Prof, Stuart of Andover. 

Translations; German, best by Fr. Schleiermacher, Berl. 1804-17. Cf. Bibl. 
Repos. vol. v. p. 266.— French, by And. Dacier (10 dial.), Par. 1799. 2 vols. 12. 
— Jean le Grou (7 dial.), Amst. 1770. 2 vols. 8. — English, Sydenham fy Taylor, 
Lond. 1804. 5 vols. 4. 

5. Other works illustrative ; F. Ast, Platon's Leben und Schriften. Lpz. 1816. 
8. — I. Socher, Uber Platon's Schriften, Muench. 1820. 8. — On the Republic of P. 
cf. Southern Rev. No. 7. — Plato and Aristotle compared, North. Am. Rev. vol. 
18.— Cf. Fuhrmann, Kl. Handb. p. 246. 

§ 190. Timccus of Locri, a Pythagorean philosopher, especially- 
devoted to physical inquiries, was one of the instructors of Plato. 
It was from him that Plato derived the name of one of his dialogues. 
The treatise Ileql xjjvx&s xoafiu xal yvcriog, On the soul of the world, 
and on nature, which is ascribed to him, was probably from a later au- 
thor, and seems to have been drawn from the dialogue of Plato just 
alluded to, named Timseus. 

This treatise is given in Bekker' s Plato (vol. viii) and in other editions. — 
Separately, by Marquis d'Argens, Gr. & Fr. Berl. 1763. 8. — also in Batteuz, cited 
§ 185. — Cf. Meiners, Gesch. der wiss. inGriechenland und Rom. vol, i. — Schwll, 
ii. 313. 

§ 191. Aristotle has already been named as a rhetorician (fy 115). 
His father, Nicomachus, was a physician and awakened in him in 
early life a fondness for the study of nature. But his intellectual pow- 
ers were more fully developed by the instructions of Plato, whose 
lectures he attended for about 20 years. After the death of Plato he 
opened his own school in the Lyceum (P. I. § 74). It was the great 
merit of this philosopher, that he classified the objects of human 
knowledge in a methodical manner, and gave them more of that 
scientific form, which has since been preserved in treating upon them. 
He reduced logic to a system, and laid the first foundation of meta- 
physics. His works contain a great mass of clear thought, and solid 
matter, although his insatiable love of inquiry was often betrayed into 
abstruse subtilties, as idle as they were dark. He wrote upon a vast 
variety of subjects ; especially on themes of logic, physics, metaphys- 
ics, politics and morals. 



£46 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

1. The works of Aristotle may be classed under the heads of Logic, Physics, 
Metaphysics, Mathematics, Ethics, Politics, Rhetoric, and Poetry. In the latter 
department we have a Pecan or Hymn to virtue, and a collection of epitaphs and 
epigrams under the title of llinXo?. Those belongiug to rhetoric have been 
named {§ 115). — The works on logic are all included in the collection usually 
called the ^Ooyavov, Orgamim ; they are particularly the KaTiiyoQiai, HeoL 'Eq- 
itqvtfas, 'AvaXvTixa, Tontxa, and IU$i oowioTixwv , EXcyx u ' r - It was in reference 
to the title of this collection, that the celebrated work of Lord Bacon was named 
Novum Orgaivum. For an account of the metaphysical and other writings of 
Aristotle, see Schmll, iii. p. 266— Cf. § 274. 

2. Editions, whole works, Best; Duval, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1639. 4 vols. fols. 
— Buhlc, Gr. &Lat. Bipont. 1791. 5 vols. 8. but not completed. — Earlier; Prin- 
ceps by Aldus, Ven. 1495-8. 6 vols. fol. containing also Theophrastus ; ' One of 
the most splendid and lasting monuments of the Aldine press.' — Bebcllius, Bas. 
1531. io\.—P. Manutius, Ven. 1551. 6 vols. 8. — Sylburgius,Fra,txcf. 1584-7.5 vols. 
4. — /j. Casaubon, Gr. & Lat. Lugd. 1590. 2 vols. fol. Best editions of sepa- 
rate parts; organon, J.Pacius, Gr. &Lat. Genev. 1605. 4. — metaphysics, C. A. 
Branclis, Berl. 1823. 2 vols. 8. — ethics, Wilkinson, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1716. Repr. 
1818. 8.— C. Zell, Gr. & Lat. Heidelb. 1820. 2 vols. 8.— politics, J. G. Schneider, 
Gr. & Lat. Traj. ad Viad. (Francf. on Od.) 1809. 2 vols. 8. 

There were numerous Latin translations of different treatises of Aristotle 
(SchcbU, iii. 299), and also many commentaries (Dibdin, i. 327), We will only 
mention here some of the later translations ; German, Ethics <$• Politics by C. 
Garve, Bresl. 1801, 1802. 8.— French, Politics by C.Millon, Par. 1803. 3 vols. 8. 
— English, Politics by W. Ellis, Lond. 1776. 4. — Ethics <£• Politics by J. Gillies, 
Lond. 1797. 4.— Ethics <$• Rhetoricby Th. Taylor, Lond. 1817. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 192. Theophrastus, of Eresus in the island Lesbos, about B. C. 
321, was a scholar of Plato and Aristotle, and on the death of the 
latter became public teacher of the Peripatetic school. He possessed 
eminent powers both in eloquence and philosophy; distinguished for 
watchful observation, he placed more reliance on experience than on 
speculation. We have treatises from him, which place him among 
the writers on natural history (§ 275). His ethical pieces, styled' Hdi- 
xoi zaQ<x%Tij()eg, possess great worth, being written with brevity and 
eloquence and stamped with truth, and evincing much knowledge of 
human nature. They have the appearance, however, of being merely 
extracts from the moral writings of Theophrastus, made subsequently 
to his times. 

1. His original name was Tyrtemus, which was changed into Euphrastus, 
the good speaker, and Theophrastus, the divine speaker, probably by his disciples. 
tie was attentive to the graces of elocution, and always appeared in elegant 
dress. — Besides the works above mentioned, we have also under the name of 
Theophrastus, a Book of Metaphysics, and a treatise IIsqI Wdj/'ascoc, On percep- 
tion. Several works by him are lost; of which the most regretted are three 
treatises on Laws. Schosll, iii. 303. 

2. Editions, whole works, Best ; J. G. Schneider and H. F. Link, Gr. & 
Lat. Lpz. 1818-21. 5 vols. 8.— Early, Princeps by Aldus with Aristotle (§ 191. 2). 
— Oporinus, Bas. 1541. fol.-- -D. Heinsius, Gr.& Lat. Leyd. 1613. 2 vols, fol.— 
characters, Best; Fischer, Gr. & Lat. Coburg. 1763. 8.— Schneider, Gr. & Lat. 
Jen. 1800. 8. 'perhaps, critically speaking, the best' (Dibdin).— Translations of 
the Characters; German, I. I. Hottinger, Munch. 1821. 8.— French, (the most 
celebrated) Bruyere's, Par. 1696. 12. ed. by Schweigkceuser, Par. 1816. 12.— Co- 
ray, Par. 1799. 8. with Gk. text and notes,— English, E. Buddell, Lond. 1715.— 
H. Gaily, Lond. 1725. 8. 



EPICTETXJS. ARRIAN. PLUTARCH. 247 

§ 193. Epicletus, of Hieropolis in Phrygia, lived about the be- 
ginning of the christian era. He was originally a slave of Epaph- 
roditus, the freedman and chamberlain of Nero. Having obtained 
his freedom, he resided at Rome until he was banished with the other 
philosophers by Domitian, and then he retired to Nicopolis in Epirus. 
He was a Stoic of the severest principles and most undisturbed equa- 
nimity. His views are exhibited in the Manual, 'Ey%Et,Qidt,ov, which 
is ascribed to him. This was not written by him, but collected by Ar- 
rian from his lectures and conversations; it is distinguished more for 
its contents than for its style and manner. 

1. The Manual was much read by Christians as well as pagans. There are 
two paraphrases of it, which were designed for use among the former. — Schwll, 
v. 184. 

2. Editions. They have been very many. Best; J, Schwcighccuser, Gr. & 
Lat. with the comment, of Simplicius, and the paraphrases, under the title, 
Epictetem philosophies Mormmenta. Lpz. 1799. 5 vols. 8. — Princeps ; Ant. de Sabio, 
Ven. 1528. 4.— Good; Upton, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1739. i.—Heyne, Gr. &Lat. Lpz. 

1776. 8. Translations; German, Thiele, Frankf. 1790. 8.— Best, J. A. Brieg- 

lieb, 1805. 8.— Italian, in ed. of. Bodoni, Gr. & Ital. Parm. 1793. 8.— French, 
A. G. Camus, Par. 1799. 2 vols. 18.— English, Elizeb. Carter, Lond. 1759. 4. 
1807. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 194. Flavius Arrianus, of Nicomedia in Bithynia, under the 
emperor Hadrian and the Antonines, in the 2d century, was a Stoic, 
and a disciple of Epictetus. On account of his merit he was present- 
ed with citizenship both at Athens and at Rome, and at the latter place 
advanced even to Senatorial and Consular honors. The emperor 
Hadrian conferred on him the government of the province of Cappa- 
docia. Besides the Manual above mentioned, and the historical 
works to be noticed on a subsequent page, he wrote a philosophical 
work, entitled JiarQifiai^EnixTrJTov, cited by Photius as consisting of 
8 books. The 4 books, commonly called Dissertations of Epictetus, 
are supposed to have been a part of the work. 

1. In these books heprofesses to preserve, as far as possible, the very language 
of his master. Two other works of Arrian pertaining to philosophy, have 
wholly perished, viz. ' OfuZlai 'Etuxt^tov, Familiar Discourses of Epicletus, and 
JIsqI rov piov rov 3 Etcixzi'itov y.ai T>jg avrov Ti?.£vrijs, Of the life and death of 
Epictetus. Two astronomical pieces mentioned by Photius, on comets and on 
meteors, were probably from this philosopher. — Schasll, v. 185, 239. 

2. The best edition of the ' Dissertations' is in Schweighceuser, cited § 193. — 
That of Upton, Lond. 1741. 2 vols. 4. is good. — Princeps, that of V. Trincavelli, 

Ven. 1535. 8. Translations, German, best by J. M. Schultz, Alton. 1801-3. 2 

vols. 8.— English, Miss Carter, as cited § 193. 2. 

§ 195. Plutarch, of Chseronea in Boeotia, flourished at the close 
of the 1st and beginning of the 2d century. His instructor at Athens 
was Ammonius. Afterwards he himself taught philosophy at Rome, 
by public lectures, yet without attaching himself to any sect exclu- 



24S HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

sively. He was a warm opposef of the Stoics and especially the 
Epicureans. In hisnumerous philosophical pieces we find an eloquent 
diction, and a rich fertility of thought, together with various knowl- 
ed r« and real prudence. They arc important sources for learning the 
history of philosophy, and of the human mind. Yet they are often 
surcharged with erudition and mysticism, unequal in point of style, 
and .sometimes even obscure. Although upon very various topics, 
they are usually all included under the common name of moral wri- 
tings, under which are comprised 84 small treatises. Some of the 
more distinguished among them are those on education, on reading 
the poets, and on distinguishing the friend from the flatterer, and' the 
Table Questions (Svfinooiaxd nqo§l^itaxu). 

1. Plutarch returned from Rome to his own country while young, and ap- 
pears lo have discharged with fidelity different offices in his native city. He is 
said also to have served as a priest of Apollo. As a philosopher he rather fa- 
vored the disciples of Platonism, and may be ranked among' the New-Platoni- 
cians.— Schmll, iv. 118. v. 76.— Cf. §243. 

2. Editions, whole works, Best, Reiske, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1774-79. 12 vols. 8. 
—HuUer, Gr. only, Tuebing. 1791-1805. 14 vols. 8.— Early, Princcps, by //, 
Stephanas, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1572. 13 vols. 8. — Cruserius, Gr. & Lat. Prancof. 
1599. 2 vols. fol. — Xylander, Gr. & Lat. Franc. 1620. 2 vols. fol. moral wri- 
tings, Best, D. Wytlenbach, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1795-1800. 6 vols. 4. and 10 vols. 8. 
followed by Animadversions &c. 2 vols. 8. Cf. Ed. Rev. April, 1803. Dihdin, ii. 
345. — The princcps or first was Aldus, (ed. Demetr. Ducas) Plutarchi Opuscula 
lxxxii. Ven. 1509. fol. — single pieces, On education (IIsqI naiSxav aywyijg), 
Schneider, Strasb. 1775. 8. — On reading poetry (TTwj Sttrbv vior noirjfiaTiav axotlsiv), 
Krebs, Lpz. 1779. 8. — On distinguishing the flatterer and friend, Krigcl, Lpz. 
1775. 8. — On opinions of the philosophers {UsqI riav ' jLqzoxbvruiv roia ipiXooiipois), 
Beck, Lpz. 1782. 8. 

Translations of the Moralia; German, Kaltivesser, Frankf. 1783-1800. 9 vols. 
8.— French, Ricard (with notes) Par. 1783-95. 17 vols. 12.— English, Th. Creech, 
M. Morgan and others, Lond. 1684. 5 vols. 8. 5th ed. Lond. 1718. 

§ 196. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, siyrnamed the philosopher, 
and known as a Roman emperor in the 2d century, is also worthy of 
remembrance as a writer. His 12 books of Meditations, Twv elg 
eavrdv fiifilia t(5' ', consist of instructive philosophical maxims and 
observations, relating to morals and the conduct of life, and exhibiting 
the practical principles of the Stoics. 

1. He was generally a mild and excellent prince, but through a blind de- 
votion to paganism he allowed the persecution of Christians during his reign. 
He died of a pestilential disease at Vindobona (now Vienna), in Pannonia, 
while engaged in war with the revolting tribes in that region, A. D. 180.— A re- 
markable deliverance of Aurelius and his army in a previous war is recorded 
by Eusebius, and ascribed to the prayers of Christian soldiers constituting one 
of his legions (12th), to which, as a mark of distinction, he is said to have given 
the name of the ' Thundering Legion.' Whiston, in the last century, strenuously 
defended the story; it was as strongly controverted by Moylc.— Schmll, v. 193. 
Cf. Gibbon, Hist. R. Emp. i. 83. ii. 42. (ed. N. Y. 1822).— Thomas, Eloge de 
Marc- Aurelius. Par. 1773. 12. 

2. The Princeps edition was by Xylander. Gr. & Lat. Tigur. 1558. 8.— One 
of the best is Galakcr's, Gr. & Lat. Camb. 1652. 4.— Stanhope's, Gr. & Lat. Lond.. 



EMPIRICITS. PLOTINUS. PORPHYRY. 249 

1707. 8. and Wolf's Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1729. 8. are good.— Better, Schultz, Gr. & 
Lat. Schlesw. 1802. Q.—Struve, Regiom. 1823. 2 vols. 8. 

Translations ; German, best, Schultz, Schlesw. 1799. 8.— French, T. P. de Joly, 
Par. 1803. 18.— English, R. Graves, Bath, 1792. 8. Lond. 1811. 12. 

§ 197. Sextus Empiricus ^Ef/Tteiptxog, so called from his pro- 
fession as a physician) was a Sceptic or Pyrrhonic philosopher under 
Commodus, about A. D. 190. He left a work in three books, com- 
prising the theory and principles of the Sceptic sect, and another in 
eleven books against the Mathematicians, or rather against those teach- 
ers who professed positive knowledge, the five last being particularly 
opposed to the logicians and other philosophers. These works are 
very valuable in illustrating the history of philosophy, especially that 
of the Sceptical school. 

1. He was born in Africa; but very little is known of his life. The former 
of the two works is entitled HviJtiavsiai 'Ynorvnoiang, ?} axejiTty.lt r Yno/nn'jiaTa; 
the latter, Hgbgrovg Ma6-rjuarty.bvg avTinfjrrrixol. — Schecll, v. 202. — Stccudlin, 
Geschichte u. Geist des Skepticismus. Lpz. 1794. 2 vols. 8. 

2. The first ed. was printed at Paris, 1621. fol. — Latin versions of both works 
had been previously published. The next ed. was by Fdhricius, Lpz. 1718. fol. 

Another commenced by J. G. Mutual, Hal. 179G. 4. Translations; German, 

Buhle, Lemgo. 1801. 8. — French, (of the Hypotyposes) anonymous, 1725. 12. 

§ 198. Plolinus, of Lycopolis in Egypt, in the 3d century, was 
one of the most celebrated among the New-Platonists, and taught at 
Rome in the latter part of his life. His writings are deficient in me- 
thod, solidity and purity of style, yet exhibit many signs of acumen 
and research. They consist of 54 books. These books one of his 
pupils, Porphyry, distributed into 6 Enneads or divisions, containing 9 
books each; he endeavored also to improve the style, and indulged 
himself in interpolations and additions. 

1. He was very enthusiastic and eccentric ; yet was much admired at Rome, 
and patronized by the emperor Gallienus. The latter even meditated the 
scheme of establishing for him, in Campania, a colony of philosophers, to be 
named Platonopolis, where the imaginary Republic of Plato should be realized. 
Plotinus died in Campania at the age of G6. "We have his life written by Por- 
phyry.— Schwll, v. 121.— Cousin's Tennemann, § 203. 

2. The only edition of the complete works is that printed at Basil (Bale) 1580 
and 1615. fol. with the Lat. version of M. Flcinus. — The treatise on Beauty sep- 
arately by Creuzer, Heidelb. 1814. 8. — A German translation commenced by 
Engelhardt, Erlang. 1820. 8. (1 vol. containing 1st Enuead). 

§ 199. Porphyry was born A. D. 233, at Batanea, a Syrian vil- 
lage near Tyre, and from this circumstance he was often called the 
Tyrian. His Syrian name was Malchus (Melek). At Rome he be- 
came a scholar of Plotinus and an advocate of his philosophy. His 
writings were very various and numerous. Besides the Life of Plo- 
tinus and of Pythagoras, some of the more important are the pieces 

32 



250 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

styled as follows, On abstinence from animal food, Introduction to 
the Categories of Aristotle, and Homeric Investigations. 

1. Porphyry was instructed by Origen the Christian Father, probably at Ce- 
sarea; afterwards by Longinus at Athens. He was a violent opposer of Chris- 
tianity, and wrote against it several treatises which are lost. His wife Marcella 
is said to have been a Christian, A letter from him to her was found and pub- 
lished by Mai. Milan, 1816. 8.— Schcell, v. 129, 

2. Many of the pieces of Porphyry are as yet unpublished. Fuhrmdnn, Kl. 
Handb. p. 434. — The best ed. of the treatise on Abstinence is /. de Rhoer's, Utrecht, 
1707. 4. repr. Leyd. 179*2. 4. containing also the Cave of ike Nymphs, ed. by Van 
Gocn.— The Life of Plotinus is found in the ed. of Plot, cited § 198. 2. 

§ 200. Iamblichus, of Chalcis in Ccele-Syria, in the beginning of 
the 4th century, was a new Platonist, a scholar of Porphyry. He 
had the reputation of working miracles. A part only of his many 
writings are preserved ; and notwithstanding the extravagance, mysti- 
cism and fable with which his works abound, they are yet a valuable 
help in getting an idea of the philosophy of the later Platonists. 

1. While Plotinus and Porphyry must both be called enthusiasts, Iamblichus 
maybe stigmatized as an impostor. He was a warm advocate of paganism. — 
Scfucll, v. 144. — Cousin's Tennemann, §217. 

2. There has been no edition, of his entire works. Of separate parts, we no- 
tice the following; Mysteries of the Egyptians, by Gale, Oxf. 1678. fol. — Life of 
Pythagoras &c. by Kiessling, Lpz. 1815. 2 vols. 8, — Theology of Arithmetic (Ta 
6eoXoyovfieraTijg 'jlQtSntjriy.ijg), Wechel, Lpz. 1817. 8. 

3. Another philosopher of the same school was Proclus, born at Constanti- 
nople, A. D. 412, for an account of whose works, we must refer to Schcell, vii. 
109. ss. 

§ 201. Stobceus {Johannes), a native of Stobi in Macedonia, pro- 
bably flourished about A. D. 500. He collected from a multitude of 
writers in prose and verse a mass of philosophical extracts, which he 
arranged u^ :crd'n? to their subjects, in a work entitled 'AvdoXoyiov 
exloyav, dnoepdey/idxov, vrtodqxwi', in 4 books. They are perhaps 
more correctly considered as two works ; one, Eclogce physicce et ethi- 
ccb, in 2 books ; the other, Sermones, also in 2 books. The whole 
collection is valuable, both on account of the contents in themselves 
and also of the numerous passages rescued from destruction only by 
being inserted therein. 

1. John of Stobi cultivated the habit of reading with a pen in his hand. The 
selections, which we have, were arranged, it is said, for the use of his son. 
Each chapter of the Eclogce, and of the Sermones, has its title, under which the 
extracts are placed, the sources whence they are drawn being noted in the mar- 
gin. More than five hundred authors are quoted, whose works have mostly 
perished.— Schcell, vii. 133. 

2. The best edition of the Eclogce is Heeren's. Gr. & Lat. Gott. 1792-1801. 4 
vols. 8. — Of the Discourses, Gaisford's J. Stobsei Florilegium, Oxf. 1822. 4 vols. 
8.— Of both, Fr. Fabrus (Favre, books, of Lyons) Gr. & Lat. Genev. 1609. fol.— 
The poetical extracts were collected and edited by H. Grotius, Par. 1623. 4. with 
trans, in Lat. verse. Cf. Schosll, vii. 159. 



HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE 251 



VII. — Mathematicians and Geographers. 

§ 202. M The very name of Mathematics (paQfriara, /ua%<<mxa) is an evi- 
dence, that their scientific form originated among the Greeks, although the 
Egyptians and various eastern nations, in earlier times, possessed arithmetical, 
geometrical and particularly astronomical knowledge. Arithmetic was in a 
very incomplete state in Greece before the time of Pythagoras. He was the first 
who considerably cultivated it ; but it was left especially to Euclid, to treat the 
subject scientifically and unite with it the study of geometry. The elements of 
geometry the Greeks seem to have derived from the Phoenicians; although the 
knowledge, which Thales acquired in Egypt, is not to be overlooked. This sci- 
ence was afterwards considered as a special means of improving the intellect 
and an essential preparatory study for every philosopher (Cf. §175). Hence its 
great estimation and high cultivation among the Greeks. There are many in- 
dications of the use and encouragement, which the practical mathematics found 
among them especially in connection with mechanical sciences, as Statics, Hy- 
drostatics, and Hydraulics. That the Greeks applied mathematics to architec- 
ture and with the most happy success, uniting the rigid principles of science 
with the rules of taste, we have sufficient proof in the descriptions of their tem- 
ples, palaces, porticos and other edifices, and in the still remaining monuments 
of the art. Astronomy was introduced by Thales from Egypt. Pythagoras es- 
tablished several principles of this science. Other philosophers exhibited them 
in a written form. 

4 203. It is obvious from what has been said, that mathematical studies in 
Greece can be traced back only to the two primary schools of philosophy, the 
Ionian founded by Thales, and the Italic by Pythagoras (§168). 

From the time of Pythagoras, mathematics, as "has been suggested, formed 
an essential part of philosophy. In the Academy they were specially cultivated; 
this may be inferred from the inscription placed by Plato himself over the 
door of his school. To the philosophers of this sect the science is much indebted. 
But in the want of historical evidence, it is impossible to give a definite account 
of the state of mathematical knowledge during the time preceding Alexander. 
The names of several mathematicians and astronomers are recorded. The 
most important are Archytas of Tarentum, in venter of various machines which 
astonished his contemporaries ; Meton of Athens, author of the celebrated lunar 
cycle, and Autolycus of Pitane, the most ancient mathematician, whose works 
are preserved. 

The cycle of Meton was a period of 19 years, devised for the adjustment of the lunar with the solar 
year. Some have supposed that it was borrowed from the ancient Jewish Tables.— Schozll, iii. 7.— 
Hales' Chronology. 

§ 204. After the time of Alexander, mathematical studies became more prom- 
inent than before. Mathematics were no longer merely a part oi philosophy in 
general, but held the place of a science by themselves. They were cultivated 
in all the schools, which flourished in this period. The mathematical school of 
Alexandria was rendered illustrious by the reputation of Euclid, who had a nu- 
merous class of disciples, and among them Ptolemy I. the king of Egypt. One 
of the most distinguished names in this period, and indeed in all antiquity, is 
that of Archimedes of Syracuse, celebrated not only for his successful research 
into abstract principles, but also for his curious and wonderful mechanical ap- 
plications and inventions. A third memorable name adorns this period, Apol- 
lonius of Perga, whose work on Conic Sections iormed an epoch in the history 
of mathematics. Euclid, Archimedes and Apollonius, with Diophantus who 
lived in the third or fourth century after Christ, may justly be regarded as the 
great founders of mathematical science. 

Other names belong to the period between Alexander and the capture of Co- 
rinth, as Heron of Alexandria, author of several treatises on branches of me- 
chanics, Athenaeus and Biton who wrote on military engines and missiles, and 



'252 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

Philon of Byzantium, who wrote on the same subjects, and to whom is ascribed 
a work on the seven wondt r$ of tin- world. 

Astronomy was cultivated with success in this period, and according to some, 
an important influence was excited by the intercourse with the Babylonians in 
the expedition of Alexander. Aristarchus of Samos, Eratosthenes of Cyrene, 
and I Upparchusof Nicsea are tlie principal authors of whom we have remains. 

In the next period, i. e. between the fall of Corinth and the time of Constan- 
tine, wefind no eminent authors in the pure mathematics. Several writers on 
astronomical subjects are mentioned; Claudius Ptolemy, in the age of the An- 
tonines was celebrated above all others. His system of astronomy, as is well 
known, was much in vogue, and exerted a great influence. Several authors on 
music, of whom fragments are still extant, are referred to this period ; some of 
them were among the mathematiaians of the age; their remains are found in 
the collection of Meibomims. — Cf. Schmll, L. iv. ch. 44. 

§ 205, Between the time of Constantine and the overthrow of Constantino- 
ple, the list of Greek mathematicians is much larger, but contains few names of 
great eminence. Diophantus, a contemporary of the emperor Julian, and al- 
1 eadj mentioned as one of the four ancient fathers of mathematics, is the most 
important. Pappus and Theon of Alexandria, at the close of the fourth cen- 
tury, may be mentioned next. Hypatia, a daughter of Theon, inherited her 
father's love for mathematical science; she became a public teacher, and wrote 
several works, which perished in the destruction of the Alexandrian library. 
Proclus the philosopher wrote on mathematics and astronomy. Leon of Con- 
stantinople, in the latter half of the ninth century, isjspoken of by the Byzan- 
tine historians with much admiration. He was solicited by the Arabian Ca- 
liph Al-Mamoun to remove to Bagdad; the Emperor Theophilus, refusing to 
permit this, opened a public place for Leon to give instruction, and bestowed 
many honors and privileges upon him. He has left nothing by which we can 
judge of his merits. We will add only the name of Anthemius, of Tralles, in 
the sixth century, employed by Justinian to construct the church of St. Sophia, 
of which, however, he only laid the foundations, not living to complete the work. 
There remains a curious fragment of his work IIsqI naqaSo^wv firixavri^utiov. — 
Cf. Schall, L. vi. ch. 91, 

The fragment of Anthemius was published in Mem. d 1' Acad, des Scienc. et Belles Lett. vol. XLII. 
by Ditpuy, and separately, Par. 1771. 4. 

Respecting the celebrated Hypatia, see Menage, Hist Mulier. Philosoph.— Desvignoles, Dissert, in 
Bibl. German, vol. 3.— Abie Goujet, Lett, in Contin. des Memuires de Litt. by Desmoids, vol. 5, 6.— 
Socrates, Hist. Eccles. VII. 15. 

§ 206. On the subject of Geography, the knowledge of the Greeks was' very 
limited and imperfect ; yet they had writers on the subject, of much value in il- 
lustrating the condition of ancient countries. 

The earliest work extant is the Periplus of Hanno. Hecatcais of Miletus, in 
his IIsQtriyrjgig yijc, described the countries known at the time he wrote, in the 
reign of Darius, about 500 B. C. The Periplus of Scylax has been commonly 
referred to nearly the same period. The Anabasis of Xenophon may properly 
be mentioned amongthe geographical works anterior to the time of Alexander, 
being of great value in relation to upper Asia. Pijtheas of Massilia, a voyager 
and geographer, probably belonging to the same period, before Alexander, was 
the author of two works, a description of the Ocean, and a Periplus. The little 
now known of Jhem is derived from Strabo and Pliny. 

It was not until the period between Alexander and the Roman supremacy, 
that geography was elevated to the rank of a science. The honor of effecting 
this is ascribed to Eratosthenes, a very eminent mathematician and scholar, who 
flourished at Alexandria, B. C. about 230.— Cf. SchalLlAv. iii. ch. 18. Liv. iv. 
ch. 45. 

§ 207. After the supremacy of Rome, greater advances were made in geo- 
graphical knowledge. The first distinguished geographer of this period is 
Strabo, born about CO, B.C. whose work styled jTewyQayixa is a thesaurus com- 
■ prising nearly the whole history of geography from Homer to Augustus, with 
all then known upon the subject. The geographical poem of Dionysius of Cha- 
rax belongs to the age of Augustus. We have a fragment of a work on Par- 



EUCLID. 253 

thia by Isidorus of Charax, published in the reign of Caligula. There are also 
some geographical pieces under the name of Arrian, who flourished in the 
reign of Hadrian and the Antonines. But a more important work is that of 
Pausanias belonging to the same age, and entitled Itinerary of Greece. The 
most celebrated of all the ancient writers on geography was Claudius Ptolemy, 
already mentioned as a mathematician and astronomer about the middle of the 
second century after Christ. His system of geography remained the only man- 
ual in vogue for fourteen centuries. , 

After Ptolemy the history of Greek letters presents no author of any impor- 
tance in this branch of study; and before the time of Constantine, no remains 
except a fragment of Dionysius of Byzantium in the second century, and a sort 
of geographical epitome by a certain Agathemerus, probably of the third centu- 
ry. Of the Byzantine geographers, or those subsequent to Constantine, we may 
mention as the principal, Marcianus of Heraclea in Pontus, Stephanus of By- 
zantium, and Cosmas the Egyptian monk. — Cf. Schasll, L. v.ch. 70. L. vi. ch. 90. 

§ 208. J We will now introduce some general references, and then 
speak of a few distinguished individuals, naming first the mathemati- 
cians and after them the geographers. 

1. On the history of Mathematics among the Greeks, see References P. I. 
§ 24. — L. Lilders, Pythagoras und Hypatia, oder die Mathematik der Alten. 
Lpz. 1809. 8. — Delambre on the Arithmetic of the Greeks, in Peyrard's Archi- 
medes, cited § 210. 2. 

The principal mathematical Collections are that of Thevenob, Vet. Mathemat. 
Opera. Par. 1693. fol. and that of Wallis, in 3d vol. of his Opera Math. Oxf. 
1699. fol. — The following collections of writers on subjects connected with math- 
ematics may be cited; Astronomical, Aldus, Ven. 1429. fol. — Pelavius. Uranologi- 
on etc. Par. 1630. Amst. 1703. fol.— Musical, Meursius, Lugd. Bat. 1616. 4.— Mei- 
bomius, Antiq. Musicae auctores, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1652. 2 vols. 4. — On Tactics, 
Meursius, Gr. & Lat. Lug. Bat. 1613. 4. 

2. On the history of Geography among the Greeks, Gosselin, Geographie des 
Grecs. Par. 1790. 3 vols. 4. — Blair, cited P. I. § 27. — We may also refer to 
Malie Brun, and to Mannerl and Ukert cited § 7. 7 lb). 

The first collection of the Minor Greek Geographers was that of Hmschel, 
Augsb. 1600. 8. — The second, Gronovius, Leyd. 1627. 4. — The third, more com- 
plete, Hudson, Oxf. 1698-1712. 4 vols. 8. — Much preparation for a new edition 
was made by Bredow before 1812. On his death his apparatus passed into the 
hands of Spohn and Friedemann, from whom is expected an edition containing 
all the Greek geographical remains, excepting those of the four authors some- 
times denominated Major, viz. Strabo, Pausanias, Ptolemy, and Stephen of By- 
zantium. 

§ 209. Euclid lived at Alexandria B. C. about 300, in the time 
of the Egyptian king Ptolemy Soter. His native place is not known. 
lie was a teacher of mathematics, particularly of geometry, in which 
branch he was the most thorough and distinguished scholar among 
the Greeks. His Elements (^TO^eta), in 15 Books, were drawn up 
with great ability, and in a very perspicuous manner. There are two 
Greek commentaries upon this work, by Proclus and Theon. The 
latter flourished at Alexandria in the 4th century (§ 205), and it is 
only according to his revision of the work that we now possess the 
Elements of Euclid. The 14th and 15th books are ascribed, and 
with great probability, to Hypsicles, who lived about the middle of the 
2d century. Besides the Elements, we have also several other mathe- 
matical pieces ascribed to Euclid. 



254 HISTORY OF CJREEK LITERATURE. 

1. The principal works allowed to be genuine arc the Data (JsSo/uiva) con- 
taining geometrical theorems, and the Phenomena {>t>aivt>psva) relating to as- 
tronomy— Sc/xrll, iii. Wsi—Fiihrmann, Kl. Handb. p. 339. 

•J. There have been 5 editions oi the Works of Euclid. Princeps,by S. Gry- 
noiu, Has. 1533. fol.— Bas. 1659. fol.— C. Ddsupodius (Rauchfass) Gr. & Lai. 
Strasb, 1571.-0. Gregory, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1703. fol.— Best of all, Peyrard, Gr. 
Lai. & Gall. Par. 181 1 3 vols. 4.— Of the Elements, A. Caia.no, Gr. & Lat. Rome, 
1545. 9 vols. H.—Ch. Mcld.cn, Leyd. 1673. 12.— Th. Haseldcn, (with the Data) 
Load. 173-3. 8.— Best, Camerer, Gr. & Lat. Berl. 1824. 8. (1st vol. containing G 
Books of the Elements, with Excurs. and Plates). 

Translations. There have been many editions of the Elements in Latin ; 
among the best, Bwrmann, Lpz. 1769.8.— S. Horslcy, (12 books). Oxf. 1802. 8.— 
English, R. Simpson, B. 1-6, 11, 12) Glasg. 1756. 4. and often reprinted.— J. Wil- 
liamson, (whole 15), Lond. 1781-88. 2 vols. 4.— German, 1. F. Lorens, Hal. 1818. 
8. — French, Peyrard, above cited. 

§ 210. Archimedes was born at Syracuse B. C. about 287, and was 
put to death by a soldier during the storming and capture of that city 
by the Roman general Marcellus, B. C. 212. He was celebrated 
especially for his skill in mechanics; but his inventive genius en- 
riched almost every branch of mathematical science. He acquired 
his greatest celebrity by discovering the relation between the Cylin- 
der and Sphere, and by contriving several military engines, by the aid 
of which the Syracusans defended themselves for three years against 
the Romans. The account of his use of reflecting mirrors, or burn- 
ing glasses, for setting fire to the Roman fleet has been considered as 
very doubtful. We have several works from him ; neglTTjg ScpaLqag 
xal KvXlvSgov, On the Sphere and Cylinder ; Kvxlov fietqr^aig, The 
Measuring of the Circle ; Ilsqlrav ' Oxov/uevcov, Of floating bodies ; 
V'afi/nlTTig, Arenarius, and others. In general it may be remarked, 
however, that we possess the works of Archimedes only according to 
the recensions of Isidorus and his pupil Eutocius, in the 6th century. 

1. The sepulchre of Archimedes was near one of the gates of Syracuse, but 
was forgotten and almost overgrown with briars in the time of Cicero. It was 
discovered by the exertions of the latter, while Quaestor in Sicily, marked by a 
small pillar bearing an Iambic inscription and the figures of a cylinder and 
sphere. 

Polybius, Livy and Plutarch speak of the engines invented by Archimedes to 
harass the Romans, but say nothing of his destroying their fleet by means of 
reflecting mirrors. Lucian is the first author who mentions the burning of the 
fleet, but he does not tell the means. Tzetzes and the writers of the Bas-Em- 
pire state, that it was by the aid of mirrors. The story has been treated as a 
mere fable, although the possibility of the thing has been proved by Bujfon. — 
Schmll, iii. 360. vii. 57.— Cf. Foreign Rev. No. 1. p. 305.— Ed. Rev. Vol. 18. 

For an account of the magnificent vessel constructed under his care for the 
king of Syracuse, see Schmll, vii. p. 446. 

2. There have been 4 editions of the Works of Archimedes. Princeps, by 
T. Gechauff( printer Hervag) Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1544. fol. — Rivault (printer Morel) 
Gr. & Lat. Par. 1615. fol. repr. 1646. ed. Richard.— Borelli, Messina, 1572. fol. 
repr. Palerm. 1685. fol. — Best entirely, Mr. Robertson (begun by Torelli) Gr. & 
Lat. Oxf. 1792. fol. with the commentary of Eutocius, — Of the Dimcnsio circuit 
(with the Arenarius) Wallis, Oxf. 1676. 8. — Arenarius, with English transla- 
tion by G. Anderson, Lond. 1784. 8. 

Translations; German, Slum (whole works), Nnrnb. 1670, M.—Hauber 



APOLLONIUS. PAPPUS. DIOPHANTUS. 255 

(Sphere and Cylinder) Tueb. 1798. 8.—Kriigen (Arenarius), duedl. 1820. 8.— 
French, Peyrard (whole), Par. 1807. 4. 1808. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 211. Apollonius, surnamed Pergceus from his birth-place Perga 
in Pamphilia, lived at Alexandria about B. C. 250, under Ptolemy 
Euergetes. He studied mathematics under those who had been pu- 
pils of Euclid. As a writer he is known by his work on Conic Sec- 
tions, Kwvwd Sroixeca, in 8 books. Only the first 4 books, however, 
are extant in the Greek ; the 3 next are in a Latin translation from an 
Arabian version, and the 8th exists only as restored by Halley from 
hints found in Pappus. 

1. The 4th, 6th and 7th books of the Conic Sections were translated from the 
Arabian about the middle of the 18th century, by J. A. Borelli. — The other 
works of Apollonius were UsqI 'EnaySiv, De Tactionibus, or Contacts of lines 
and circles, and 'EnlneSoi totcoi, Planes, which have come to us in a very muti- 
lated state; TItql Ncvoeuiv, De Inclinationibus, of which scarcely any thing re- 
mains; UsqI xwqIov 'AnoTopijg, De Sectione Spatii, of which we have nothing, 
and IIsqI Abyoo 'Anorofiijg, De Sectione rationis, which is preserved in Arabic. 

2. The only edition of the Conies is that of E. Halley (begun by Gregory), 
Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1710. fol. — Attempts have been made to restore some of the 
other treatises. De Tactionibus, by Camerer, Goth. 1795. 8. — Haumann, Bresl. 
1817. 8. — J. Lawson, the two books of A. concerning Tangencies &c. Lond. 1775. 
4. — On Planes, by R. Simpson, Glasg. 1749. 4.— On Inclinations, by S 1 . Horsley, 
Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1770. 4.— R. Barrow, Lond. 1779. A.—Dc Sectione Spatii, by E. 
Halley, Oxf. 1706. 8. with a Latin translation, from the Arabic, of the treatise 
de Sect, rationis, 

$ 212. Pappus, an Alexandrine philosopher and mathematician, 
flourished in the 4th century. His principal work, known to us, is 
entitled Madrj^arixal awayayal, Mathematical Collections, in 8 
books. 

1. This work is chiefly interesting on account of the extracts it contains from 
mathematical writings, which are lost. Other works are ascribed to him, as a 
treatise on military engines, a commentary on Aristarchus of Samos, a work on 
geography &c. — Schcell, vii. 49. — Amer. Quart. Rev. No. 21. 

2. Only fragments of the Greek text have yet been published. A fragment 
of the 2d book was published by J. Wallis, in his ed. of Aristarchus of Samos, 
Gxf. 1688, 8. — The second part of the 5th book, by Eisenmann, Par. 1824. fol. — 
The preface to the 7th book by Halley, Oxf. 1706. 8. (with a treatise of Apollo- 
nius as cited § 211. 2). — Some lemmas from the 7th book, in Meibornius, Dialog, 
de Proportionibus. Hafn. 1655. fol. 

A Latin version of 6 books (3-8), by Fr. Commandini, an Italian mathemati- 
cian of the 16th century, printed, Pesaro, 1583. fol. and (ed. Manolessius) Bolog- 
na, 1660. fol. — A fragment of the 4th book not in this version is given by Bre- 
dow, Epistola? Parisienses. Lpz. 1812. 8. 

§ 213. Diophantus or Diophantes, of Alexandria, lived probably 
in the 4th century, under Julian. He composed an Arithmetic, 
~"Aqi,6firjxiici], in 13 books, of which 6 are now extant. A work styled 
IIbqI nolvydtvmv dgid/ntiv is also ascribed to him. 

1. The Arithmetic of Diophantus is not only important as contributing to 
the history of Mathematics, by making known the state of the science in the 4th 



'.!">('> HISTORY OF ORF.F.K LITERATURE- 

centarr, but it is ateo interesting to the mathematician himself, as it furnishes 
luminous methods for resolving various problems. H presents also the first tra- 
ces of that hrance of the science, which wascalled Algebra, in honor of the Ara- 
bian Qtber, to whom its invention is ascribed. — SehaU, vii. p. 43. 

9, A Latin version of all his remains was published by Xylnndcr (Holz- 
IMUM), Bas 1575. fol.— Tlie first edition of the text was by C. «. Backet {dc Me- 

: iriac), Gr. & Lat. Par. 1021. fol. A German translation of the treatise 

//„■; ,,.;.. hQtd. [von den Polijgonal-zaMen')b^ Poselger, Lpz. 1810. 8.— Of the 
Arithmetic, by Schultz, Berl. 1822. 8. (containing also Poselger's). 

§ 214. Hanno, the first name we mention among the geographers, 
probably lived B. C. about 500. He was a Carthaginian general, 
and is supposed to have written in the Punic language the Voyage, 
which, either during his life or shortly after, was translated into Greek, 
under the title ITsQinloog. What we possess is considered by some 
as only an abstract of a greater work. 

1. The full title is "Arvtavos Kaqxi^' 10311 ^oili tog mqinlooq riSv vTitQ lag 
'HqaxXsovg Stilus AipvxwvTijs yijg fisgiav, ov xoti aviOtjXiv iv Tw tou Koovovrefiivei 

SijlLovyra rude. Hanno is represented as sent with a fleet of 60 vessels and 30, 
000 colonists to explore the western coast of Africa, and as having continued his 
voyage until his store of provisions failed. How far he proceeded has been a 
theme of much discussion. — On this point see Rennell, Geogr. of Herodotus 
§26.— Cf. Vierthalcr, on the Peripl. of Hanno, Salzb. 1798.8. 

The age and authenticity of the Periplus have also been a subject of dispute. 
See Dodwell, Diss, in Hudson's Geogr. Min. cited § 208. 2. — Bougainville, in 
Mem. de TAcad. des Insc. t, xxvi. and xxviii, 

2. Editions. Gelenius, (with Arrian) Bas, 1533. 4. Berkel, [with Stcphanus 
Byzant.) Leyd. 1674. 12. — In Hudson, Geog. Min.— Separately, I. H. Bozkler, 
Strasb. 1661. 4. — Th. Falconer, with an English translation. Oxf. 1797. 8.— J. L. 
Hug, 1808. 4. with a list of authors on the subject. — An Engl, trans, is given in 
Anlhon's Lemp. Hanno. 

There is extant another Periplus of an early date, that of Scylax of Caryan- 
da, placed by some B. C. about 500. — Cf. Schcell, ii. 193. — This is found in Hudr- 
son's collection.— Separately by I. Vossius, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1632. 4. 

§ 215. Eratosthenes, of Cyrene, flourished B- C. about 230. He 
was a pupil of Callimachus and the philosopher Ariston, and distin- 
guished as a mathematician and the first founder of scientific geog- 
raphy. He was also known as a poet, interpreter of the old comic 
writers, a chronologist, and author of popular philosophical writings. 
In youth he lived at Athens; afterwards at Alexandria, having the 
charge of its famous library. Of his numerous writings pertaining 
to the mathematical sciences we have only some imperfect fragments. 
These belong chiefly to the work, entitled Ta yswygacpovfieva, which 
consisted of 3 books, and contained the first attempt at the measure- 
ment of the earth. The loss of this work is much regretted. 

1. In the 1st book Eratosthenes treated of physical geography, in the 2d, of 
mathematical, and in the 3d, of political. What remains is preserved chiefly by 



extracts made by Strabo. — A treatise called KaraariQia^tol, explaining the con- 
stellations, has passed under his name, but on various grounds it is considered as 
not genuine— Schmll, iii. 375, 385. 

2. The fragments of Eratosthenes were published by Ancher, Goett. 1770. 4.— 
More complete, Seidel, Goett. 1789. 8,— Most full, Bemhardnj, Erathosthenica, 






STKABO. OIONVSIUS. PTOLEM^US. 25/ 

Bert. 1822. 8.--The KuTttoTtQiaftoi were published first by J. Fell, Oxf. 1G72. 8. 
Cf. §71 (3).— Gate, in his Opusc. Myth. Amst. 1688. 8.— Best, /. C. Schaubach, 
Gastt. 1795. 8. 

\ 216. Strabo was born at Amasea in Pontus, and lived about the 
time of Christ, under Augustus and Tiberius. By his travels through 
Egypt, Asia, Greece and Italy, he was the better qualified to write his 
great work entitled rehiyqacpixd. It consists of 17 books, and is not a 
mere register of names and places, but a rich store of interesting facts 
and mature reflections, and of great utility in the study of ancient lit- 
erature and art. The first two books are a sort of general introduc- 
tion ; the rest are occupied in descriptions of particular countries, their 
constitutions, manners and religion, interwoven with notices of distin- 
guished persons and events. 

1. The 7th book has come to us in an imperfect state; the rest complete. 
The 3d book describes Spain and the neighboring islands ; the 4th, Gaul, Britain 
and the islands adjacent, and the Alps with the tribes occupying them ; the 5th 
and 6th treat of Italy, concluding with a survey of the Roman power; the 7th 
gives an account of the northern countries, and the nations on the Danube; the 
8th, 9th and 10th are devoted to Greece ; the next five, from the 11th to the 16th, 
contain an account of Asia, and the 17th describes the countries of Africa, 

There is an abridgment or Chrestomathy of this work, made probably in the 
10th century by some unknown Greek. There are also several collections of ex- 
tracts from Strabo, in Manuscript. — Strabo wrote a continuation of Polybius un- 
der the title of ' Ynoftvtifiara ' Iotoqixu. — Schcsll v. 278. — Lond. Quart. Rev. Vol. 5. 

2. Editions; Princeps, (in sed. AIM) Ven. 1516. fol. — Is. Casanbon, (2d ed. by 
Morel) Par. 1620. fol. Gr, &Lat. considered good.— Almelovcen, Gr. &Lat. Amst. 
1707. fol. repr. of Casaubon, with additional notes. — Siebenkees, (continued by 
Tzschucke and Friedemann) Gr. &Lat. Lpz. 1796-1819. 7 vols. 8. — T/i. Falconer, 
Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1807. 2 vols. fol. the most ample ed. (yet censured) ; Cf. Ed. Rev. 
Vol.14. — Cor ay, Par. 1816 — 19. 4 vols. 8. best text ; preface and notes in Greek, 
The Chrestomathy is found in Hudson 's Geograph. Min. cited § 208. 2. 

Translations; German, Penzel, Lemg. 1775-77.4 vols. 8. — French, La Porte 
du Theil and Coray, (under patronage of Fr. Gov.) Par. 1805-14. 5 vols, 4. Cf. 
Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. 5. 

$ 217. Dionysius, of Charax in Persia, was a contemporary of 
Strabo. He was sent by Augustus into the east in order to prepare a 
description of those regions for the use of his adopted son. We have 
from him a geographical treatise in Hexameter verse, entitled TleQirf. 
yrjat,g ' Oixovfjevyg, a description of the habitable world. From the 
title of this piece he has received the surname of Periegetes. Cf. § 32. 

We have a learned commentary on the Periegesis written by Eustathius. — The 
Pcriegesis is in the 4th vol. of Hudson as cited § 208. 2. with the commentary. — 
Also in Matthia's Aratus, cited §71 (3). 

§ 218. Claudius Ptolemceus, of Pelusium in Egypt, flourished 
in the middle of the 2d century, at Alexandria. He acquired great 
distinction in the sciences of geography, astronomy and music. Among 
the writings left by him, the two most important are the Meydlrj ovv. 
ra^cg, Great construction, and the reuygacpixij 'vqnjytjais, a system 

34 



258 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

of Gtography. The former, consisting of 13 books, now called the 
Almagest, is the earliest formal system of astronomy. The latter, in 
8 books, gives a geographical account of countries and places, with a 
designation of their Latitude and Longitude, for which the labors of 
Marinus of Tyre had laid the foundation. Of the other works of 
Ptolemy now extant we mention particularly his Kuv&v Baadiwv, 
Table of Kings, which is of much value in the department of history 
and chronology. 

1. The astronomical observations of Ptolemy were probably made in the 
Serapcum, or temple of Serapis, at Alexandria, and not in the Serapeum at Can- 
opus. The name of Almagest is derived from the title, which the Arabians gave 
to Ptolemy's astronomical work, to express their admiration. It was translated 
into the Arabic in the 9th century with the patronage and aid of Caliph Alma- 
moun. From the Arabic it was translated into Spanish and into Latin, before 
the Greek original was known in Europe. In the last book of the Geography, 
Ptolemy states the method of preparing maps, and here are found the first prin- 
ciples of projection. The lasting reputation of this work has been mentioned 
(§ 207).— Schcell v. 240-260, 312-323. 

2, Editions ; Almagest, Grynceus, Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1538. fol. with the Comm. of 
Theon. — Abbe Halma, Gr. & Er. Par. 1813-15. 2 vols. 4. — Geography, Princeps, 
Erasmus, Bas. 1533. fol. (There had previously been several editions of the 
Latin. Cf. Schcell. v. 319.)— Montanus, Gr. & Lat Frankf. (and Amst). 1605. fol. 
with maps by G. Mercator, after those of Agalhodamon, an Alexandrine of the 
5th century. — Better, P. Berlins, Leyd. 1618. fol. — Halma, Par. 1828. 4. but con- 
taining only 1st book and part of 7th, with a French version. — Canon, Perizoni- 
us, Leyd. 1745. 8 — Halma, Par. 1820. 4. For other works of Ptolemy and edi- 
tions, see Schmll. v. p. 255. ss. 

§ 219. Pausanias, according to some born at Csesarea in Cappa- 
docia, perhaps however a native of Lydia, flourished in the 2d century. 
He traveled over Greece, Macedonia, Italy and a great part of Asia. 
In advanced life, at Rome, in the reigns of Hadrian and the Antonines, 
he composed his Itinerary of Greece, 'Ellddog negirlyyo-ig. It con 
sists of 10 books, which are frequently named from the provinces de- 
scribed in them. The work is full of instructive details for the anti- 
quarian, especially in reference to the history of art, as the author 
makes a point of describing the principal temples, edifices, statues and 
the like. This gives his work an interest it would not otherwise 
possess. 

1. The style of Pausanias is rather negligent; sometimes his descriptions 
are obscure; but he displays much judgment and knowledge, and casts light on 
very many topics of history and mythology. — Schcell. v. 307. 

2. Editions. Princeps, by Aldus (ed. M. Musurus). Ven. 1516. fol. — Xylander, 
Frankf. 1583. fol— Kuehn Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1696. fol.— Better, Facius, Gr. & Lat. 
Lpz. 1794-97. 4 vols. 8.— Best, Sicbelis, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1822-28. 5 vols. 8. 

Translations; German, Galdbagen, Berl. 1798. 5 vols. 8.— French, Clavier 
(and others), Par. 1814-20, 6 vols, with original Greek and notes.— English, Th. 
Taylor, Load. 1793. 3 vols. 8. 

§ 220. Stephanus of Byzantium was a grammarian and geogra- 
pher, who lived towards the close of the 5th century. He wrote a co- 



rAL.El'HATUS. HKRACLITUS. 259 

pious grammatical and geographical Dictionary, called "EOvixd. Of 
the original work we have merely a fragment. There is an abridg. 
ment, however, 'Edvixwv 'eniTOfi-j, styled also Ileql nolewv, made by 
the grammarian Hcrmolaus in the time of Justinian. 

The best edition of the Epitome is that of A. Bcrkel (completed by Gronovius), 
Leyd. 1688. fol. Amst. 1725. fol. 



VIII. — My t ho graph ers. 

§ 221." The principal existing sources, whence the traditions and fables of 
the Greeks may be learned, are three ; the poets, who bring forward mythical ideas 
and fabrications, either incidentally, or as the subjects of particular songs; the 
historians, who weave into their narratives the popular faith and tales, and make 
known'Jbistorical circumstances whichservetoillustratethesame; and finally the 
mylhographers, who have made it their particular business to treat of mytholo- 
gical subjects and to present connected views or specific details of the ancient 
fables. 

Some of the principal writers of the latter class will now be named. The fol- 
lowing collections pertain to this subject. — Aldus, (Fabulists) Ver. 1505. fol. — Th. 
Gale, Histories poeticae scriptores antiqui, Par. 1675. 8. — By same, Opusculamy- 
thologica etc. Camb. 1671. 8.— Amst. 1688. 8. 

§ 222. Palcephalus, an Athenian, probably lived about B. C. 320 ; 
some place him in the time of Homer, but without sufficient grounds. 
His book IIsqI d nicrTuv, On things incredible, contains 50 Muthi or 
fables, with an explanation of them. It is probably but a corrupted 
abridgment of the first part of the larger work, in 5 books, ascribed 
to this author, but now lost. The style is very simple and easy, and 
the contents amusing and instructive ; it is often used as a reading- 
book in teaching the elements of the Greek language. 

It is found in Aldus and Gale, Opusc. cited § 221. — Separately, best, Fischer, 6th 
ed. Lpz. 1789. 8.— School ed. Emesti, Lpz. 1816. 8. — German translation, Buech- 
ling, Hal. 1821. 8.— French, Polier, Lausanne, 1771. 12. 

§ 223. Heraclitus was a grammarian, whose ep6ch and history 
are wholly unknown. He is to be distinguished from the philosopher 
of Ephesus bearing the same name (§177). He is mentioned as the 
author of two mythographical works, one entitled IleQi dniaxav, Of 
things incredible, the other ^Allvyoqiai ' Ofirjqixai,, Homeric Allegories. 
The former seems to be a mere abridgment. The latter is a more 
considerable work, but gives the most forced and unnatural explanations 
to the fictions of the poet. It derives value from containing poetical 
fragments of Archilochus, Alcasus, Eratosthenes and others. 



oftO HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

I. The first work is given in Gate, Opnsc. cited §221.— Separately Teucker, 
L«ng IT96. 8, School ed. —The other, in Gale also.— Separately, Gessner, Gr. & 
Lat.^Bas. 1544. 8, as the work of Heraciides of Pontus.— Better, Schow Go3tt. 

9 There is another work extant with the title TT^qI aniortav. It is from an 
m'knoirn author, w ho is supposed to have lived much later, about the time of the 
emperor L»o the Thracian. It contains 22 sections, and appears to be an abstract 
of a larger work,— Published by L. Allatius Rome 1641.8.— Gate in Opusc. cited 
above.— Teuelter, with Heraclitus cited above. 

^i 224. Apollodorus, a son of Asclepiades, was a grammarian, 
who lived at Athens, B. C about 145. He was a pupil of Aristarchus 
and embraced the Stoic philosophy. According to Photius he wrote a 
history of the gods (IIsqI dear), in 24 books. We have, however, 
only 3 books under the title of Bt^ltodr\xt}, or Library, which may 
be an abridgment of the fore mentioned, but perhaps is a wholly differ- 
ent work. It contains a brief account of the gods and heroes before 
the Trojan war. 

It is "iven in Gale, Hist. Poet, cited § 221.— Separately, best, Heyne, Gcett. 1802. 
2 vo\s°8.— Clavier, Gr. & Fr. Par. 1805. 2 vols. 8.— German Translation, Beyer, 
Herborn, 1802. 8.— Cf. Schmll, v. 36. iv. 57. 

§ 225. Conon, also known as a grammarian, lived at Athens in 
the times of Caesar and Augustus, B. C. about 30. He wrote 50 
mythical Narratives, Jtnyrjcreis, which are now extant only in the ab- 
stracts given by Photius in his Bibliotheca (§ 142). They are addres- 
sed to Archelaus, king of Cappadocia. Although containing little 
that is peculiarly interesting, they are yet of some value in illustrating 
ancient history, relating particularly to the origin of colonies. 

They are given in Gale, Hist. Poet, cited § 221. — Separately, J. A. Kanne, Gcett. 
1798. 8.— French translation, Abbe Gedoyne, in Mem. de TAcad. des Insc. T. xiv. 
p. 170.— Cf. Schasll, v. 41. 

§ 226. Parthenius, born at Nicaea, lived under the emperor Au- 
gustus. He wrote a work, dedicated to Cornelius Gallus, and entitled 
LJeqI sQWTixar nad^ftdzuv, On amorous affections, designed to furnish 
that poet with materials for song. The narratives contained in it were 
drawn from the old poets, and clothed in an easy and prosaic style. 
He seems to have written other works both in prose and verse, although 
the elegiac poet of this name mentioned by Suidas was perhaps anoth- 
er person. 

The work is found in Gale as last cited.— Separately, Comarius Gr. & Lat. 
(printer Froben) Bas. 1531. 8.— Teucker, Lpz. 1802. 8. with Conon.— Best, La- 
grand, and Heyne, Gcett. 1798. 8. with Conon— For the account of Parthenius by 
Suidas, see Schmll, v. 42. 

$ 227. Phurnutus, or more correctly Annceus Cornutus, born at 



HEPHyESTlON. LIBERAL1S. SALLUST1US. ' 261 

Leptis in Africa, probably lived in the last half of the 1st century. 
He seems to have been the teacher of Persius, and a disciple of the 
Stoic sect in Philosophy. We have from him a Theory of the nature 
of the gods, BsuqIu tibqI xi\g tav Oetiv cpvcreoig, in 35 sections. It is 
an attempt to solve the common fables by the help of allegories, most- 
ly of a forced and extravagant character. 

Given in Gale, Opusc. Myth, cited § 221. — Villoison left the Apparatus for a 
new edition ; now in the Royal Library of France {Schmll, v. 179). — On Cornu- 
tus see Enfield's Hist. Phil. B. iii. ch. 2. sec. 7. 

§ 228. Hephcestion (Cf. § 134), often called Ptolemceus son of 
Hephaestion, was a native of Alexandria, and lived in the 2d century 
under Trajan. His mythological work bore the title Ileql rrjg 'eig 
nolvfiddeiap xaivrjg iaToqiag, Of new History pertaining to erudi- 
tion ; it consisted of 7 books, but we have only the brief extracts found 
in Photius. 

Published by Gale, Hist. Poet, before cited. — Teucher, with Cononand Parthe- 
nius, Lpz. 1802. 8.— Cf. Sc/iall, v. 43. 

§ 229. Antoninus Liberalis, of whom little is known with certain- 
ty, most probably lived in the 2d century under the Antonines. His 
collection of Metamorphoses, MerafioqqjvxjEwv avvayayr^, is a compil- 
ation gathered from various writers, in 41 sections. The style is very 
unequal, and shows that the author drew his materials from poetical 
sources. 

Contained in Gate, Hist. Poet. — Separately, Princepsby Xylander (Holzmann) 
Bas. 1568. B.—Munker, Gr. & Lat. 1676. 12.— Walch, in his ed. of Phcedrus, Lpz. 
1713. 12.— Better, Verheyk, Leyd. 1774. 8.— A school ed. by Teucher, Lpz. 1806. 
8. with the Fables of Gabrias. On Antoninus and other mythographers, see Bast, 
Lettre Critique ; in Lat. trans, by Schcefer, Lpz. 1809. 8. 

§ 230. Sallustius, who was a Platonic philosopher, in the time of 
Julian and Jovian, and Consul A. D. 363, may be mentioned here. 
He must not be confounded with Sallust the Latin historian, nor with, 
the Cynic of the same name in later times. He lived at Athens and 
Alexandria, and acquired much celebrity as a speaker. He has left a 
work entitled Ilsql deavxalxoo/iov, On the gods and the world, in 21 
chapters. It is perhaps a philosopical rather than mythological trea- 
tise, and seems to'be directed specially against the system of Epicurus. 
The author maintains the eternity of the world and the immortality of 
the soul. 

Published;?™^ by Naudceus, Gr. & Lat. Rome, 1638. 12.— Gale, Opusc. Myth, 
above cited.-- Formey, Gr. & Fr. Berl. 1748. H.— Orelli, Gr. & Lat. Zuer. 1821. 8. 
—The titles of the chapters are given in Scliall. vii. 80.--Geiman Translation. 
Schvlthcss, Zuerich. 1779. 8. 



■Jli-J 111ST(JK\ 01 CKKKIi LITERATURE. 



IX. — Hi slorians. 

§ 931." In very early times the Greeks, like other nations of antiquity, had 1 
few, if any, regular historical records. The art of writing was not brought into 
that frequent and general use, which is requisite for such purposes. Oral tra- 
ditions, visible monuments, and commemorative festivals were the principal 
means of transmitting a knowledge of important and interesting facts. The 
oral accounts were commonly thrown into the form of verse and song; and thus 
the poetswere the first historians, Their poems, in epic, lyric and dramatic 
forms, presented the story of the fabulous and heroic ages, and were impressed 
on the memory in youthful education, were sung at the festivals of the gods 
and the funeral celebrations of heroes, and afterwards circulated by means of 
written copies. When afterwards the use of writing became more common, 
and prose composition began to be cultivated, historical narrative was the first 
and principal application of it. 

Pherecydes of the island Leros, and the three Milesians, Dionysius, Cadmus, 
and Hecatcms, who lived between 550 and 500 B. C. are named as the earliest au- 
thors of histoiy in prose. 

At this period truth and fable were more carefully distinguished; the former 
was selected as the proper material for prose and history, and the latter was left 
to the sole use of the poet. Afterwards writers began to record the history of 
their own times and connect it with the traditionary accounts of former ages. 
The art of writing was more sedulously cultivated. The theory of historical 
composition was investigated and fixed on philosophical principles. Ere long, 
Greece possessed historians, who are even to the present day viewed as masters 
in the art, in respect both of matter and manner. 

G. F. Creuzer, Hlstorisch Kunst der Griechen. Leipz. 1803. 8.— G. J. Vossius, De Historicis Graecis. 
L. B. 1051.4. 

§ 232. It was in the earliest part of the period between Solon and Alexander, 
that historical compositions in prose began to be produced. Some of the earli- 
est writers were natives of Asia Minor. Such authors were termed XoyoyQiKpot, 
and their performances loyoyQatplai. These authors, besides drawing from tra- 
ditionary accounts and the works of poets, consulted all the monuments of anti- 
quity, inscriptions, altars, statues and edifices erected or consecrated in connec- 
tion with particular events. The logographics were the first fruit of this spirit of 
investigation. They were a kind of writing holding an intermediate place be- 
tween epic poetry and veritable history. We have no entire specimen of them; 
but there are many fragments, for which we are indebted to quotations made by 
historians and writers on mythology in later periods, by the scholiasts, and some 
of the christian Fathers. The works of the prose writers named in the prece- 
ding section belonged to this class. Cadmus is mentioned by Pliny (Nat. Hist. 
VII. 56.) as the most ancient author of the kind. There are extant fragments 
of Pherecydes of Leros, Acusilaus of Argos, Hecatseus of Miletus, Charon of 
Lampsacus, Xanthus of Sardis and Hellanicus of Mitylene. 

G. F. Creuzer, Hist. Graec. antiquiss. Fragmenta. Heidelb. 1806. 8.— Able Sevin, respecting Heca- 
taeus and Charon, in Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscr. and Bell. Lett. T, Viand XIV.— Also the fragments of 
Hellanicus collected by F W. Sturz, and published Leipz. 1787. 8, and of Pherecydes and Acusilaus 
by the same, Leipz. Gera, 1789. 8. 2d ed. Leipz. 1824. 4. 

§ 233. The writers just mentioned are, however, scarcely entitled to the 
name of historians. Herodotus is the earliest Greek author who gave a finished 
and connected form to the narration of interesting events, and was with much 
justice styled by Cicero, the father of history. After him, and partly contempo- 
rary, were Thucydides and Xenophon. These three are the most eminent of all 
the Greek historians, and their works are among the most valuable remains of 
Greek prose composition. They all belong to the most brilliant period of Gre- 
cian literature. Their histories are chiefly occupied with Grecian affairs, and 
are the grand source of our knowledge respecting the Grecian states, in the pe- 
riods to which they relate. 



HISTORIANS. 263 

There were several other historians before the time of Alexander, known to 
us only by a few fragments of their works, or by the judgment passed on them 
by ancient writers. The most important of these were Ciesias, a contemporary 
of Xenophon, and Theopom.pus, who lived a little later. We have slight frag- 
ments, likewise, of Philistus of Syracuse, and Ephorus of Cumae in iEolia. 

The fragments of Philistus published by Gmller, In his De Situ et or. Syracusarum. Lips. 1818. 8.— 
Of Ephorus, by M. Marx, Carlsr. 1815. 8.— Of Theopompus, the Prolegomena to an ed. by F. Koch, 
Stett. 1803. 4.— Cf. Schcell, II. 170. ss. 

§234. It may be proper to notice here a class of writers who confined them- 
selves to the history and antiquities of Athens. Their works 'are cited under 
the common name of '^irSiScg, or Treatises on Attica. As the materials for 
these works were drawn not merely from loose traditions, but from various au- 
thentic sources, their loss is to be regretted, although they were no doubt abun- 
dantly charged with fable, and full of imperfection. Works of this description 
were written in the period before Alexander, by Clitodemus and Phanodemus, 
of whom little is known. Four others of the same class belong to the period 
following the time of Alexander, viz. Demo, Androtion, Philochorus and Ister. 

The fragments of these authors were collected and published by Lenz, and Sibelis; (Philochorus 
and Androtion) Leipz. 1811. 8. ; (Phanodemus and Clitodemus, Demon and Ister) Leipz. 1812. 8.— Schcell, 
11,185,111.224. * 

§ 235. The principal historian in the next period, from Alexander to the Ro- 
man supremacy in Greece, is Pulybitis of Megalopolis. He published several 
historical works, which are all lost with the exception of a part of his Universal 
History, This was without a rival in its kind. In style and eloquence it is in- 
ferior to the histories of the great masters of the preceding era ; but it may be 
considered as the first successful attempt to exhibit in a philosophical manner the 
principles of morals and politics as developed in the changes of human society. 
Polybius may justly be ranked among the most distinguished of ancient histo- 
rians. 

In this period there were numerous writers, who composed historical perfor- 
mances chiefly relating to the life and exploits of Alexander, although including 
often much other matter. Almost every thing from their pens, however, has per- 
ished. The following were some of the writers: Callisthenes, Hieronymus or 
Jerome of Cardia, Diodotus of Erythree, Nearchus and Nymphis of Heraclea. 

Sainte-Croix, Examen des Hist'riens d'Alexandre-le-Grand. 2d ed. Par. 1805.4.— Clayton, Crit. Enq. 
into Life of Alex, the Great. Lond. 1793. 4. Cf. Dildin, vol. 1. p. 330.— Aibe .Sevin, Recherch. sur la 
vie et sur les ouvr. de Callisthenes, in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Insc. &c. T. VIII.— and de Jerome de 
Cardie, in the same, T XIII, and de Diodote T. XIX.— Ang. Mai, Julii Valerii res gestae Alexandri 
Macedonii, translatae ex Aesopo Graeco. Mediolani. 1817. 8.— Fragments of Nymphis in the Collection 
of the remains of Memnon and other writers of Heraclea, by J. C. Orellius, Leipz. 1816. 8. Respecting 
Nearchus see under Arrian § 249.— Schcell, L. IV. eh. 36. 

§ 236. There were also in this period, between Alexander and the capture of 
Corinth by the Romans, other historical authors, some of whom ought at least to 
be mentioned here ; as Hecataeus of Abdera, Berosusthe Chaldean priest, Aby- 
denus his disciple, and Manetho of Diospolis in Egypt. We may name also 
Timseus of Tauromenium, who, on being banished from Sicily, resided at Ath- 
ens, and is quoted by Cicero as a model of the Asiatic style of eloquence (Brut. 
95. De Orat. II. 13), Aratus of Sicyon already mentioned among the poets (§ 71), 
Phylarchus his contemporary, and Polemo Periegetes. Of only a part of these 
authors have we any remains. The most important fragments are those of Be- 
rosus and Manetho. 

See Schcell, L. IV. ch. 37.— The fragments of Hecataeus were published by P. Zorn, Altona, 1730. also 
in Creuzer's Hist. Graec. cited § 232.— For those of Berosus, see Jos. Scaliger, De emendatione Tempo- 
rum ; also Fabricius, Bibl. Gr. Vol. XIV. Comp. Cory's Anc. Fragments. A work on Antiquities, un- 
der the name of Berosus, was published in Latin by J. Annius, or Nanni, a Dominican of Viterbo, who 
(lied 1502. This forgery, with other pieces, was p rinted by E. Silber, Rome, 1498. 

The remains of Manetho were also published by Scaliger, in the treatise above cited. The discove- 
ry (in 1792) of the Armenian version of Eusebius (§ 288) has furnished the means of a more complete 
collection. Cf. Journal des Savans, W20-— Sir J. Marsham endeavored to reconcile Manetho with the 
Scriptures in his Chronic us Canon, Lond. 1672. fol.— Cf. Shuckford, Sac. and Prof. Hist, connected, 
B. xi. (2d vol. p. 133. ed. Phil. 1821). 



J(il HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE- 

§ 237. The period which conies next, the time of Roman supremacy, pro- 
duced a great number of historians, but all of secondary rank. We will name 
first those who wrote before the christian era. The two most important authors 
were Diodorus Siciilus and Dionysius Halicarnasseus, who flourished but shortly 
before the time of Christ, and whose works are, in part, still extant. 

There were several authors whose works are lost ; as Castor of Rhodes, a con- 
temporary of Julius Ctesar, Theophanes of Mitylene, friend and biographer of 
Pompey, Timagenes of Alexandria, selected by Augustus as his historiographer, 
but discarded for certain imprudent sallies of wit, Posidonius the Stoic, and Juba 
son of the king of JNumidia, taken captive by Julius Cresar, and educated at 
Rome. Here may be mentioned also Nicolaus of Damascus, and Memnon of 
Heraclea, who both lived in the time of Augustus, and of whom some fragments 
remain. 

J. Bake, Posidonli Rhodii reliquias doctrlnae etc. Lugd. Bat. 1S10.8.— The fragments of Nicolaus 
were published by Orellius, Leipz. 1804, with a Supplement, lSll.— Those of Memnon by H. Stepha- 
nus, Par. 1594, and Ore.llius, Leipz. 1816.— See Schall , Liv. v. ch. 53. 

§ 238. Of the historians between the time of Augustus and Constantine, one 
of the most interesting and important is Flavins Josephus the Jew. His History 
of the destruction of Jerusalem, of which he was an eye-witness, is on many ac- 
counts of great value. It was written originally in Hebrew, or rather in the 
Syro-Chaldaic, and afterwards by himself translated into Greek. It is a work 
full of tragic interest. 

Plutarch, who flourished in the first century of the Christian era, must be in- 
cluded among the historical writers, not only because his Lives partake so much 
of a historical character, but on account of several other works upon historical 
topics. After Plutarch the most important historians were Arrian, Appian, Di- 
on Cassius, and Herodian. iElian is placed among the historians, but holds a 
low rank. 

There were some other historical writers in the times of which we are speaking, 
to whom it may be suitable barely to allude. Herennius Philo of Biblus, in the 
second century, is said to have written several historical works, particularly to 
have translated into Greek from Phoenician the antiquities of Sanconialhon. 
Praxis or Enpraxidas, the author of the work ascribed to Dictys Cretensis, lived 
in this period, probably in the time of Nero. Phlegon of Trades in Lydia wrote, 
besides other pieces, a sort of universal chronology, most of which is lost; in a 
fragment of this is mentioned an eclipse of the sun in the 18th year of Tiberius, 
which has by some been supposed to refer to the darkness that took place at the 
crucifixion of Christ. 

Respecting Sanconiathon, see R. Cumberland, Panconiathon's Phoenician history, trans, from the 
first book of Eusebius de Praepar. Evang. &c. Lond. 1720,— Christ, Meiners, Hist. Doct. de vero Deo. 
Vol. I.— Cory's Ancient Fragments. 

Dictys Cretensis is said to have served in the Trojan war, and to have kent a journal (Icpij/itplc.) 
of its events. The original fabrication of Praxis in Greek is lost, and the work exists now only in a 
Latin version, in 6 books.— Cf. Schcell, iv. 107, and below, § 258. also Schosll, Hist. Litt. Rom. Par. 1815. 
3d Vol. p. 158.— Best edition, Perizonius, Amst. 1702. 8. 

The remains of Phlegon were published by Franz, Halle, 1822.— Several publications appeared in 
England, early the last oentury, on the eclipse mentioned by him; e. g. Sylces, Dissertation upon the 
Eclipse &c. Lond. 1732. 8.— Whiston, Testimony of Phlegon &c. Lond. 1732. 8.— Chapman, Phlegon ex- 
amined &c. Lond. 1734. 8.— Cf. Lit. $• Theol. Rev. No. V. p. 53, 57. 

§ 239. In entering upon the long period from Constantine to the capture of 
his favorite city by the Turks, the first historian we meet is Eusebius, a Christian, 
and bishop of Cesarea, one of the most distinguished men of the age, and par- 
ticularly patronized by the Emperor Constantine. The only work of this author, 
which belongs strictly to classical literature is his Chronicle or Universal History, 
IlavroSan), (aroqla. (Cf. § 288). After Eusebius, we find a long list of historical 
authors. There are, however, only two names of much importance, viz. Zosi- 
mus and Procopius (§§ 255, 6), until we come to the mass of writers still less cele- 
brated, and commonly grouped under the name of the Byzantine historians. 

This series of authors, beginning with the 7th century, extends to the final 
overthrow of Constantinople. ' They have little merit, except that they are the 
only sources, whence we can derive the history of the middle ages. A few 
among them exhibit a degree of purity and elegance in style ; but most of their 






HERODOTUS. 265 

works are destitute of taste and of method, and degraded by superstition and ab- 
ject flattery.' 

The Byzantine writers have been divided into four classes. The first included Zonaras, Nicetas 
Acominatus, Nicephorus Gregoras and LaonicusChalcondylas, which four authors form what is termed 
the Corpus or Body of Byzantine historians, properly speaking. Taken together they give a complete 
history of the period from Constantine to the capture of Constantinople by the Turks. 

A second class includes the writers that have been termed Chroniclers, who attempted to give gen- 
eral histories, or annals extending from the beginning of the world to their own times, Schcell men- 
tions 15 or !6 names belonging to this class. The third consists of such as confined themselves to the 
history of a short period, a particular event, or of certain individuals, and may rather be called biogra- 
phers. Above 20 names are given in this class; Agathias was one of the more eminentamong them. 
The fourth class is composed of authors who occupied themselves rather with antiquities and statis- 
tics. Of 10 or 12 included in this number Constantine Porphyrogenitus was one of the principal. 

The works of the Byzantine authors were first published at Paris, with the patronage of Louis 14th, 
under the title of Corps de VRistoire Byzantine, 1648-1711. 36 vols, fol.— They were reprinted Ven. 
1729 ss. 35 (in 23) vols. fol. the 23d vol. consisting of works not in the 1st edition.— Cf. SchoM, vi. 415.— A 
new and more complete edition was commenced by Niebuhr, and is continued, since his death, under 
the auspices of the Academy of Sciences, at Berlin. Bibl, Repos. ii. 408. 

Much use of the Byzantine writers was made by Gibbon, in his Decline and Fall of the R. Empire. 
—Also by L. Cousin, in his Histoirede Constantinople depuis le regne de l'ancien Justin jusqu'a la 
fin de Pempire traduite sur les originaux grecs, Par. 1685. 11 vols. 12. 

§ 240. We now proceed to notice separately the most distinguish- 
ed of the Greek Historians. 

Herodotus, of Halicarnassus in Caria, flourished B. C. ahout 450. 
He is the oldest Greek historian whose whole works are preserved. 
His History, in 9 hooks, which have been named after the nine, muses, 
was originally rehearsed in part at the Olympic games, and at the 
Panathensean festivals of Athens, and ultimately improved and finish- 
ed at Thurium in lower Italy. Its main subject is the history of the 
Greeks, whose conflicts with the Persians he details down to the bat- 
tle of Mycale ; but he also introduces much that pertains to the Egyp- 
tians and Lydians. That he wrote in his 44th year is a circumstance 
of some importance in reference to his chronology. His style is 
characterized by dignity and simplicity united, and presents a striking 
resemblance to the poetical drapery of Homer, the more obvious per- 
haps from being in the Ionic dialect. The contents of the works are 
also highly instructive and useful : although some things in it have 
no sufficient evidence to support them. He too readily adopted as 
matter of fact whatever the Egyptian priests related to him, either 
from traditionary reports, or possibly from their own arbitrary inven- 
tion. It must be remembered, that he offers many things merely as 
popular traditions and rumors. 

1. The names of the muses are said to have been given to the different books 
of Herodotus by the hearers, who admired their style and manner when rehearsed 
at the games. It was at one of these rehearsals that Thucydides was affected to 
tears.— Scholl, ii. 140 ss. — Rollin, Hist, of Polite Learning Ch. ii. Art. 1, Sect. i. 

Plutarch boldly assailed the veracity of Herodotus, in his piece styled Hcql 
t^; 'HqqSotov xaxotidetag. The Father" of history is ably defended by a modern, 
the Abbe Geinoz.—SchOll, iv. 162. 

2. Editions. Best ; Schweighceuser, Gr. & Lat. Strasb. 1816. 6 vols. 8. Repr. 
Lond. 1817. 6 vols. 8. To this belongs the Lexicon Herodoteum by the same edi- 

34 b 



266 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE, 

hu.publ. 1824. 2 vols. 8.— Some of the other principal are, Princeps, by Aldus, 
Von. 1609. fol.— H. Stephamus, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1592. fol.— Gale, Gr. &Lat. Lond. 
1679. fol.— Wtsseling. Gr. & Lai. Amst. 1763. fol. much celebrated.— Laing, Gr. 
& Lat. K.linK 1800.' 7 vols. 8.— Borhcck, Gr. Lemg. 1808. 3 vols. 8.—Gaisford, 
Gr. Oxf. 1821. 1 vols. 8.—Schultz, (the parts relating to the war with the Persians) 
Hal, isoi). 'J vols. 

Translations; Gorman, Degen, Frankf. 1783-91. G vols. l.—Lange, Bed. 1812. 
2 vols. 8.— French, lurcher, Par. 1786. 7 vols. 8. 1802. 9 vols. 8.— In Gail's ed. Gr. 
&Fr.Par. 18-21. 4 vols. 8. -English, Bcloe, Lond. 1791. 1812.4 vols. 8. 

3. Works illustrative; Borhcck, Apparatus ad Herodotum intelligendum, 
Lemg. 1795-99. 5 vols. 8. — Creuzer, Comment. Herodoteae. Lpz. 1819. 8. — Const. 
Fr.de Volncij, Supplement a l'Herodote de Larcher &c. Par. 1809. 2 vols. 8. — 
Rm nctt, Geographical System of Herodotus &c. 2d ed. Lond. 1830. 2 vols, with 
maps. 

^» 241. Tlmcydides, an Athenian, flourished a little after Herodo- 
tus, B. C. about 420. His master in rhetoric was Antiphon. In the 
Peloponnesian war he was a commander of the Athenian allies. Dur- 
ing his banishment from his native city, he prepared the materials for 
his history, of which that war forms the subject. His work does not, 
however, contain an account of the whole war, but terminates with the 
beginning of the 2 1st year. It is characterized by an impartial love 
of truth, and a style noble and highly cultivated, yet sometimes ob- 
scure from its very closeness and fullness of thought. The ancients 
viewed him as a model of good Attic ; and Demosthenes formed his 
style upon Thucydides. The history is usually divided into 8 books, 
sometimes 13. Of most of the incidents related he was himself an 
eye-witness ; the rest he collected with great diligence and careful 
scrutiny. 

1. On his banishment he retired to Scaptesyle in Thrace, where his wife own- 
ed a valuable mine, and spent there 20 years, returning, it is said, near the time 
when Athens fell into the hands of the Spartans under Lysander, B. C. 404 — 
Schmll, ii. 157. — Smith, Discourse on the Life of Thucydides, in Trans, cited 
below. —Rollin, Polite Learn. Ch. ii. Art. 1. Sect. 2. 

2. Editions. Best, Belcher, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1821. 4 vols. 8.—Gottleber and 
Bauer, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1790-1804. 2 vols. 4. Better as repr. (by Priestley) Lond. 
1819. 5 vols. 8.— Very good, Elmsley, Gr. & Lat. Edinb. 1803-6. 6vols. 12.— Prin- 
cipal other, Princeps, by Aldus, Ven. 1502. fol.— Junta, Flor. 1526. fol.— H. Ste- 
phanus, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1564. fol.— Hudson, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1696. fol. celebrated. 
—Dulcer, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1731. 2 vols, fol.— The Bipont, Gr. & Lat. 1788. 6 vols. 
8.—Haack, Lpz. 1820. 2 vols. 8.—Poppo, Lps. 1821. 2 vols. 8. commenced.— 
Bloomfield, Lond. 3 vols. 12. a school ed. with Eng. notes. 

Translations; German, Heilmann, Lemg. 1760. 8. ed. by Bredow, Lemg. 1823. 
8.— Max. Jacobi, Hamb. 1804.-8. 3 vols. 8.~French, Levesque, Par. 1795. 4 vols. 
8.— English, Smith, Lond. 1753. 4th ed. 1805. 2 vols. 8. Phil. 1813.— Bloomfield, 
Lond. 1819. 3 vols. 8.— Modern Greek, N. Dukas, with orig. text, Vienn. 1806. 
10 vols. 8. 

3. Works illustrative ; T. F. Benedict, Comment. Critici in Thue. Lips. 1815. 
8.—E. F. Poppo, Obs. crit. in Thuc. Lips. 1815. 8.— Creuzer, Herodot und Thu- 
cydides, Versuch einer nahern Wurdigung ihren historischen Grundsatze. Lpz. 
1198.— Smith, Discourses on Thucydides and his History, pref. to Trans, above 
cited. 

§ 242. Xenophon has already been named among the philoso- 
phers ($ 186). He is also distinguished as a historian. His style is 



XENOPHON. CTESIAS. 267 

peculiarly excellent in narrative, being uniformly simple, tasteful and 
agreeable. The work entitled 'EXlqvixd comprises 7 books, and may 
be considered as a continuation of Thucydides. It relates the closing 
scenes of the Peloponnesian war, and carries on the history of the 
Greeks and Persians down to the battle of Mantinea. The Expedi- 
tion of Cyrus, Kvqov ^Avd§aaig, is also in 7 books, and gives an ac- 
count of the attempts of the younger Cyrus, and the celebrated retreat 
of the 10,000 Greeks. 

1. The Cyropcedia, Kvqov naiSela, is usually ranked as a historical work, al- 
though some place it among the philosophical writings of Xenophon. It consists 
of 8 books, unfolding the education and life of the elder Cyrus. Many, both an- 
cients and moderns, have considered it as a sort of historical and political ro- 
mance. Cicero remarks (Lib. 1. Ep. 1. ad Q,.) that Xenophon's design was not 
so much to follow truth as to give a model of a just government. There are 
several points of discrepancy between Xenophon and Herodotus in giving the 
history of Cyrus, especially in reference to the circumstances of his birth, the 
manner of his uniting the Median and Persian thrones, and the occasion of his 
death. — Cf. Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. vii. xxxii. (vol. i. p. 315. and iii. p. 501. 
Lond. 1801). Mitford, ch. xliii. Sect. 1, (vol. vii. p. 150. Bost. 1823).— Schmll, ii. 
p. 172, and references there given. 

2. Editions. Of whole works, see § 186. — Of Hellenica, Schneider, (best) 
Lpz. 1821. 8.— Morns, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1778. 8.—Bothe, Lpz. 1823. 8— ana- 
basis, Hutchinson, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1735.4. often repr.— best, Camb. 1785. 8. with 
Porson's addenda.— Lion, Goett. 1822. 2 vols. 8.— cyROPffiDiA, Hutchinson, Gr. & 
Lat. Oxf. 1727. 4. often repr .-latest Oxf. 1812. 8. (1st Am. Phil. 1806. 8.)—Poppo, 
Lpz. 1821. 8.— Weckherlin, Stuttg. 1822. 8. 

Translations ; German, Cyropcedia, by Meyer, Frankf. 1813. 8.— Anabasis, by 
Halbcart, 2d ed. Bresl. 1822. 8.— Hellenica, by Borheck, Frankf. 1783. 8.— French, 
Cyrop, by Dacier, Par. 1111. ~ Anab. by Larcher, Par. 1778. 2 vols. 12. (Fuhrmann, 
p. 218).— English, Anab. by Spelman, Lond. 1742. 8.— Cyrop.by Ashley (Am. ed. 
Phil. 1810. 8). 

3. Other works illustrative ; Fischer's Kommentar ueber die Cyrop. (ed. Kui- 
ncel) Lpz. 1800. 8.— Creuzer de Xenophonte historico, Lips. 1799. S.—Rennell, 
Illustrations of the Expeditions of Cyrus and Retreat of the Ten thousand. 
Lond. 1814. 4. 

§ 243. Ctesias lived in the same period, B. C. about 400. He was 
a native of Cnidus in Caria, and a physician by profession. He wrote 
a work on the Assyrian and Persian history (^IIsqo-ixwv) in 23 books, 
and also one book on India ('IvSixav). He employed the Ionic dialect, 
and his style is commended by the ancient grammarians. The credi- 
bility of his accounts has been often questioned, yet there are many 
considerations that weigh in favor of it. The loss of his works is 
much to be regretted. We have some fragments of both, however, 
preserved in Photius. 

1. Ctesias is at variance in many points with both Herodotus and Xenophon. 
His history of India abounds with fables, some of which are supposed to have 
arisen from ascribing an actual existence to such hieroglyphical and emblematic 
figures as are still found on the ruins of Persepolis.— SU<e«, ii. 174. vii. 436.-- 
Gedoyn, Mem. de l'Acad. des Ins. T. xiv. 

2. The fragments of Ctesias are given in many editions of Herodotus. — Se- 
parately, H. Stephanus, Par. 1557. 8.— A. Lion, Gcett. 1823. 8.—Bdhr, Frankf. 
1824. 



268 HISTORY OK GREEK LITERATURE. 

$ 244. Polybius, of Megalopolis in Arcadia, flourished between 
200 and 150 B. C. distinguished as a statesman and a warrior. He 
lived many years at Rome, where he became an intimate friend of the 
younger Scipio ; the last six years of his life were passed in his na- 
tive land. His work, entitled ' Iaioqia xadohxij, General History, 
consists of 40 books; and is a universal history for the period of 53 
years from the beginning of the 2d Punic war, to the reduction of 
Macedonia under Perseus, B. C. 167. We have only the first 5 books 
entire, and some fragments of the rest as far as the 17th. Polybius 
was the author of a new method of treating history, expressed by the 
term pragmatic. His details of military operations are more particu- 
lar and interesting from his personal experience in the military art. 
His style is not pure and classical, yet it is vigorous and manly, and 
evinces both learning and reflection. 

1. 'Polybius,' says Schcell, ' gave a new character to history, and created a 
new kind, I'histoire raisonn6e, or pragmatique (nqayfiarty.i\). Not content with 
merely relating events, he unfolds their causes, and explains their consequences. 
He paints- characters and passes sentence upon actions. Thus he forms the 
judgment of his reader, and prompts the reflections which may prepare him for 
the administration of public affairs (TtQayiiara).' — Cf. Cicero de Or. ii. 5.— Of 
the books after the 17th we have no remains, except what is found in two mea- 
gre abridgments, which the emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus caused to be 
made.— Polybius was bornB. C. 205, and died B. C. 123— Schcell, iii. 226-230. 

2. Editions. Best, Schweighauser, Gr: & Lat. Lpz. 1789-95. 9 vols. 8.— 
Principal others, Princeps, by Obsopceus, Gr. & Lat. Hagan. 1530. M.—Arlenms, 
Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1549. M.—Casaubon, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1609, fol. highly com- 
mended.— Gronovius, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1670. 3 vols. 8.— Ernesti, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 
1764. 3 vols. 8. 

Translations; F. W. BeniJcen, Weim. 1820. 8.— French, Thuillier, Par. 1727. 
6 vols. 4. and with suppl. Amst. 1753. 7 vols. 4.— English. Hampton. Lond. 1772. 
4 vols. 8. 

§ 245. Diodorus Siculus, of Argyrium, lived under Julius Caesar 
and Augustus. By his travels over a great portion of Europe and 
Asia, and also in Egypt, and by a diligent perusal of the earlier 
Greek and Latin historians, he prepared materials for his greathistori- 
cal work. This is composed of 40 book, under the title of Bi(lliodijx7] 
icttoqixtj, extending from the earliest times down to Caesar's Gallic 
war, B. C. about 60. A large part of the work is lost ; we have 
only 15 books (viz. 1-5 and 11-20), with fragments of the rest. It is 
marked by a careful indication of the order of time, but has less me- 
rit in point of style or accuracy in other respects. 

1. Diodorus employed 30 years in completing his Historical Library. For a 
view of the plan and contents, we refer to Schasil, vol. iv. 81, and Rollin, Pol. 
Learn. Ch.'ii. Art. 1. Sect. 6. 

2. Editions. Best, Heyne $• Eyring, Gr. & Lat. Bipont, 1793-1807, 11 vols. 8. 
Wesseling, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 2 vols, fol.— Principal others, Princeps, by Obsopce- 
us, Bas. 1539. 4. (books 16-20).— H. Stephanus, Par. 1559. fol. (10 books. 1-5 and 
11-15).— Rhodomann, Gr. & Lat. Han. 1604. fol. 

Translations; German, Stroth <f- Kaliwasser, Frankf. 1782-87. 6 vols. 8.— 
French, Abbe Terasson, Par. 1777. 7 vols. 12.— English, Booth,, Lond. 1721. fol. 



DIONYSIUS. FLAVIUS JOSEPHUS. 269 

^ 246. Dionysius Halicamasseus has been mentioned among the 
rhetoricians (§ 117). He lived 22 years at Rome, and there collected 
the materials for his Roman Archaeology, z, ^4gx ttl0 ^°y^ a 'Pafiaix-q, 
This work comprised 20 hooks, and was designed to make known to 
the Greeks the origin, history and constitution of the Romans. It ex- 
tends from the building of the city to the beginning of the first Punic 
war. There are now extant only the first 1 1 books, and some frag- 
ments of the rest, in part recently discovered by Mai. The extant 
books bring the history to the year of Rome 3 12, B. C. 442. His nar- 
rative is not wholly impartial, being often too favorable to the Romans, 
and his style is not unexceptionable. Yet we may obtain from 
this work the best insight of the Roman system and constitu- 
tion, because the author was led, in explaining to the Greeks a novel 
and strange subject, to enter into particulars much more than the Ro- 
man writers needed to do. 

1. We learn from Photiu?, that Dionysius made an abridgment of his work 
in 5 books. Mai supposed he had discovered this abridgment in a manuscript 
in the Ambrosian Library at Milan; but the specimen published by him does not 
justify the opinion.— Sckmll, vol. iv. 100. 

2. There have been 3 editions of the whole works. — Princeps, that of Syl- 
burg, Gr. & Lat. Frankf. 1586. 2 vols. fol. (there were editions in Latin earlier.) 
—Hudson, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1704. 2 vols. fol. -Reiske, Gr. & Lat. 1774-77. 6 vols. 
8. — A better edition wanted. — The archeology, R. Stephanus, Par. 1546. fol. 
(with other works.) — Grimm, Lpz. 1786. 8, (but containing only a part). — The 
fragment discovered in the Amb. Lib. was published by Mai, Mil. 1816. 4. repr, 
Frankf. 1817. 8. 

Translations of the Archceology; German, Benzler, Lemg. 1771, 72. 2 vols. 8. 
—French, Jay <$• BManger, Par. 1723. 2 vols. 4. 1806. 6 vols. 8— English, SpcL- 
man, Lond. 1758. 4 vols. 4. 

§ 247. Flavins Josephus, the Jew, was born at Jerusalem A. D. 37- 
He possessed a large knowledge of the world united to much familiar- 
ity with Greek learning. Belonging to the sect of the Pharisees, and 
descended from the royal Asmonasan family, he held the prefecture of 
Galilaea with much reputation. He became a prisoner to Vespa- 
tian, but obtained his freedom, and accompanied Titus during 
the siege of Jerusalem. Afterwards he lived at Rome. His Jewish 
Wars, in 7 books, he wrote originally in Hebrew or Syro-Chaldaic, 
afterwards in Greek (' lovdaixrj icnoQia nsgl dlaascog) in order to pre- 
sent the work to the emperor. Subsequently he composed his Jewish 
Antiquities ('Iovdaixr[ '^^atotayta), in 20 books, containing the 
the history of the Jews and their ancestors from the creation to the 
12th year of the emperor Nero. The genuineness of a passage of the 
18th book respecting Christ is very questionable, and is by many con- 
sidered as an interpolation. We have also from Josephus a work in 
2 books on the antiquity of the Jewish nation, and an auto-biography. 



■J," I) HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

Willi all their defects the writings of this author are of great value in 
illustrating the Bible and the history of religion. 

1. The work on the antiquity of the nation is in reply to Apion, a grammarian 
of Alexandria. A work styled 'Ei? Maxxapalovg Uyo? (found in some editions 
of (he apocryphal scriptures as the fourth book of Maccabees) has been erroneous- 
ly ascribed, to Josephus.— An account of the discussion respecting the disputed 
passage abve mentioned is given by Schmll (vol. iv. b. 116). 

2. Editions ; whole works, best, Hudson, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1720. 2 vols. fol.-- 
Havcrcamp, Gr. &Lat. Amst. I72G. 2 vols. M.—Oberthuer, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1782.. 
3 vols. 8. (promising to be the best, but not completed on account of the editor's 
death).— auto-biography, Gr. & Lat. Henke, Bruns. 1786. 8. 

Translations; Latin, Rvfinus (or Cassiodorus), I410.-German, Hedion, Strasb. 
1531. fol.— OW.Zuer. 1736. 6 vols. 8.— Spanish, Al. de Palencia, Sev. 1492. fol.— 
French, Verard (printer i 1492. Par. fol.— Gillel, Par. 1756. 4 vols. 4.— Italian, 
Florence, 1493. fol.— English, Whiston, Lond. 1737. fol. oft. reprinted. 

§ 248. Plutarch was named among the philosophers (§ 195), but 
also deserves a place with the historians on account of his Parallel 
Lives, Biot, nctQcLlXtjloi. In these he exhibits and compares, in a very 
full and instructive manner, the characters of the most distinguished 
Greeks and Romans. There are 22 parallels, giving the lives and 
characters of 44 persons ; with which is connected the biography of 
5 individuals taken singly. The lives of several others, said to have 
been written by him, are now lost. 

1. The Lives of Plutarch have been universally considered as a rich treasure 
for the antiquarian, the statesman and the scholar. They contain citations of a 
vast number of ancient authors, many of whom are wholly lost.— Heeren, de 
fontibus et auctoritate vit. parol. Plut. Commentationes, Gott. 1820. 8. 

"We have several other works of a historical character from him; among 
them, Roman Questions, QAitlai 'Puipa'Cxai), and Grecian Questions (' \Airiai 
' EMtjvixai) in which he discusses various points of Greek and Roman antiqui- 
ties; Comparison of analogous events in Greek and Roman history; On the for- 
tune of Alexander &c. The Lives of the 10 orators, ascribed to him, is not con- 
sidered as genuine. — A son of Plutarch, named Lamprias, formed a catalogue 
of his father's works, styled ID-vraQxav BtfSXiwv nivat,, which is preserved in 
part, and given in Fabricius. — Schosll, vol. iv. 118-163. 

2. The Lives are published in the editions of the whole works cited § 195. — 
Separately, Princeps, Junta, Flor. 1517. fol. — Best, Bryan <$• Du Soul, Gr. &Lat. 
Lond. 1729. 5 vols. 4. — Coray, Par. 1809. 6 vols. 8. (with notes in modem Greek). 

Translations ; Latin, Campanus, Rom. 1640. 2 vols. fol. The lives were pub- 
lished in Latin versions several times before the first ed. in Greek. German, 

Kaltivasser, Magd. 1799-1806. 10 vols. 8. French, Amyot, (whole works of P.) 

(rec. ed.) Par. 1784. 18 vols. 4. (Cf. Fuhrmann p. 394.) — Dacier, (rec. ed.) Par. 

1812. 15 vols. 18. English, J. # W. Langhome, Lond. 1770. 6 vols. 8. several 

times reprinted. 

§ 249. Flavins Arrianus, of Nicomedia, in the 2d century, has 
already been mentioned among the philosophers (§ 194). He was 
not without celebrity as a writer of history, in which department he 
was a very successful imitator of Xenophon. He composed an ac- 
count of the Expedition of Alexander in 7 books, 'larogiwv dvafidaewg 
^Ale^dvSqov @t,(lUu £, and a work on the Affairs in India, 'Ivdma; 
which continues the history of Alexander. The latter has been consid- 



APPIAN. DION CASSIUS. 271 

eredas the 8th book of the former, but without grounds, although 
there is indeed a connection by the subject. The former is written in 
the Attic dialect, the latter in the Ionic. In the latter work he borrow- 
ed much from the Periplus of Nearchus. 

1. Arrian wrote also several other historical works which are lost; among- 
them, a history of Parthia, naq&ixix, in 17 books ; of Bithynia, Bidwiaxa, in 8 
books ; of the times subsequent to Alexander, Ta fiera ^ Ai-t^avSqov. — There are 
still extant, besides what has been here named and his philosophical writings 
(§ 194), a treatise on Tactics, Tex^'V raxrixiy, another on the Chase, Kvvr\y n ix'o $ , 
and a Periplus of the Black Sea, IIcQtnXovg Evitlvov. A Periplus ol the Red 
Sea, 'EQv&Qag Qaluooi]?, also bears his name. — Schall, iv. 166. v. 266, 306. 

2. Editions, whole works, the only edition, A. C.Borheck, Lemg. 1792-1811. 
3 vols. 8. not highly commended.-EXPED. op alex. best, Schmieder, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 
1798. 8.— india, Schmieder, Hal. 1798. 8. — A good edition of both these together, 
Raphel (by Schmid), Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1757. 2 vols. 8. — tactics, best, Blancard, 
Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1683. containing also the Peripli and Chase. — The Peripli are 
also in Hudson, Geog. Min. cited § 208. 2. The Chase in Zeune's Polit. of Xeno- 
phon, cited § 184. 3. 

Translations ; Alexander's Expedition, German, Borheck, Frankf. 1790-92. 2 
vols. 8.— French, Chaussard, Par. 1802. 3 vols. 8.— English, J. Rook, Lond. 1729. 
rec. ed. 1814. 2 vols. 8. 

3. The Periplus of Nearchus mentioned above is found in Hudson, Geog. 
Min. referred to above. — See W. Vincent, Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus 
&c. Lond. 1797-1810. 3 vols. 4. Cf. P. I. § 27. 

§ 250. Appianus, of Alexandria, flourished at Rome, as a lawyer, 
in the 2d century, in the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus 
Pius, and finally acquired the office of imperial procurator. He wrote 
a Roman History, 'IotoqIu Pa/iaixr], in 24 books, of which we have 
only 11, with some fragments. It extends from the destruction of 
Troy to the time of Augustus. The order of narration is not chro- 
nological, but the events are arranged with reference to the countries 
or the nations particularly concerned ; thus in different divisions he 
treats of different wars, in which the Romans were engaged, as e. g. 
the Punic, Parthian, Iberian or Spanish, Syrian, Mithridatic &c. In 
this work much is borrowed from others, especially from Polybius 
and Plutarch. It is particularly serviceable in giving an idea of the 
Roman system of war and military affairs. 

1. In his preface Appian states the reason of his renouncing synchronism as 
a principle of historical arrangement; viz. the weariness occasioned by being 
obliged to turn the attention from province to province as the scene of events is 
changed ; to hurry, for example, from Carthage to Spain, from Spain to Sicily, 
from Sicily to Macedonia, and thence again to Carthage. The style of Appian 
is formed on that of Polybius, but is inferior to it. He is charged with partial- 
ity in favor of the Romans.— Schmll, iv. p. 173-176. 

2. Editions. The best, Schweighauser, Gr. & Lat Lpz. 1785. 3 vols. 8. — Prin- 
cipal preceding, Princeps, by C. Stephanus, Par. 1551. fol. — H, Stephanus, Gr. & 
Lat. Gen. 1592. fol.— Tollius, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1670. 2 vols. 8. 

Translations ; German, Dillenius, Frankf. 1793, 1800. 2 vols. 8.— French, J. J. 
Combes- Daunous, Par. 1808. 3 vols. 8. 

§ 251. Dion Cassius, surnamed Cocceianus, of Nicsea in Bithynia, 
lived at the close of the 2d and beginning of the 3d century, and was 



27i HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

twice Roman Consul. During a long residence at Rome lie made 
himself familiar with the history of the Romans, on which he wrote a 
work in 8 Decades, or 80 books, extending from iEneas to his own 
time, A. D. 229. The first 35 books, however, are lost, excepting 
some fragments ; we have the succeeding books, from the 36th to the 
54th, almost entire, and the 55th in parts ; of the following to the 60th 
we have an abridgment by an unknown hand ; and the remaining 20 
books are in the abridgment made by Xiphilinus in the 1 1th century. 
Dion details with much exactness, but his style is often too much labor- 
ed, and he is sometimes unnecessarily minute. 

1. His name was properly Cassius, and he is said to have assumed the other 
as descended, by his mother, from Dion Chrysostomus (§ 118). Much of his life 
was spent in public official employments. The remains of his work enable us 
to fill up many chasms in Roman history, and form our most important guide for 
the events of his own times. The abridgment by Xiphilinus, alluded to above, 
was drawn up by order of the emperor Michasl Dueas, and extends from the 
35th book to the end of the original.— Schasll, iv. 180-187. 

2. Editions. Best, Reimar, (begun by Fabricius). Gr. & Lat. Hamb. 1750. 2 
vols. fol. Some fragments published by Morelli (1728. 8.) were repr. (ed. Char- 
don la Rochette) Par. 1800. in folio, in order to be joined with this edition. — A 
new ed. has been expected from Sturz. — Principal earlier, Princeps,by R. Stepha- 
nies, Par. 1548. fol. — H. Stephanus, Gr. &Lat. Gen. 1592. fol. — Leunclavius, Gr. 
& Lat. Han. 1606. fol. 

There is a German translation by Wagner, Frankf. 1783-86. 5 vols. 8. 

a 252. Claudius JElianus, of Praeneste in Italy, was a sophist of 
the 3d century. But he is usually ranked among the historians on 
account of his work entitled LJoixilr] iaxogia, Various history, in 14 
books. It is a mere compilation of miscellaneous incidents, made 
without much close scrutiny or discrimination ; yet the narratives are 
very entertaining, although the style is unequal and sometimes affect- 
ed. iElian also wrote a history of animals (§277). The work on 
Tactics, which some have ascribed to him, was probably from an 
earlier writer of the same name. 

1. Although he was descended from Latin parents, and according to his own 
testimony never went beyond the borders of Italy, he acquired such a knowledge 
of the Greek language, that he was, according to Philostratus, considered wor- 
thy of a rank among the purest Atticists, and according to Suidas, obtained the 
surname of MMy&oyyos (honey-voiced). — Besides the works above named, there 
are also ascribed to him 20 letters on rural topics, ('Ayooixal ImaxoXal), of 
but little value.— Schcell, iv. 195.— Stollius, Int. in Hist. Lit. (Jena). 1728. 

2. The whole works of both the iElians were published by Gessner, Gr. & Lat. 
Tiguri (Zuerich), 1556. fol.— Of the Var. History, the best ed. is Gronovius, Gr. 
& Lat. Amst. 1731. 2 vols. 4.— Designed for schools, Lehnert, Bresl. 1793. 8.— 
LUnemann, Gott. 1811. 8.— The Letters are found in the collections of Aldus and 
Cujas cited § 152. 1.— Of the work on Tactics (by the elder .Elian A. D. 120), 
the best edition is that of S. Arcerius, (Elzevir printer) Leyd. 1613. 4. 

Translations; Various history, German, by Meinecke, Cluedl. 1787. 8.— French, 
Dacier, Par. 1772. 8.— Tactics, German, Baumgartner, Mannh. 1786. 4. 

§ 253. Herodianus, the historian, not the same as JElius Herodi- 
anus named among the grammarians (§ 136), lived at Rome towards 



HERODIAN. PHILOSTRATUS. 273 

the middle of the 3d century. He wrote the history of those empe- 
rors whose reigns he had seen, from the death of Marcus Aur. Anto- 
ninus to the accession of the younger Gordian, A. D. 180-238, Tr\g 
fisrd Mdgxov ^aatlsiag latoQiai., in 8 books. It is executed with 
much frankness and love of truth, but with too little precision in re- 
spect to chronology. His style is pure, and in the discourses or ad- 
dresses, which he has introduced, there is a great degree of nobleness 
and dignity, without excess of labored ornament 

1. The best edition of Herodian is that of G. W. lrmisch,Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 
1789-1805. 5 vols. 8. (with a vast mass of notes).— A better text is found in Wolf 
(Gr. only), Hal. 1792. 8.— A good ed. for common use is Weber, (Gr. only) Lpz. 
1816.8. 

Translations; Latin, Aug. Politian, Rom. 1493. fol. This was made by order 
of Innocent 8th, and was greatly admired and often reprinted. — German, J. G. 
Cuwradi, Frankf. 1784. 8.— English, J. Hart, Lond. 1749. 8. 

§ 254. Flavius Philosiratus, the elder, from Lemnos, lived in the 
'3d century, and in the profession of sophist taught eloquence both at 
Athens and Rome. We have from him the Life of Apoltonius Tya- 
nensis/^TiolXbtviov tov Tvavecag ftiog, in 8 books, full of the most 
extravagant encomiums, especially upon the miracles of Apollonius, 
who lived about A. D. 70. There is also a work by him entitled El- 
v.6ves, in 2 books, containing 66 descriptions of paintings in a gallery, 
which was at Naples. 

There is a work with the same title by Philosiratus the younger, 
who was nephew to the former and also of Lemnos. It is in some re- 
spects valuable for artists, although wanting in precision and natural 
simplicity, 

1. It has been thought by many that Philostratus designed, in his biography of 
Apollonius, to ridicule the life and miracles of our Saviour. In the time of Di- 
oclesian, less than a century after Philostratus, his work was placed by Hiero- 
■cles of Nicomedia, in opposition to the writings of the evangelists. The absur- 
dity of this was afterwards exposed by Eusebius. — Huet, Demonst. Evang. Prop. 
Ix. c. Ul.-Schazll, iv. 389. 

2. Wehave other works by Philostratus. In a piece called'.7y§uH*u:,he gives 
the fabulous history of 21 heroes of the Trojan war. He has left also about 70 
letters, and an epigram found in the Anthologies. But a more interesting and 
valuable work is his Lives of the Sophists, Blot ootpiarwr, in two books. One book 
gives the biography of 26 philosophical sophists ; the other of 33 rhetorical soph- 
ists. It contains a fund of anecdotes illustrating the manners and morals of 
these ostentatious pretenders, and gives a vivid picture of the decline of genuine 
eloquence. — Schcell, iv. 190. 

3. There have been but two editions of the complete works of Philostratus ; 
Morel, Par. 1608. fol. — Olearius, Lpz. 1709. fol. containing also Phil, the younger. 

Since the edition of Olearius, no part of Phil, has been published, except the 

Heroica by Boissonade, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1806. 8. — Schcell'iv. 296. 

Translations; German, of whole works by Seybold, Lemg. 1777. 2 vols. 8. — En- 
glish, of the Lives of Sophists, by Edw, Berwick, Lond. 1812. 8. — French, Life of 
Apollonius, by Castillon, Berl. 1774. 4 vols. 12. 

The books on painting have received attention from modern writers. — Count 
Cayliis, in Mem. de TAcad. des Insc. T. xxix. — Heyne, in his Opusc. Acad. vol. 
5. — Fr. Jacobs, Animad. in Callistrati statuas et Philost. imagines. Lips. 1797. 8. 
—Rehfues, ueber den juengern Philost. u. seine Gemaldbeschreib. Tueb. 1800. 8. 

35 



•_>7I HISTORY OV UREKK LITKR ATUK K. 

4. Wo niny remark here, as we may nol have a better opportunity, that Biog- 

was a department of composition almost wholly overlooked by the earlier 
is, in tfie period between Augustus and Constantine it received more 
attention. The Kws "/' Plutarch, already descrihed (§ 248), are altogether 
the most valuable productions in Grecian biography. Besides these and the 
l,!r,s<>l Philostratus just named, we have also the Lives of Diogenes Laerlius, 
of which an account has been L'ivcn before (s s 183). We may mention as belong- 
ing i,. tlie same period, the Lives of Moses and some of the Patriarchs, by Philo, 
a of Alexandria. The biographical piecesof Porphyry (§ 199) may also 
be named again. 

After Constantine we have the Lives of Eunapius, in the 4th century, and 
among the Byzantine writers we find a numerous class denominated biographers 
f§ 239). 

5. Eunapius was a native of Sardis: he studied in Athens, and traveled in 
Egypt, and afterwards officiated in Lydia as a pagan priest. His work, entitled 
Bloi qnHooitpwv xal oo<piOT&v, contains notices of 23 philosophers and sophists, who 
lived in his time, or not long before. It betrays his hostility to the Christian 
system. 

" There have been 4 editions of Eunapius. Princeps, by Ad. Junghe (Junius) 
Gr. & Lat. Antw. 1568. 8.— The last, by ./. F. Boissonade, Gr. only. Amst. 1822. 
— Cf. Schmll, vii. 70. 

§ 255. Zosimus flourished in the 5th century. He held the office 
of Comes Fisci at Constantinople. His New History, Nea 'Ioiogiu, 
in 6 books, embraces the reigns of the emperors from Augustus down 
to A. D. 410. The style is pure, perspicuous, and not destitute of 
ornament. But he is by no means an impartial writer, and appears 
to have been strongly prejudiced against Christianity. 

1. Polybius had exhibited the causes, which contributed to the rise of Roman 
grandeur. Zosimus, in imitation of this distinguished writer, proposed to trace 
the causes of its decline. His object and plan were good, but he had not the re- 
quisite qualifications for the task. Among the causes he erroneously ranks the 
establishment of the Christian religion. — Schcell, vi. 338-348. 

2. The best edition is Reitemeier, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1784.8. (Fuhrmann). — The 
first complete ed. was in Sylburg's collection, Script. Hist. Rom. Franc. 1590. — 
Translation in German, Seybold and Heyler, Frankf. 1802. 2 vols. 8. — French, 
by Coussin. 

§ 256. Procopius, a native of Caesarea in Palestine, flourished in 
the 6th century, as a sophist and lawyer at Constantinople. He was 
a friend to Belisarius, and held for a long time the office of prefect of 
the Capital. He wrote a History of his own times, in 8 books, Tav 
xad'dvTov icTTOQiwv fiifitiu dxro. The work is divided into 2 tetrades, 
the first 4 books called Persic, and the last Gothic, including a period 
of 70 years, A. D. 482-552. The former portion describes the wars 
of the Romans both with the Persians and with the Vandals and 
Moors in Africa, and the latter those with the Goths. He has left also 
a work styled 'Avexdoxa, which is a secret history of the Court of 
Constantinople under Justinian, and another called Kriuftaitt, Build- 
ings, in 6 books, in which he describes the various works constructed 
or repaired by Justinian. His style has the merit of accuracy and 
clearness. 



PROCOPIUS. ZONARAS. DARES. 275 

The Corpus of Byz. Hist, (cited § 239) includes the three works of Procopius, 
ed. by C. Maltret, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1662, 63. 3 vols, fol.— A German translation of 
the secret history by J. P. Beinhard, Erlang, 1753.8. 

§ 257. Agathias, of Myrina in iEolis, hasalready been mentioned 
as an author of Epigrams and editor of an Anthology (§§ 34, 35). 
He was a christian jurist or advocate, of the Alexandrine school, and 
lived at Constantinople in the 6th century. We have from him a con- 
tinuation of the history of Procopius, through 7 additional years, in a 
Avork entitled Ilegl rfjg 'Iovoiiviavov ftaoileiag, On ihe reign of Jus- 
tinian. 

1. This work is divided into 5 books. His style has been thought to suffer 
from the author's habits as a poet. He speaks of himself as being especially 
fond of poetry from his youth. His history derives much of its value from an 
account it contains of Persian institutions and usages drawn directly by him 
from Persian writings. — SchmlL, vi. 377. — Foreign Rev. No. 2. 

2. The first edition was by B. Vulcanius, Gr. & Lat. Leyd. 1594. 4. — Included 
in the Corp. Byz. Par. 1660. fol. with his epigrams. 

§ 258. Zonaras (Johannes) flourished at Constantinople in the 
11th and 12th centuries. He was raised to distinguished honors in 
the court of the emperor Alexius Comnenus, but resigned them and 
retired as a monk to Mt. Athos. Of many works composed by him 
in the latter part of his life, we notice as belonging here his Annals, 
Xqowxov, in 18 books, including a general history from the beginning 
of the world down to A. D. 1118. It consists of abridgments or ex- 
tracts from larger works, and exhibits great inequality of style. The 
history of the Jews is given first, then that of the Creeks and of the 
Roman Republic, and lastly that of the Roman Empire. In the latter 
part he closely follows Dion Cassius. 

1. Another work of Zonaras was an Exegesis on the Canons of the Apostles, 
Synods and Fathers. He left also a Lexicon or Glossary, which is useful as a 
concomitant to that of Hesychius.— Schosll, vi. 288, 358. vii. 241. 

2. The Annals were first published by Wolf, Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1551. 3 vols, 
fol. — Repr. in Corp. Byz. Diocange, ed. 1686. — The Exegesis is in Beveridge, Sy- 
nodicon sive Pandect, canon um S. S. apost. concil. ab eccles. Gra^c. receptorum. 
1672. 2 vols, fol.— Lexicon by Tittmann (Cf. § 142. 3), Lpz. 1808. 3 vols. 4. 

§ 259. Dares the Phrygian, whose age is uncertain, may be men- 
tioned in closing our list of names in the department of history. There 
is extant a work in Latin, which purports to be a translation made by 
Cornelius Nepos from the original Greek of Dares. But it is proba- 
bly from Joseph Iscanius, who lived in the 12th century, and was au- 
thor of a Latin poem on the Trojan war. 

1. Homer (II. v. 9) mentions Dares as a priest of "Vulcan at Troy. ^Elian 
(Var. Hist. xi. 2) states that an Iliad or history of the Trojan war by Dares was 
extant in his times ; yet this work was probably not from the Trojan priest, but 
the fabrication of some sophist. The Latin production now extant is entitled 
De excidio Trojce hhtoria. It is now admitted to be merely the prose outline of 



276 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE- 




and sometimes uuuvnwa*, ""'".' ,*,;,)„ ,„, 11:17 \ 
Publ. in Latin 1607. fid. English by Gibson, 1017.) 

„i ihn klndrcrt fabrication In the name of D«ctys(§ as*) arcsup- 

,„, M ,i tl , ,„v, been the origin* source* > ^ T h s omancc, Lmm****u written 

Column* a SloMan lawyer and poet of the ^ <**»* ™ ofEurope, and received with 

,„ „„. , hlVillrU - olaes, W» iranslalcl from *»"££*™£2 e » tern orlgln ln a Persian taie of 

cut*, nilillotli. Lai. vol. i. l>. lie. 

2. On and Didys have usually been published together The ^ition 
was printed, Milan^TJ -The best J^gJ-g; ££ ^^a^mp. 
Madame Daew r's (Par. 1680. 4), and c .°? ia ™}"* "• t £ th xtalianT French and 
These works were translated in the 1 16th .century ^ into ^ the ™{* ^^^ 
German. A Russian version was published, mosc. nu o. ^. * 
cited, p. 112. 

« SCO Before taking leave of the department of Greek historians we would 

Lpz. 1811. 4 vols. 8. 

rians is given in Priestley's Lectures on History, Lect. 20-24, ^ 



X— Writers on Medicine and Natural History. 

§ 261." The science of Medicine is founded ess entiaRy S^S^Kn 
experience, and is one of those which were but very imperte ^7 ™ d ^*°J * 
ancient times. Indeed from the nature of the case it could not be brought ro 
perfection until later periods. The same is true to a conaderaWe exten ., o^ 
Natural History and Physics in general Yet these science s ^er e pu 
among the Greeks not without some zeal and success. But their success nine 
caTby no means be compared with that, which they enjoyed so peculiarly and 

happily in literature and the fine arts. ,„v,nllv to the curing of 

it first the practice of medicine was limited almost wholly to ,he ™rmg o 
external wounds. The great renown, which ^^^^/"fXv^d Parity 
descendants called the Asclepiades obtained, is a proof of the novelty and i raruy 
of the healing art in those times, in which in fact it was cons idercd as a muacu 
lous gift from the gods. The Asclepiades ^established several school > in mecu 
cine, of which those at Rhodes, Cos, and Cnidus were the most celebrateQ. « 
was not until a later period that the Greeks became M * M ** d T^ n *°™?e 
Hippocrates was the first, who investigated the science systematically or wrote 
upon the subject. 

There isahrief collection otrulesof A, a «fc ascribed to the Asclepiades, entitled' A^™J^ 
iyuiva naqayyil^axa. Pound in J. C d'Aretln, Beytnege zur Gesch. der Lit. vo . l. 
Scha.ll, Hist. Liu. Gr. vol. iii- p. 11. 

§ 262. After Hippocrates, the physicians of the same period between Solon 
and Augustus, seem to have in a great measure abandoned the gu glance o e 
periencland plunged into the labyrinths of speculation The ™J S l oi the 
the Dogmaticwas now established, which attempted to unite the ineones 



MEDICINE AND NATURAL HISTORY. 277 

philosophers with the principles of Hippocrates. The sons of Hippocrates are 
named among its founders. The most distinguished of this school were Diodes 
of Carystus in Eubosa, and Praxagoras of Cos. Of the medical writings of the 
former we have a few fragments. 

The fragments of Diodes are published in C. G. Kuehn, De Medicis Graecis &c. Lips. 1820. 4.— Cf. 
Scluell, lil. 402. 

§ 263. It was by the physicians at Alexandria that the actual dissection of 
the human body was first attempted. Among the earlier physicians of the Alex- 
andrine school the most distinguished were Herophilus and Erasistratus, who 
lived under the first Ptolemies, and were each the head of a class of followers. 
Among the adherents of the former soon arose the Empiric school, founded by 
Philinus of Cos, and Serapion of Alexandria. To this school most of the phy- 
sicians of the period before the fall of Corinth attached themselves. They pro- 
fessed to follow the lessons of experience (ittneiQia). 

It was towards the close of this era, that the medical art of the Greeks was in- 
troducedamong the Romans, by Archagathus ; it had been at first chiefly practiced 
by Greek slaves. The physician, that seems to have acquired the highest celeb- 
rity at Rome, was Asclepiades of Bithynia, B. C. about 100. He may be assigned 
to the Empiric school, although he professed to have peculiar notions of his own; 

One of the most illustrious of the Empirics was Dioscorides, who will be no- 
ticed below. We may mention also Apollonius of Citium, and Xcnocrates of 
Aphrodisium, as of some eminence. 

C. F. II. Becfc, De Schola medicorum Alexandria. Lips. 1810. 4.— Schce.ll, iii. 404, v. 325.— The re- 
mains of Asclepiades of B. were published by Gumpert, Asclep, Bith. Fragmenta. Vimar. 1794. 8.— 
The work of Xenocrates (on the nourishment furnished by aquatic productions) by Coray, Par. 
1814. 8. 

§ 264. A new school of medicine arose in this same period, B. C. about 90, 
called the Methodic, founded by Themison of Laodicea, who was a disciple of 
Asclepiades, and fixed himself as a physician at Rome. The system was ma- 
tured by Soranus of Ephesus, who practiced at Rome under Trajan and Hadrian 
with brilliant success, and has left several works. To this school belonged Cri- 
ton, also celebrated in the time of Trajan, and Moschion, the reputed author of a 
work on Diseases still extant. 

Within the limits of the same period, another medical sect was originated, the 
Eclectic, which is generally ascribed to Archigenes, another physician in the time 
of Trajan. Arelccus, whose works will be noticed below, was an eminent advo- 
cate of this school. Rufus of Ephesus was an eminent physician not assigned to 
any of the sects; his works are still considered valuable. But the name which is 
most important, not only in the space between Augustus and Constantine, but in 
fact in the whole history of the Greek physicians, is that of Galen. With tran- 
scendant genius he broke from the restraints imposed by the different medical 
sects, and built a system for himself upon the ruins of them all, and became and 
continued for many centuries the oracle of the art. 

The works of Soranus are in Ant. Cocchi, cited below, § 269.— That of Moschion, separately, F, O- 
Dewcz, Vienn. 1793. 8.— Those of Rnfus, by W. Clinch, Lond. 1726. i.—Schctll, v. 338. 

§ 265. During the long period from Constantine to the capture of Constanti- 
nople, no progress was made in the science. Alexandria continued for a long 
time the chief seat for the theory and science of medicine, while Rome and Con- 
stantinople furnished ample fields for its practice. Most of those, who attempted 
to write on the subject, contented themselves with commenting upon the works of 
Galen or some author of times previous to their own. They formed what is call- 
ed the School of Galen, although they professed to be Eclectic, and to draw their 
principles from all the- different sects. There are but few names which are spe- 
cially deserving of mention. Oribasius in the time of Julian is the first writer 
of any note ; he has been called the ape of Galen, on account of borrowing so 
much from him ; among his works was a medical compilation from preceding 
writers, made by order of Julian, and called ' EpSopvr.orrupipioi;, from its com- 
prising 70 books, 8 or 9 of which yet remain in Greek, and several others in Latin 
only. Alexander, of Tralles in Lydia, flourished in the reign of Justinian, and 
after much travel practiced in Rome with great celebrity ; his Therapeutics, Bip- 
ilov 6cqantvTiy.bv in 12 books, is extant. We will add only the name of Constan- 
tine, surnamed the African, a native of Carthage. He studied among the Ara- 



278 HISTORY Of GREEK LITERATURE. 

hmns Chaldeans and Persians both medicine and astronomy with the kindred 
t$££ 1 S to the west after an absence of nearly forty years, he was 
suentis. lveuuMii^ re tired in a religious habit to Saleruum in 

V i 1 i Miilhisdcaili towards the cose of the 11th century, in. 
!&SB%££S ^rkimlKbian medicine, and contributed much to the 
high celebrity, which that school attained. 

.' . i ,.,,,„,., „„ nnhlislipd Bas. 1557. 3 vols. 8. but not complete. The works of 

the Latirj Lwguaga.-rScA«»Jl, vli. a". SB. 

6 266 » Physics or iVatorol iSfcfenee formed a prominent object of many of 
the first Greek Philosophers, and furnished subjects for some of the earliest di- 
dactic poems Tie study of philosophy in laterj»eriods usually implied some 
Stion to these branches. Lt for want of sufficient observation, and of the 
necessaiVhelps, many errors were adopted and long retained in the Grecian 
schools. 

6 267 The merit of first treating these topics systematically and scientifically 
is uinveVsa lyascribed to Aristotle. Alexander is said to have aided his studies 
n nTur ^histo y with a princely liberality. Theophrastus, the disciple and suc- 
cessor o * A riHe, pursued the same studies with considerable success While 
Aristotie if called the father of Zoology, Theophrastus must be acknowledged to 
stand iii the same relation to Mineralogy and Botany. 

Con- The Alexandrine scholars the subjects of natural science seem to have 
obmmed but comparatively little attention. This could not have been owing 
So y to wan"F encouragement, because the Ptolemies are said to have ex- 
pended considerable sums in procuring collections of what was curious in he 
Fhree kingdoms of nature. Anligonus of Carystus is the principal Alexandime 
vrfter ofwhTm we have! remains pertaining to this department, and his work 
^chiefly a collection of marvelous stories and not a description of natural ob- 

je Nor under the Roman supremacy from the fall of Corinth even to the time pf 

Constantine do we find any manifest advancement. The chief wnteis were 
SKA was distinguished as abotanist tt*^)»™to»& Man > 
and JElim, who compiled a considerable work on the history of animals. 

The superstition and love of the marvelous, which prevailed both in this and in the preceding pe- 
rt^"!** ahindrance to the rea, progress of natural science We may refer as eV t ence o 
thei influence to the works of Mdompu. In the former, and Artemzdorvs m the latter. Melampus 
we on the Art of divination in several branches, and also a work on P, ■o.nosnc.^ f ^'£ «*™*« 
in the moon, which is yet in manuscript in the library of Vienna.-Artermdorus left a work on the 
Interpretation of dreams, > Ov^oxQtrrA, which, with all its absurdity, is of some value m U us- 
.Uttal mythology and the symbolical and allegorical figures of ancient scuipture , it was published by 
J. G. Reiff, Lpz. 1805. 2 vols. 8.-Cf. Schcell, iii. 393 ss. v. 277 ss. 

§ 268. Under the Emperors of Constantinople all ^T^rSe time 
the studv of nature were in a state of almost utter neglect; in the whole time 
we dono" meet with a single name of.any eminence, nor one work of special 
value. We find a treatise of Epiphamus, mqi rm fafexa Aieoy, 0» «« " stones 
Tn the breast plate of the Jewish High Priest; and another Ifc<H U fl«v W «£ 
On the virtues of stones, by Mickal Psellus m the 9th century. We have a large 
compilation on agriculture, entitled r.omov^a, by Cassia ™ s E™™s,m he lOUi 
fenturv There are also several works, yet in manuscript, on Chemistry, or 
mhe "AlcZny or the art of making Wspecially one by St «g-«« «fA hens 
in the 7th centurv, TZaei yovoonoClag, in 9 books, and parts of another sty lea 
Xv^ZSbooA $Zosimus of Egypt. The latter . author bjs eft u a 
treatise on the making of beer, Ikqi W<W noujo^. Such is the trivial list, with 
which we must close our view of the Greek writers on natural science. 

The treatise of Epiphanius was published by Gessner, De omnium fo ssili «?«^*^"J ^ 
That of Puttu, by Bernard, Leyd. 1745. 8.-The Geoponics of Bassus by /. N. Niclas, ^ "^"T; 
8 -The Mss. on Alchemy are in the Libraries of Paris and Vienna.-Thelast trea.se above named . 
given inc. G. Gruner, Zosimi de Zythorum confectione fragmentum. Solisb. 1814. s-seiuui, vn. 



1 97 SS 



One discovery or invention of this dark period ought perhaps to be mentioned, that of the celebrated 



HIPPOCRATES. DIOSCORIDES. 279 

Greek fire (feu Qregeois), the composition of which was so carefully kept a secret above 400 years. 
The recipe for making it is given in a work ascribed to Marcvs the Greek, a Latin version of Which in 
manuscript was found in the Royal Library of Paris, and from this the work was printed the same 
year, by Laportedu Theil, Par. 1804. i.—Schasll, vii. 211, Cf. Gibbon, Dec. & Pall. &c. ch. Hi. 

§ 269/ We give the following references to collections of Greek 
writers on medicine and physics, before speaking of the authors sepa- 
rately. 

H. Stephanus, Medicse artis principes post Hippocratem et Galenum. Lat. 
Par. 1567. 2 vols, fol.— Ant. Cocchi, Graecorum Chirurgicorum libri &c. Flor. 
1754. M.—Fernelius, Medic, antiq. qui de. febribus scrips, collectio. Ven. 1594. 
fol. — Hatter, Artis medics principes, Lat. (cur. Vlcalii) Laus. 1784-87. 11 vols. 8. 
— C. F. Mattheei, Medicor. xxivet. Grsec.Mosc. 1808. 4'— C. G.Kuhn, Opera med. 
Graec. quse extant. Gr. &Lat. (commenced) Lpz. 1821. 8. — C. G. Gruner's Bibli- 
othek der alten Aerzte in Uebersetzungen und Auszuegen.Lpz. 1780-82. 2 vols. 
8.— Cf. P. I. §23. 

Franz, Scriptores physiognomonise veteres. Altenb. 1780. 8. —J. G. Schneider, 
Eclogae physicae e script, praecipue Graecis. Jen, 1801. 2 vols. 8. containing natur- 
al history and physics. 

§ 270. Hippocrates, of Cos, a descendant of .ZEsculapius, flour- 
ished B. C. about 420. In philosophy he was a disciple of Heracli- 
tus. He practised the medical art particularly in Thrace and Thessa- 
ly, and died at Larissa in the latter country. With uncommon acute- 
ness of intellect he combined a rich variety of knowledge and experi- 
ence, which was increased by travels, and which gave to his writings 
a value not limited to ancient times, but enduring even to the present 
day. Of the numerous works, that have been ascribed to him, many 
are spurious. Of those which are genuine, the Aphorisms, or brief 
medical principles and maxims, are the most generally known. 

1. Besides the 'AyoQtOftoi, the following works are by all acknowledged to be 
genuine; viz. the ' EmSi'ifua, Epidemics ; nQoyvuiarixa, Prognostics, in 4 books ; 
iTsol Siairtig b^iiav, Of regimen in acute diseases ; Jleql'Aiqwv, 'YiaTiav, Tonuiv, 
Of Air, Water and Climate, a work of general interest; Ileql t«v iv xecpal],' 
TqwpotTuiv, Of wounds of the Head ; Ittql ' ulyftwr, Of Fractures. There are 12 
or 13 others, which some of the critics receive, and a much larger number of pie- 
ces which all consider spurious. — Schasll (iii. 12 ss.) gives a view of the various 
opinions of the critics. 

2. The best editions of his Works is that of Fozsius (Fais) Gr. & Lat. Frankf . 
1595. Genev. 1657. fol. to which belongs, as a glossary or lexicon, Fcesii fficono- 
mia Hippocratis, Gen. 1662. fol. — More full is R. Charterus (Chartier), Par. 
1679. 13 vols. fol. with Galen. — The Aphorisms have often been published sepa- 
rately ; latest, Berl. 1822. 12. (a reimp. of Bouillon, Par. 1785, with the Prognos- 
tics).— Of Am, &c. Coray, Gr. & Pr. Par. 1800. 2 vols. 8. repr. 1816.— An ed. of 
select-works was commenced by De Mercy, Gr. & Fr. 1815. 

Translations ; of whole works, Latin, that of Fees ed. by Pierer, Altenb. 1806. 
3 vols. 8.— German, Grimm, Alt. 1781-92. 4 vols. S.— Gruner cited § 269.-Eng- 
lish, Clifton, 1734.— French, Gardeil, Toul. 1801. 4 vols. 8. 

§ 271. PedaniusDioscorid.es, of Anazarbus, in Cilicia, flourished 
in the 1st century. He was a distinguished physician, and in various 
travels in Europe and Asia he studied the nature of plants, which he 
afterwards described for the benefit of pharmacy. We have from him a 



280 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

work, JIsqI vXyg iarQixrjg, de Materia medic a, in 5 book's. Besides this 
there are ascribed to him a treatise on Antidotes, ^jXelicpd^fiaxu, in 2 
books, and another IJeglevTioQiaTcov cpagfidxcov, On medicines easily 
prepared ; but their genuineness is doubted. 

1. It has been mentioned that Dioscorides was celebrated as a botanist C§ 267); 
for many centuries his work (de Mat. med.) above named was considered as a 
sort of oracle in Botany, although he treats of the subjects only in reference to 
medicine, — Schccll, V. 'M2.~Sprcngel, Hist, rei herb. Amst. 1807. 8. 

2. The latest and best edition of Dioscorides is that of Saracenus (Sarrasin), 
Gr. &Lat. Frankf. 1598. fol.™ Respecting the curious manuscript of Diosc. see 
P. 1. § 107. 2. 

§ 272. Arctaus, of Cappadocia, probably lived towards the close 
of the 1st century, at least later than Pliny the elder, and Dioscorides. 
He was one of the most distinguished of the Greek physicians, and 
left two works ; one Ileql jUtmv xal Srj/J.siuv otjewv xah xgovlu* net- 
6wv, On the Causes and Signs of acute and chronic diseases, and the 
other, On the Cure of the same, IIeqI Qeqaneiag d^ewv xal x^ovluv 
Ttttd&v, Both of them have come to us only in a mutilated state. 

1. He is considered as the most faithful observer of facts after Hippocrates. 
His works are well written and maybe termed truly classical. — Schadl, V. 344. 

2. The best edition is that of J. Wiggan, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1723. fol— Later, 
H.Bmrhave, Leyd. 1731. 1735. fol. — A German translation of both works by 
F. O. Dewez, Vienn.1790. 1802. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 273. Claudius Galenus was born at Pergamus in Asia, about 
A. D. 130. He traveled much, and repeatedly took his residence at 
Rome. He wrote not merely on medical topics, but also on subjects 
of philosophy, mathematics and grammar. Many of the writings as- 
cribed to him are undoubtedly spurious, especially such as are extant 
only in Latin. 

1. The name of Galen is justly associated with that of Hippocrates, as to these 
two, above all the ancients, the healing art is indebted. The time of his death is 
unknown. He was the confidential physician of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. 
Some of his works composed at Rome are said to have perished by the burning 
of his house; yet there are extant 82 treatises of established genuineness, besides 
18 commentaries on Hippocrates and a number of fragments. In addition to 
these, there are 18 published under his name of doubtful genuineness, and a still 
larger number now acknowledged to be spurious, and many still in manu- 
script in the Libraries. Among the most interesting and important of his 
works are the following ; TTiqI avarofi,iy.a>v > Eyx* 1 Q''i< ,C03V > Of anatomical manipu- 
lations, in 9 books (originally 15) ; HiqI /gsi'a? rfv Jv hv&Qantov owpaTi fioQitav, Chi 
the use of the different parts of the human body, in 17 books, regarded as his chef- 
d'oeuvre, and containing a demonstration of divine wisdom and design ; Ti/vrj 
laTQixij, The healing Art, cited also in the middle ages under the title of Tegnum, 
Microtegnum or Michrotechnum, a work which was adopted in all the schools and 
familiarity with it made a prerequisite for admission to practice ; and ©tQanev- 
rix}} fiidoSog, Therapeutics, in 14 books, called in the middle ages, Megalotechnum. 
We may mention another work which is rather curious ; entitled Ilenl tmv tSiwv 
ptfttliuv fQatp)], a systematic enumeration of his own writings, with incidents of 
his life, composed when advanced in a,ge.—Schasll, \, 345 ss. 

2. There have been many editions of Galen's works in Latin ; Schozll speaks 



ARISTOTLE. THEOPHR ASTTJS. ANTIGONUS. 281 

of 22. — There have been two of the Greek text alone; Andre <T Asola, (in aed. 
Aid.) Ven. 1525. 5 vols. fol. — A. Cratandcr (printer, ed. Gemusaus), Bas. 1538. 5 
vols. fol. — There are two also of the Greek with a Latin, version; It. Chariier, 
Par. 1679. 13 vols. fol. (cf. § 270, 2.) -Best, K. G. Kw.hn, in the first vols, of the col- 
lection cited § 269. 

We notice the following works, separately published; That the best' physician 
is also a philosopher, Coray, Par. 1816, with a treatise of Hippocrates (§270. 2). — 
Exhortation to study of the sciences, Willel,lLeyd. 1812, 8. — A German translation 
of the works of Galen, commenced by Naldecke, Oldenb. 1805 (1st vol). 8. 

§ 274. Aristotle must not only have a place among the rhetori- 
cians (§ 115) and the philosophers (§ 191), but also be ranked high 
among naturalists. He was the first to bring both physics and nat- 
ural history into a scientific form. In these branches, he displayed 
fine powers of observation, with habits of close reasoning. Of his 
works pertaining to this department, we mention as the principal his 
ftvcny.-rj ^AxQoaoig, a work on general physics, in 3 books, and the His- 
tory of Animals, IIbqI Zaoiv lo-iooiug, in 10 books. Some of the oth- 
ers ascribed to him, are not genuine, or at least did not come from him 
in their present form ; as e. g. the treatise LJegl duvfiacrlwv 'Axovapa- 
toiv, On wonderful reports. 

These treatises are found in the editions of A's. works, cited § 191. 2. — Sepa- 
rately, the History of Animals, by J. G. Schneider, Gr. & Lat. 1811. 4 vols. 8. very 
satisfactory. — Wonderful Reports, by J. Beckmann, Goett. 1786. 4. — Three pieces 
pertaining to sleep and dreams, by Becker, Lpz. 1823. 8. A German Transla- 
tion of the Hist, of Animals, by F. Struck, Frankf. 1816. 8, 

§ 275. Theophrastus also stands among the naturalists, as well as 
among the philosophers (§ 192). The works, which place him here, 
are principally the following ; LTsgl cpvrtiv iaTo^iag, History of Plants, 
in 10 books; Ilsgi cpvTix&v Ai,xmv y On the causes of Plants, in 10 
books, of which only 6 remain ; IIbqI UQaiv, Of Stones. We have 
also from him several other treatises, on Winds, Fire, Odors, fyc., and 
various fragments preserved in Photius. 

Schneider's edition of the whole works (Cf. § 192. 2.) furnishes the best of these 
parts.— The latest ed. of the Hist, of Plants, is Stackhouse, Oxf. 1813. 8. hand- 
some but not correct (Fuhrmanri). 

Translations; Hist, of Plants, German, by Sprengel, Alton. 1822. 8.- -Stones, 
German, by Schneider, "Freib. 1806. 8.— French, (anon.) Par. 1754. 8.~English, 
J. Hill, Lond. 1746. 1777. 8. 

§ 276. Antigonus, of Carystus, in the island Eubosa, lived about 
B. C. 284, under Ptolemy Philadelphus. He compiled, from the 
works of other naturalists, his 'Icnogiav naQaSoSuv avvayoiyr\, Col- 
lection of marvelous things. It consists of 189 sections, containing 
particularly an account of animals. The last 62 sections are the most 
important, being drawn from authors that are lost. 
36 



282 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

This work was first published by Xylander (Holzmaim), Bas. 15G8. 8.— Another 
ed. by Mcursius Leyd. 1619. -1— Best, by J. Beckmann, 1791. 4. 

§ 277. JElianus has been named among the historians (§ 252). 
But we have a work from him, belonging to this place, on the peculiar- 
ities of animals, IJegl tyowv {Siott/toc, in 17 books. It is chiefly a 
compilation from earlier writers, particularly Aristotle. The addi- 
tions by iElian are mostly of a fabulous character. 

1. It is given in the editions of his works, cited § 252. 2. — Separately, Abr. 
Gronov, Lond. 1744. 2 vols. 4. — Best, Schneider, Lpz. 1784. 8. 

2. The compilation of Apollonius Dyscohis, styled Wonderful Histories (cf. 
§ 135>, might be ranked in this department. But it is of little value.— Schall, 
V. 379. 



§ 278. Before leaving the history of Greek Literature, we ought to remark, 
that we find in the Greek language two classes of writings, which have not been 
noticed in the preceding glance, and which ought not to be overlooked, although 
they are not commonly included in the range of classical studies. 

The first of the classes, to which we here refer, comprises those writings, 
which may perhaps properly be termed Hebrew-Grecian; being published in the 
language of the Greeks, but of a Hebrew origin and character. These are the 
Septuagint version, and the Greek Apocrypha, of the Old Testament. These 
writings breathe a moral spirit quite at variance with that of pagan literature, 
and it cannot be doubted, that they exerted some influence, when made known 
to the scholars of Alexandria. Indeed it has been thought, that their influence 
is apparent in the style of some of the pagan writers of the age. (Cf. § G8. 3). 

The most marvelous stories have been reported as to the manner, in which the 
proper literature of the Hebrews, composed of their Canonical Books and called 
by us the Old Testament, was first presented to the Greeksin their native tongue. 
The true account is, probably, that the Jews of Alexandria, who had lost the use 
of their national language, procured for their own benefit a Greek translation of 
these Books, in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. C. about 280. This transla- 
tion received the sanction of their Sanhedrim, consisting like that at Jerusalem, 
of 70 or 72 members, and was from this circumstance called the Septuagint. 
This version enjoyed a high reputation both among Greeks and Jews for many 
years, but in some of the most interesting parts it fell far short of the spirit and 
force of the original, and attempts were made at a later period to give to the 
Grecian reader, in a more elegant dress, this body of sacred history and poetry. 

For an account of the Septuagint, and of other Greek versions, we refer, to Home's Introi. to Crit. 
Study of the Scriptures, P. I. Ch. V. Sect. 1. § 2. 

§ 279. The books termed the Apocrypha Qxno-/.Qv<f a) were originally written,, 
some of them in the Greek, but most of them in the Hebrew or Chaldee. They 
were all, or nearly all, composed before the Christian era. 

Several of the pieces contain authentic narratives of events, and are highly val- 
uable in supplying the historical deficiencies of the canonical books and illustra- 
ting the circumstances of the age to which they refer. A larger number must be 
viewed as mere historical fictions, having perhaps their foundation in matters of 
fact, but embellished according to the fancy of the author, often ingenious and 
amusing ; yet framed wholly for moral and religious purposes. Some of the 
books are more purely and directly didactic in character, consisting of proverbi- 
al reflections and maxims of prudence and wisdom. ' The song of the three 
children ' is the only piece in the collection, which can be justly called poetical ; 
in form and structure it almost exactly resembles the Psalms of David. 



CHRISTIAN WRITINGS. 283 

What interest these apochryphal writings excited, or to what extent they were 
circulated among the Greek literati, it may be impossible now to determine; but 
it is manifest from the reply of Josephus to the attack of Apion, that about the 
commencement of the Christian era, the antiquities and historical records of the 
Jews had become interesting subjects of inquiry among pagan scholars. At first 
the Greeks very generally looked upon the Jews with profound contempt, class- 
ing them without distinction under the leveling epithet of barbarians. Occa- 
sionally they honored them with a tribute of derision for their proud claims as a 
nation favored of heaven, and their bigoted adherence to a set of burthensome 
ceremonies. But at length the Greeks became more acquainted with their sa- 
cred books, and conversion from paganism to Judaism was not an uncommon oc- 
currence. Synagogues, composed in great part of proselytes, existed in many of 
the Grecian cities, at the beginning of the Christian era. 

On the writings classed underthe Apocrypha of the Old Testament, see J. A. Fabriciius, Codex Pseud 
epigraphus Veteris Testamenti. Hamb. 1723. 2. vols. i.—Horne, Intr. &c. cited § 278— Cf. P. I. § 6. 

§ 280. The other class, to which we alluded (§ 277), comprehends the numer- 
ous writings from Christian authors. After the time of Christ, there began to 
appear, in both the Greek and Roman tongues, works totally different in their 
whole spirit and character from all that is found in pagan literature. In the no- 
tices already given of Greek authors, a few names of professed believ- 
ers in Christ are found; but they have been presented only as their works related 
to the subjects strictly included in the compass of profane studies. Independent 
of all such works, there was a body of Christian literature, which deserves our 
notice here, and which in fact offers a spacious and most interesting field of ob- 
servation. Our limits confine us to a glance at the Christian writings in the 
Greek language before or during the time of Constantine. 

6 281. The first object, which appears as we enter this field, is the collection of 
sacred writings contained in the New Testament. These, considered in a litera- 
ry point of view, may be classified under the three heads of historical, epistolary 
and prophetical composition. 

Four of the five pieces, which are historical, illustrate the life, death and char- 
acter of the great Founder of the religion, while the fifth relates the circumstan- 
ces of his followers for some time after his death, and details the labors particu- 
larly of One apostle. They are written in a style of the most affecting simplicity, 
and contain a historical and biographical narrative, which, in whatever light it is 
considered, is altogether without a parallel, in the literature of the whole world. 

The epistolary part consists of letters from five of the first teachers, directed 
to companies of believers in the christian faith united together in churches or 
to individual converts. These letters must of course be accommodated to the 
specific object of each, and contain many allusions to the peculiar wants and 
circumstances of the times. But they were intended for general instruction, 
and present it in almost every variety of form, in which it can be offered to the 
mind and heart of man ; in rigid demonstration of truth ; in clear exposure of 
error ; in strong warnings against impurity of life ; in warm encouragements to 
active goodness and benevolence ; all urged with sanctions drawn from the sub- 
lime realities of a future eternal existence. 

One piece only is considered asprophetical, styled the Revelation. It was com- 
posed last of the whole collection, and is marked by many striking peculiarities. 
There is one trait in its style specially remarkable, to which there is nothing 
similar in any department of pagan literature, the singular use of symbolical 
language. This peculiar language was chiefly derived from the Hebrew pro- 
phets, by whom it seems to have been employed as essential to the prophetical 
style, it throws an air of mystery over the composition, but at the same time 
imparts to it an overwhelming majesty and sublimity. The grand and simple 
object of this beautiful vision of the venerable exile at Patmos seems to have 
been to show forth the hastening overthrow of Judaism and Gentilism, the fu- 
ture general triumphs of Christianity on earth, and the final rewards of its dis- 
ciples in Heaven. 

For whatever pertains to the editions of the New Testament, its interpretation and kindred topics, 
we must refer to the work of Home already cited. 

§ 282. It would be impious sacrilege to speak of the writings just named only 
as a part of the general mass of literary productions. It must not be forgotten 



284 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

that they constitute, taken in connection with the sacred books of the Jews, n se- 
ries of authentic communications from God to man ; the)' are, if the expression 
can be allowed, the second volume of dvoim inspiration. There is irresistible 
evidence, that they are from the peps of men, who wrote as they were moved by 
the Holy Ghost, and contain the infallible rule of faith and practice for us as 
the intelligent moral subjects of the Great Ruler of the Universe. By the prin- 
ciples of these books we are each to be tried at the day of (inal judgment, and 
each to receive his eternal retribution. It is only by giving earnest heed to these 
books, that we can cleanse our waysfrom sin, or obtain part in the life and im- 
mortality, which they and they alone have brought to light. ' The law of the 
Lord is perfect, converting the soul.' 

Yet these writings should be noticed as included among those mental produc- 
tions of antiquity, which are presented to us in the language of the Greeks, es- 
pecially as the literary importance and influence of the New Testament has 
been too generally overlooked. It is often interesting to the scholar to consider, 
how the writings of a. distinguished individual, a Homer, a Plato, an Aristotle 
or a Bacon, have given a cast to the general mind through distant ages ; how a 
single productionlias affected the thoughts and feelings, and modified the whole 
character, of many successive generations. Viewed in this light, no work of 
human genius suggests so interesting a train of reflections as the inspired wri- 
tings of Christianity. No work or class of works has operated so powerfully or 
so extensively on the human mind, none has effected so much in arousing the la- 
lant energies of intellect, in preparing it to put forth splendid and successful 
efforts in the varied departments of science and literature. Cf. P. I. § 83 

§ 283. The writings, which next fall under our notice following the order of 
time, are those which are ascribed to the Apostolical Fathers. Barnabas, Cle- 
mens Romanus, Hernias, Polycarp and Ignatius are included under this denomi- 
nation. 

Barnabas was a native of the island of Cyprus, was educated at Jerusalem in 
the school of Gamaliel, and was for some time a companion of the Apostle Paul. 
The letter extant under his name is chiefly an argument addressed to the Jews, 
showing that the Mosaic law had been abolished by Christ, and apurely spiritual 
service substituted instead of their ceremonial rites and sacrifices. 

The work left by Hermas, is styled Pastor or Shepherd, consisting of three 
Parts, viz. 12 commands, 12 similitudes, and 4 visions. The commands are so 
many practical positions or principles laid down and illustrated. The visions 
and similitudes are fanciful and puerile in the extreme, and little worthy of at- 
tention except as they indicate the great sincerity and piety of the author. 

The only genuine remains of Clement of Rome are two epistles to the Corinthi- 
ans, and concerning the second of these there is reason to doubt. They are alto- 
gether of a practical character, exhorting the Corinthians to cultivate the Christian 
virtues and to manifest in their deportment the superior excellence of the Chris- 
tian faith. Clement enjoyed distinguished reputation and on this account several 
works by later writers were ascribed to him in order to give them currency, as 
the Apostolic Canons, the Apostolic Constitutions, the Recognitions, and the Clem- 
entines. These works, although spurious, afford much useful and curious infor- 
mation respecting the state of Christian society, opinions and views in the period 
to which they belong. 

Polycarp and Ignatius are both remembered as venerable and heroic martyrs. 
The former at the age of more than eighty years died at Smyrna, bound to the 
slake ; the latter, at about the same age, was devoured by lions in the Amphithe- 
atre at Rome. 

The only fragment of Polycarp is an epistle to the Philippians, applauding 
their faith, enforcing the doctrine of the. resurrection, giving precepts to the dif- 
ferent classes in the church, and warning its members against errors in belief 
and sins in practice. 

A large number of epistles are extant ascribed to Ignatius. Only seven of them 
are considered as genuine; one of them was a letter of christian friendship to 
Polycarp, and the others were pastoral addresses to different churches written 
after he commenced his fatal journey from Antioch to. Rome, a prisoner of the 
Emperor Trajan. 

These various remains of the Apostolical Fathers were held in high estima- 
tion by primitive christians. Some of them were occasionally read with the 
Holy Scriptures in the religious assemblies on the Sabbath. 



CHRISTIAN WRITINGS. 3 

The best edition of the writings of the Apostolic Fathers is that of J. B. Cotelerius (as emended hy 
J, Clericus) Gr. & Lat. Amst, 1724, 2 vols, fol.— An English translation was published by Abp. Wake. 
Reprinted, Lond. 1817.— An account of their lives maybe found in Caves History of the Primitive 
Fathers, Lond. 1697. fol.— See also Mosheim, translated by Murdoch, New Haven, 1832. 3 vols. b. 1st vol. 
p. 89. 

§ 284. In the 2d and 3d centuries, as was perfectly natural, there appeared a 
number of spurious productions, which claimed to be from the Apostolical Fa- 
thers and others, who had been active in the introduction and first promulgation 
of Christianity. Many of these were undoubtedly written with the best inten- 
tions, and perhaps were understood by their first readers as asserting a fictitious 
origin not expected to be believed or allowed, according to a law which has ex- 
isted in the republic of letters from time immemorial. 

Among the fabrications alluded to we must rank the Apostles' Creed, a beauti- 
ful little summary of doctrine, which is still regarded with great respect. To 
the same class belong the books styled the Revelation and the Preaching of St. 
Peter, the latter of- which contains, together with some interesting matter, many 
ridiculous statements and anecdotes. A still bolder fiction is found in the two 
Edessan Epistles, which purport to be a letter from Abgarus king of Edessa sent 
to Jesus Christ, and the answer returned to him by the Saviour. The story is 
briefly, that Abgarus in a dangerous sickness wrote to implore relief, and that 
Christ sent back a gracious reply, accompanied with a present of his picture. 
Besides pieces of this description, there were several professed biographies of the 
Saviour, crowded with the most puerile superstitions and absurdities, but in some 
instances exhibiting the marks of a lively and truly poetical imagination. 

The collection of writings termed the Apocryphal Testament is composed of 
such productions as have just been mentioned; productions perfectly consonant 
to the circumstances of the age and the character of the times; when the Saviour 
and the Apostles had been so long departed , that their lives and actions 
might be embellished by exaggeration and fiction, and the reading class among 
Christians had become so numerous, and the general curiosity so awakened, as to 
create an increased demand for writings relating to their common faith and the 
history of their Founder and his companions. 

Many of these works have perished. Those extant were collected and published by J, A. Fabricius, 
in his Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti, Harab. 1719-43. 2 vols. 8 — An apocryphal book, purporting 
to be the Acts of the Apostle Thomas, was lately discovered at Paris, and was published by Jo. Car. 
Thilo, (Thomae Apostoli Acta) Lpz. 1822. 8.— An English translation of most of these productions was 
published, entitled The Apocryphal New Testament, &c. Lond. 1820. 8.— Cf. Home, before cited, Vol. 
I. Appendix No. V. 

§ 285. The works, which have thus far been noticed, proceeded chiefly from 
men comparatively illiterate. But in the 2d century, and still more so in the 3d, 
Christians could rank among their advocates and writers many distinguished 
scholars and philosophers, particularly of the Greeks. Very early, however, 
arose two opposite opinions respecting the importance of human attainments. 
A considerable class of Christians utterly disapproved of the study of science 
and philosophy, as useless and inconsistent with the design of Christianity. An- 
other class warmly advocated such study as perfectly proper and highly useful, 
especially to those who aspired to be public teachers ot religion. The latter 
opinion gradually gained the ascendency, and the sciences, which had been taught 
in the pagan schools, were at length to a considerable extent introduced into the 
Christian seminaries. (Cf. P. I. §83.) 'Box philosophy constituted the principal 
study thus derived, and nearly all the Christian writers, who remain to be noticed 
in the glance we are now taking, will come under the general name of philoso- 
phers. None of them wrote treatises expressly philosophical; but many of 
them were philosophers by profession before they were converted to Christianity 
and afterwards continued the same pursuits, while all of them studied more or 
less the pagan systems, and employed the doctrines of philosophy in whatever 
they wrote in support of their own religion. 

The Fathers down to Origen have been termed Platonizing, because they gen- 
erally preferred the system of Plato and adopted many of his views. Justin 
Martyr and Irensus were the more distinguished of this class. Origen and most 
of the early Greek Fathers after him have been termed Eclectic, because they 
embraced the system of Ammonius, to which we have already alluded (§ 181). 
Some of the Fathers were partial to the doctrines of other sects particularly the 
Stoics; but the Eclectic philosophy became altogether the most popular among 



286 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE 

Christians as well as pagans. Tho views of the Fathers were, however, in many 
points peculiar to themselves and formed what might be called a Christian phi- 
losophy. (Sc/iail, L.V. Ch. 68.) The productions of the writers, whose philo- 
sophical studies and partialities have thus been hinted at, may be classed under 
the several heads of Biblical, Controversial, Doctrinal, Historical, and Homi- 
letical writings. 

§ 28G. The early Christians attached great importance to Biblical studies. 
The writings of both the Old and New Testament they endeavored not only to ex- 
plain to their children and to those who attended their public assemblies, but also 
to circulate among all the heathen around them. For this purpose, versions were 
very early made into several of the different languages then spoken. Much care 
and labor were expended also in collecting various copies, in correcting the ver- 
sions in use, and publishing more perfect editions. Many of the Fathers engag- 
ed in these efforts with ardor, but the palm of preeminent zeal and diligence be- 
longs to Origen ; his Polyglot, usually called the Hexapla, hasbeen considered one 
of the most astonishing monuments of philological industry, and the loss of it 
is still deeply lamented by every sacred interpreter. 

Harmonies of the gospels were likewise among the biblical compositions of the 
age: that of Tatian, about the middle of the 2d century, is the earliest on record ; 
it was called To Sia tiooccqwv, or Movotsooclqov. — But the most important and 
numerous productions of this general class were Commentaries. In the 2d cen- 
tury Theophilus of Antioch wrote on the Gospels, Clemens Alexandrinus on the 
Epistles, Justin Martyr on the Apocalypse. In the 3d century we find among the 
•commentators, Hippolytus, Gregory Thaumaturgus, and Origen, the most prolific 
and most distinguished of them all. These authors understood but very imper- 
fectly the true principles of interpretation. Justin Martyr adopted the Jewish 
idea of a double meaning belonging to one and the same passage, and made a 
constant endeavor in his expositions to ascertain a. hidden and remote sense, in ad- 
dition to the literal. The same principle was embraced by Origen, who incor- 
porated it with notions borrowed from the allegorizing Platonists, and spread it 
out into a system, which soon led its founder and his followers into endless laby- 
rinths of mystical extravagance. 

Respecting the early versions, consult Home's Introd. P. I. Ch. v. Sect. 1. § 3, i.— Gerard's Institutes 
of Bibl. Crit. Bast. 1823. 8. ch. iv. §§ 4, 5, 6.— An accountof Origen's Hexapla is given by Home, Vol. ii. 
p. 171. Cf. Stuart, Dissertations on studying the Orig. Languages of the Bible, Note C— On the early 
harmonists and commentators, Home, ii. p. 478, 741. 

§ 287. The Controversial writings of the early Greek Christians constitute an 
interesting part of their literature. They consist of books designed either for 
heretics, or for Jews, or for pagan Gentiles. 

The errors of the various classes of heretics and schismatics were opposed by 
a great number of writers whose books are lost; but the five books of Irenaaus, 
in which he examines and refutes the doctrines of the whole body of them, are 
still extant, partly in the original Greek and partly in a Latin version, The chief 
work from the Greek fathers in controversy with the Jews, which now remains, 
is the curious dialogue of Justin Martyr with Trypho Judseus, although Sera- 
pion of Antioch and other Christian doctors wrote particular treatises against 
them. The polemical writings intended for Gentile readers were chiefly apolo- 
gies for Christians or exhortations to pagans ; great numbers of which were com- 
posed before the time of Constantine. The most distinguished authors were 
Justin Martyn, Tatian, Clemens Alexandrinus, Athenagoras, and Theophilus of 
Antioch. But the Fathers were also called upon to answer particular attacks 
upon Christianity made by heathen authors; Origen published a triumphant re- 
ply to Celsus, Methodius to Porphyry, and Eusebius to Hierocles and Philostra- 
tus (§ 254). 

In these compositions they exposed the unsatisfactory and contradictory doc- 
trines of the Greek philosophy, demonstrated the vastly superior nature of the 
Christian religion, and defended its disciples from the numerous aspersions cast 
upon their character ; thus they contributed much to promote that mighty 
change, which ultimately took place in the complete extirpation of the old my- 
thology and establishment of the Christian faith. 

The best editions of Irenaeus are those of J, E. Grabe,Oxf. 1702. fid. and Ren. Massuet, Par. 
1710. fol.— Of the dialogue of J ustin a good edition is that of S. Jebb, Lond, 1719.8. with his Apolo- 



CHRISTIAN WRITINGS. 287 

gies. It is given in the edition of his works by P. Maranus (Maran) Par. 1742. fol. also in F. Ober- 
thuer, Opera Patrum Graec. (Gr. & Lat.) Wurtzb. '.777. ss. 34 vols. 8.— The two apologies in English by 
W. Reeve, Lond. 1707. 2 vols. 8.— Tat i an, by Worth, Gr. &Lat. Oxf. 1700. 8.— Athenagoras, by E. 
Dechaire, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1706. 8.— C lemens Alexandrinus, byj. Potter, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1715. 
2 vols, fol.— Theophilus, by /. Chr. Wolf, Gr, & Lat. Hamb. 1724. 8.— We may also refer to the 
work entitled Sanctorum Patrum Opera polemica de veritatis Rel. Christ contra Gentiles et Judasos, 
Wurtzb. 1778. 4 vols. 8.— Cf. Murdoch's Mosheim, Vol. 1. 144. 

§ 288. The chief Historical writer among the Christian authors, who come 
under notice in the period before us, was Eusebius. He lived in the time of 
Constantine, was one of the most accomplished scholars of the age, and left en- 
during monuments of his learning and diligencein different departments of study. 
His Universal History has already been mentioned as falling within the circle of 
classical literature (§ 239). It was written, however, for the purpose of confirm- 
ing the historical books of the Old Testament, and is a very valuable help and 
guide in the perplexing labyrinths of ancient chronology. The Greek text is 
lost ; but we possess a Latin translation by Jerome, and also an Armenian ver- 
sion (cf, § 236) as old as the 5th century. His Ecclesiastical History, 'Exx^ataa- 
rixi] 'IaroQla, is justly ranked among the most valuable remains of Christian an- 
tiquity, being our principal source of information respecting the affairs of the 
church in the first centuries. It consists of 10 books, and extends from the origin 
of Christianity to A. D. 324. His Life of Constantine, in 4 books, although 
abounding with eulogium, is yet of much value. One of his greatest works is 
that entitled 'EvayycXixijg hnodel^smi nqonotoaay.tv^, Praparatio Evangelica, in 
15 books. Its object is to show, how vastly superior the Gospel is to all the pagan 
systems. The work styled 'Evayyelixi] Imidsi^ig, Demonstratio Evangelica, is 
also celebrated, as containing the proofs of the credibility and authority of the 
Christian religion. It consisted of 20 books, of which only 10 are preserved. 
Both these works might perhaps be ranked among the controversial writings, to 
which we have alluded. 

The best edition of the Universal History is that of Mai $• Zohrdb. Ven. 1818. 4.— Ecclesi- 
astical History, Reading, Gr. & Lat. Camb. 1720, 3 vols, fol.— An English translation was pub- 
lished, Lond. 1683. fol.— A recent one was published at Philadelphia, entitled The Ecclesiastical His- 
tory of Eusebius Pamphilus, Translated from the original by the Rev. C. F . Cruse. A. M. Assistant 
Professor in the University of Pennsylvania, 1833. 8.— P r ae p. Evangelica, Vigerus, Gr. & Lat. 
Par. 1628. fol. reprinted, Lpz. 1688.— D emons. Evang. Vigerus, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1628. repr. Lpz. 1688. 
-See Schall, Hist. Litt. Gr. vii. 8. 

§ 289. A few Doctrinal treatises made their appearance as early asthesecond 
century, but there seems to have been nothing like an attempt at systematic the- 
ology until the third, ■when Origen published his four books of Elements or first 
principles, Ileal 'Aq'/mv, illustrating the doctrines of the gospel after a philo- 
sophical manner. Other works of a similar character soon followed, and essays 
and discussions altogether too numerous to be mentioned, on various points of 
faith and practice, of theology and of morals, were given to the church. 

The name of Athanasius must not here be passed in silence ; he has justly been 
pronounced one of the greatest men of whom the church can boast. 'His life, 
his struggles, his genius,' says an elegant French writer ( Villemain), ' did more 
for the advancement of Christianity than all the power of Constantine. Train- 
ed, as it were, in the midst of religious dissensions, renowned while young in the 
Council of Nice, chosen patriarch of Alexandria by the suffrage of an enthusi- 
astic people, exiled by Constantine, proscribed by Constance, persecuted by Ju- 
lian, threatened with death under Valens, he ended his life in the patriachal 
chair, from which he had repeatedly been driven. The writings of such a man, 
it is easily seen, are not the works of a mere theologian. If he often contended 
on points of deep obscurity, his aim was to establish that religious unity, of which 
he well understood the value and the power.' The chief theme of his doctrinal 
discussions was the subject of the Trinity, on which he most vigorously opposed 
the notions of Arius. The celebrated compend or formula of Christian doc- 
trine, long ascribed to him, and still usually called the At/ianasian Creed, 'is now 
generally allowed not to have been his, but to have been deduced from his works.' 

The Greek text of Origen's First Principles is chiefly lost; we have a Latin version made by Rufi- 
nus in the 4th century. The best edition of Origen's Works, is that of (the Benedictines Charles^ 
Charles Vincent) Dc la Rue, Par. 1733-59. 4 vols. fol. reprinted by Oberthuer, Wuertzb, 17S0. 15 vols. 8. 



288 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 

The bosl edit Ion of the works of A t h b u a slue Is that of Bern. de. Monte-Falccmia (Montfinicnn) 
Gr. ft Lai. >>av. iGus. a vols, foi.— Some pieces (opuscuia), not contained lathis, are given In the a i vol. 
of Mntitfttucims BlbUoth. Patt. Groo. Par. 1708.— Cf, Hartet, Int. In Hist. Ling. Gr.Vol, ill. p. 225,— 
Vill, inain, as cited §292. 

§ 290. The last class of writings mentioned, as included in the Christian lite- 
rature of these early ages, was the Homiletical. The Homily of the primitive 
church held nearly, that place in the public worship, which the sermon does at 
the present day ; it was the address of the religious teacher to the audience as- 
sembled, and intended for their instruction and improvement. But it differed 
widely in its character from the modern sermon. It was neither a labored dis- 
cussion of a single subject, nor a critical interpretation and illustration of a sin- 
gle text ; but a rapid exposition of a whole context, or a full chapter or even a 
larger pottion of scripture, combining in a manner quite irregular and acciden- 
tal the most various matter, doctrinal, philosophical, critical andpractical. 

The eloquence of the pulpit, contemplated in its origin, progress and effects, 
presents truly one of the most interesting topics of study in the whole history 
of the human mind. The subject, however, comes before us in this place only so 
far as relates to the remains of sacred oratory, which exist in the language of 
the Greeks. These, it is much to be regretted, are comparatively few until after 
the time of Constantine. Nearly every one of the authors, who have been na- 
med, was a preacher or sacred orator. The great business of the Apostles was 
to address their fellow men on the sublime truths of religion, and the momen- 
tous interests of eternity. The apostolical Fathers were also chiefly employed 
in the same duty. The other writers mentioned were public religious teachers. 
Yet of the actual addresses of so many speakers, we have scarcely any full and 
fair specimens, until we reach Origen. Their other writings, however, afford 
us some aid in judging of their oratory. The apostles imitated the simple and 
powerful manner of the Redeemer himself, who spake as never man spake. 
They practised an easy, artless, moving eloquence, warm-hearted and pungent, 
which was astonishingly efficacious to convince and to reform. The apostolical 
Fathers and their contemporaries generally followed the same natural, unstudi- 
ed, unostentatious method of speaking. Butan unfortunate change in taste soon 
made its appearance. The writings of the Platonizing Fathers, of whom Jus- 
tin may be taken as a representative, furnish plain evidence that in their public 
discourses they indulged to a melancholy extent in feeble reasonings and frivo- 
lous allegories, in erroneous and even puerile and ridiculous applications of 
scripture. The oratory of Justin was strikingly marked by these faults, but was 
nevertheless flowing and persuasive in its character. 

On the preaching of the first centuries, see Bernh. Eschenbtirg, Versuch einer Geschichte der ceffent- 
lichen Religlonsvortrage inder griech. undlat. Kirche. Jen. 1785. 8.— M. G. Hansch, Abbildung der 
Predigten im ersten Christenthum. Frankf. 1725. 8. 

§ 291. The principal genuine homiletical remains of the period under notice 
are from the hand of Origen, who has already been mentioned as a writer of ex- 
tensive acquirements and extraordinary abilities. The homilies of Origen ex- 
hibit as one of their most prominent characteristics the disposition for allegory 
and mystery, for which he was so much distinguished as an interpreter of scrip- 
ture. Interpretation or exposition still continued to be the essence of preaching. 
The speaker proceeded from clause to clause of the passage before him, offering 
miscellaneous observations and reflections as he advanced. This was the man- 
ner of Origen. His explanations were more full and diffuse than those of earlier 
speakers, with more of studied oratory, and a freer use of human erudition. 
He had prepared himself for the highest duties of a sacred orator by cultivating 
a thorough acquaintance with the Jewish and Christian scriptures, with the lan- 
guages important to a biblical interpreter, and with the literature, philosophy and 
arts both of the Greeks and Romans. He possessed less ardor of religious feel- 
ing than some others of the same age, but maintained a character of uncommon 
courage, independence and decision, so as to be entitled to the name which was 
sometimes applied to him, the man of adamant (aSauuvnvoc). Had he not been 
misguided by a lively and fertile imagination, he would have secured a much 
higher place in the annals of sacred eloquence. 

The best edition of Origen's works lias been named, 5 289. -For a good account of Origen, see Mnr- 
dock's Moshcim, Vul. 1. p,2i)4. 



CHRISTIAN WRITINGS. 289 

§ 292. Although confined by our plan and limits to the Christian writers be- 
fore the death of Constantine, we cannot forbear while speaking of the early sa- 
cred eloquence, to mention the names of two or three, who lived at the close of 
the 4th century, and who were highly distinguished as scholars and orators. We 
refer especially to Gregory Nazianzen, Basil the Great, and Chrysostom. 

The published works of Gregory consist, of about 50 orations or sermons, with 
a large number of epistles and small poems. As an orator. he exhibits a fertile 
imagination united with much strength and grandeur, but is charged with in- 
dulging in false ornament and as deficient in. method. — Basil was a contempo- 
rary, fellow-student, and intimate friend of Gregory. He was a pupil of the 
rhetorician Libanius (§ 128) at Constantinople. His education was completed at 
Athens, where Gregory and Julian the apostate were his companions in study. 
Among his numerous works are nearly a hundred discourses and homilies. He 
is esteemed a fine scholar, an elegant writer, and a good reasoner. — But both 
Gregory and Basil were wholly surpassed in eloquence by John Chrysostom, who 
was born at Antioch, A. D. 354, and was in early life distinguished for his ge- 
nius, literary acquirements and piety, and in the year 398 was made patriarch of 
Constantinople. His works include above 300 discourses and orations, and 
above 600 homilies, beside numerous letters and treatises. 'For overpowering 
popular eloquence, Chrysostom had no equal among the fathers. His discourses 
show an inexhaustible richness of thought and illustration, of vivid conception, 
and striking imagery. His style is elevated, yet natural and clear. He trans- 
fuses his own glowing thoughts and emotions into all his hearers seemingly 
without effort, and without the power of resistance. Yet he is sometimes too 
florid, he uses some false ornaments, he accumulates metaphors, and carries both, 
his views and his figures too far.' {Murdoch.) 

The best edition of Gregory of Nazlunzus is that of Billius, Gr. &Lat. Par. 1630. 2 vols. fol. A 
better edition commenced by the Benedictines; yet only 1st vol. executed, by Clemencet, Gr. & Lat. 
Par. 1778. fol.— Basil, that of J. Gamier, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1721-30. 3 vols, fol.— Chry s ostom, 
Montfaucon, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1718-38, 13 vols. fol. reprinted, Ven. 1755.— See a very interesting account 
of these orators in an Essay De V Eloquence Chretienne dans le quatrieme Steele, by Villemain, in his 
Nouveaux Melanges &c. Par. 1827. 8. 

There have been English Translations of some portions of these authors. H. S. Boyd, Select pas- 
sages from Gregory Nazianzen, St. Basil and St. Chrysostom, Lond. 1810. 8.— H. S. Boyd, Select 
Poems of Synesius and Gregory Nazianzen. Lond. 1814. 12. 'The Poems of Gregory, though princi- 
pally the productions of his last years, betray nothing of the decay of either intellect or imagination ; 
they abound with the fire of genius and the vigor of youth ; without the aid of pagan machinery, the 
imagery is bold, Uie expressions strong, and the thoughts frequently mounting to the sublime.'— W. 
Barker, St. Bas'tl the Great his Exhortations to his kinsmen to the Studie of the Scriptures. 
Lond. 1557. 8.—' An Homelye of Basilius Magnus, how eyounge men oughte to reade Poetes and Ora- 
tours. Translated out of the Greke, AnnoMDLVII. 8vo, Lend. J. Cawood.' [The original Greek of 
this treatise or discourse (cf. P. I, § 83) was published by J. Potter (with the Lat. version of Grotius) 
Oxf. 1694. 8. republ. by Mai, Frankf. 1714. 4. A good edition of the text alone is F. G. Sturz, Gera, 1791. 
8.]— J. Evelyn, Chrysostom's Golden Book on the Education of Children. Lond. 1559. 1 2.— H. Hol- 
lier, Chrysostom on the Priesthood. Lond. 1728. 8. The same treatise translated also by J. Bunce, 
Lond. 1759. 8. and recently by H. M. Mason (Rector of St. John's church Fayetteville, N. C), Phil. 1826. 
For brief, but very satisfactory notices of all the principal early christian authors, or Fathers of the 
Church, both Greekand Latin, we refer to the notes of Dr. Murdoch's Translation of Mosheim.— For 
an analysis of their works, Adam. Clarke, Succession of Sacred Literature in a chronological arrange- 
ment &c. to A. D. 1300. Lond. 1830-32. 2 vols. 8.— The following works are ranked among the au- 
thorities on this subject. J. G. Walchii, Bibliotheca Patristica, Jen. 1770. 8.— Ant. Gallandus, Biblioth. 
gr. &. lat. vet. Patr. Ven 1778. in fol.— Christ. Fried. Roessler, Biblioth. der Kirchenvaeter, Lpz. 1776-85. 
in 8.— We may add VAbbe Tricalet, Bibliotheque Portative des Peres de l'Eglise, qui l'histoire abregee 
de leurs vies, l'analyse de leurs principaux ecrits, &c. Par. 1758-62. 9 vols. 8.— New ed. 1787. 8 vols. 8. 
—A work more extensive was commenced in 1821, Bibliotheque Choisiedes Peres I' Eglise, by Guillon, 
Par. 1831, to consist of 25 vols. 8,— Latin versions of many of the Fathers mentioned in the preceding 
glance, with the works of later writers, are found in De laBigne Maxima Biblioth. Vet. Patr. (ed. by 
Despont) Lugd, 1677. 27 vols. fol. 

37 



ADVERTISEMENT TO THE READER. 

It was the intention of the translator to present the History of the Roman 
Literature in the same form with that of the Greek, with similar additions to the 
original work. The reason why this intention was not executed is the following. 
When the work was advanced in the printing into the portion occupied with 
Greek Literature, the translator received a letter from the Rev. C. F. Cruse, 
lately a Professor in the University of Pennsylvania, written in very courteous 
language, but stating that he had just seen the announcement of the Translation 
of Eschenburg then in press, that he had himself three or four years previously 
actually translated the work, and had announced, through the Newspapers, his 
intention to publish the same. 

On a statement of facts, however, Mr. Cruse was perfectly satisfied, that there 
was not the slightest occasion for complaint against the translator or publishers 
of the present work, who had been entirely ignorant of his labors and designs. 
But, under all the circumstances of the case, it was thought desirable to unite 
with that gentleman in an arrangement, which should be mutually satisfactory, 
and which might, in the end, render the work itself more extensively useful. By 
this arrangement, it was the understanding that the translation of Mr Crus6 
would be used in the part of the work, which treats of the Roman or Latin Au- 
thors. Accordingly this has been done. Although the translation by no means 
requires any apology, it is due to Mr. Cruse (who is already known to the public 
as author of a Translation of the Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius) to state that 
he had no opportunity to revise his manuscript. It is also proper to add, that 
probably, had circumstances allowed him finally to prepare the work as a whole 
for publication, he would have introduced a notice of the editions and of other 
helps to the student, as far at least as contained in the original German of 
Eschenburg. 

The translator of the rest of the work has made no additions to the manuscript 
of Mr. Crus6, except what is included under § 296, and the occasional references 
to other parts of the Book. 



ROMAN LITERATURE. 



I. — Preliminary. 

§ 293. Next to the Greeks the Romans deserve an honorable 
rank in the literary history of antiquity, and this nation is no less re- 
markable for its scientific than for its political enterprise. The first 
periods, however, of their republic were too much engrossed by war, 
and the prevailing taste in those times was too much for conquest and 
the spread of their power, to allow any considerable leisure and patron- 
age to the arts of peace. Subsequently, however, when security, 
power and opulence had become the fruit of these wars, and the Ro- 
mans themselves had been led by their conquests of foreign countries 
to a nearer acquaintance with the sciences and arts then existing; when, 
particularly, by these occasions they began to have more intercourse 
with the Greeks and became more extensively acquainted with Gre- 
cian productions of taste and art, then also they imbibed a love for the 
sciences, cultivated their language with greater care, imitated the best 
writers of Greece with a happy success and peculiar talents, and then 
presented master-productions of eloquence, poetry, history and phi- 
losophy. The last periods of the republic, and the reigns of the 
first emperors, especially of Augustus, were the most flourishing pe- 
riod of Roman Literature and Art, which, however, afterwards gradu- 
ally fell into a total decline under the withering influence of tyran- 
ny, of luxury and moral corruption. 

See the following works ; Considerations sur l'Origine et le Progres 
des belles Lettres chez les Rom. &c. par VAbbe le Moine. — Meiner's 
History of the fall of morals, sciences and language of the Romans. 
— Cf. P. I. ^ 121, 128. 

§ 294. The study therefore of the Roman language and an ac- 
quaintance with the best of its authors must unquestionably be attend- 



292 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

ed with multiplied advantages ; and both are so much the more indis- 
pensable to the learned of every class, since even in modern times 
this language has been made the most general means of disseminating 
literary knowledge and research, making it a general medium of 
written communication in the republic of letters. 

Properly speaking the Latin and Roman languages are not the 
same. The former was spoken in Latium, between the Tiber and 
the Liris, until the abolition of the regal government in Rome, and in 
this dialect were the laws of the twelve tables written ; this was intro- 
duced thereafter the abovementioned period; and with regard to its 
dialects it was distinguished into the sermonem rusticum, urbanum 
and peregrinum, The first of these prevailed in the country, the second 
in the city, and the third in the conquered provinces. — Comp. Cic. de 
Orat. III. 10-14.— Cf. P.I. § 114. 

§ 295. Four ages are usually assigned to the Latin language, 
which are also epochs of Roman literature, and which in reference to 
their relative value are denominated from four metals. The golden 
age continued from the second Punic war until the death of Augus- 
tus ; the silver, from that period until the death of Trajan ; the brazen, 
from this time until the destruction of Rome by the Goths ; and the 
iron, during the whole of the middle ages, until the restoration of Let- 
ters. Others, according to another analogy, distinguish these periods 
into the infancy, youth, manhood and decrepid age of the Roman lan- 
guage and sciences. 

The most ancient monuments of this language that we now have, 
are what are called the laws of the twelve tables, and also the inscrip- 
tion of the columna rostrata erected in honor of C. Duillius. The 
latter also is among the most ancient monuments of Latin characters 
hitherto discovered, the successive variations of which may be best 
learned from Roman inscriptions and coins. — Cf. P. I. §§ 114, 133. 

§ 296. In the introduction to the History of Greek Literature we offered 
some remarks upon the proper methods of teaching the languages (§ 6). Here 
we will only add a few particulars, and then name some of the helps, which the 
scholar may employ in the study of the Latin language and literature. 

1. The system of instruction in the Boston Latin School has been much com- 
mended. The following extract respecting it is from a pamphlet, which was 
kindly furnished to the writer by the present Principal(Mr. C. K. Dillaway), and 
which contains an interesting account of the origin and history of that School. 

The scholars are distributed into four separate apartments under the rare of the same number of in- 
structors ; viz. a Principal, or head-master, a sub-master, and two assistants. 

When a class has entered, the boys commence the Latin Grammar all together, under the eye of the 
principal ; where they continue until he has become in some degree acquainted with their individual 
characters and capacities. As they receive credit marks of 5, 4, 3, 1, or Oateach recitation, andas these 
are added up at the end of every month and the rank of each boy ascertained, those boys will naturally 
rise to the upper part of the class, who are most industrious, or who learn with the greatest facility. 



INTRODUCTION. 293 

After a time a division of from twelve to fifteen boys is taken off from theupperendof the class; after 
a few days more, another division is in like manner taken off; and so on, till the whole class is sepa- 
rated into divisions of equal number ; it having been found that from twelve to fifteen is the most con- 
venient number to drill together. 

In this way boys of like capacities are put together, and the evil of having some unable to learn the 
lesson which others get in half the time allowed, is in some measure obviated. The class, thus ar- 
ranged for the year, is distributed among the assistant teachers, a division to each. 

When this distribution is made, the boys continue for the year in the apartment in which they are 
first placed, unless some particular reason should exist for changing them ; or when the divisions 
study Geography and Mathematics with the instructer to whom these branches are committed. 

This method of studying each branch separately, is adopted throughout the school. The same indi- 
viduals do not study Latin one part of the day and Greek the other, but each for a week at a time. In 
this way the aid of excitement from the continuity of a subject is secured, and a much more com- 
plete view of the whole obtained, than « hen studied in detached portions, and the grammar of neither 
language permitted to go out of mind. For it should ' be remembered, that if the grammar be the first 
book putiiHo the learner's hands, it should also be the last to leave them.' 

At convenient times the boys in each apartment undergo a thorough examination in the studies they 
have been over. If any class, or any individuals do not pass a satisfactory examination, they are put 
back, and made togo over the portion of studies in which they are deficient till they dopassa satis- 
factory examination. 

Boys commence with Adam's Latin Grammar, in learning which they are required to commit to 
memory much that they do not understand at the time, as an exercise of nrmory, and to accustom 
them to labor. There are some objections to this, it is true, but it has been found extremely difficult 
to make boys commit thoroughly to memory at a subsequent period, what they have been allowed to 
pass over in first learning the grammar. It taks from six to eight months for a boy to commit to 
memory all that is required in Adam's Grammar; but those who do master the grammar completely, 
seldom find any difficulty afterwards in committin .' to memory whatever may be required of them. 

The learned Vicesimus Knox thinks it may be well to relieve boys a little while studying grammar, 
' for,' says he, ' after they have studied Latin Grammar a year closely, they are apt to become weary.' 

"When boys can write Latin prose grammatically, they are required to make nonsense verses, or to 
put words into verses with regard totheir quantity only. When the mechanical structure of different 
kinds of versification is familiar, they have given them a literal translation, of a few verses at a time, 
taken from some author with whrse style they are not acquainted, which is to be turned into verses of 
the same kind as those from which it was taken; and then compared with the original. Afterwards 
portions of English poetry are given, to be translated into Latin verse. Original verses are then re- 
quired, which, with themes in Latin and English, continue through the course. Considerable por- 
tions of all the Latin and Greek poetsused inisehool are committed to memory, as they are read; par- 
ticularly several books of Virgil ; all the first book of Horace, and parts of many others ; the third and 
tenth Satires of Juvenal entire ; all the poetry in the Greek Reader, and many hundreds of verses in 
Homer. This is an important exercise to boys.; and without it they can never write Latin prose or 
verse with the same facility as with it. It is in this way that the idioms of any language are gained, 
and in writing verses the quar.tity and proper use of most words employed by the best writers are in- 
stantaneously determined, by recalling a verse in which it occurs. 

2. The true pronunciation of the Latin, like that of the Greek (§ 5), cannot 
be determined with certainty. There is no dispute among scholars respecting 
the principles, which are to guide us in locating the accent, i. e. in deciding -on 
which syllable to place the stress in enunciating any word. 

The following rule is adopted ; In all words of only two syllables, place the stress always on the first 
syllable or penultima ; in all words of more than two syllables, place the stress on the penultima, 
when the penultima is long In quantity, but on the antepenultima, when the penultima is short in 
quantity. This rule is thought to be supported by the authority of Quintilian. 'Namquein omni 
voce, acuta intra numerumtrium syllabarum continetur, sivehaesint in verbosote, sive ultimae; et 
in his aut proxima extremae, autab eatertia. Trium porro, de quibus loquor, media longa aut acuta 
aut fiexa erit ; eodem locobrevis, utiquegravem habebit sonum, ideoque positam ante se, id est ab 
ultima tertiam, acuet. Estautem in omni voce utique acuta, sed nunquam plus una; nee ultima un- 
quam ; ideoque in dissyllabis prior.' Instit. Orat. L. I. c. 5. 

But with reference to the sound of the letters, the vowels especially, there is 
not such agreement. Many think it proper to adopt what are called the Conti- 
nental sounds of the vowels, while others choose to follow English analogy. 
The latter is the custom at most of the seminaries in the U. States, particularly 
the northern. — See Adam's Lat. Gram, by Gould, Bost. 1837. 8. — Rules for pro- 
nouncing Latin &c. cited § 5. 

It is worthy of remark, that the Frenchman, German and Italian, in pronouncing Latin, each 
yields to the analogies of his native tongue. Each of them may condemn the other, while each com- 



294 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

mils the some error, or rather follows in truth the same general rule. Erasmus says he was present 
ntalovccof one of the German Princes, where most of the European ambassadors woro present; and 
u was agreed that the conversation should be carried on In Latin. It was so; but you would have 
thought, adds he, that all Babel had come together. 

3. Besides the various exercises before alluded to (§ 6. 4), that of conversation, 
maybe mentioned as a very valuable aid in acquiring familiarity -with Latin or 
any other foreign language. It may in fact be a question, whether the inconve- 
nience of the old regulation which required the intercourse between pupil and 
teacher in the higher seminaries to be carried on in Latin, was not more than 
compensated by the knowledge of the language thereby acquired. Certain it is 
that under our present systems of study, languages are learned as it were by the 
eye rather than the ear ; and it often happens, that a scholar would be quite puz- 
zled by a sentence spoken to him, when he could readily translate the same sen- 
tence written down and presented to his eye. The difficulty is, partly at least, 
that he has associated the meaning of the foreign word with its visible form 
rather than its sound. Frequent conversation would remove this, besides con- 
tributing in other ways to familiarity with the language. 

A very useful exercise, preparatory for more regular conversation, is to give 
orally in Latin (and the same of course may be done in the case of any other 
language which one wishes so learn) the name of each object, that is noticed in. 
a room, a walk, ride, or visit to a place of resort, a store, a shop, or the like. 
This exercise is particularly calculated to please youthful beginners, and might 
be practised by several students in company, either with or without a teacher. 

Some aid in exercises of this kind may be derived from Vocabularies, in which the names of 
things belonging to the same class, or of subjects related to each other, are brought together. The 
London Vocabulary for the Latin, and Howard's Vocabulary, for the Greek, are little works of this 
sort, of considerable merit. 

4. Another amusing and useful exercise, in studying the Latin and Greek in 
particular, is to trace tlrms in our own language back to theLatin orGreekorigi- 
nals, from which they were derived. 

It is also specially serviceable, in acquiring the mastery of a language, to ex- 
amine into the analogies established in it in the formation of derivative words 
from their primitives, and of compounds from their simple constituents. 

Special exercises for these objects may be devised by the teacher, besides directing the student's 
attention to them in connection with particular words occurring in the dally lessons.— A very good in- 
troduction to etymological studies is furnished by the following small works.— The Student's Manual, 
being an etymological and explanatory vocabulary of words derivedfrom the G reek, by R. H. Black 
LL.D. Lond. 1834. 18, and the Sequel to the Student's Manual, an etymolog. and explan. Dictionary 
of words derived from the Latin, by the same Author. 

Some valuable remarks upon a Course of Latin Studies will be found in the Amer. Quart. Rev. 
vol. vi. p. 303. 

5. We now proceed to name some of the aids in studying the Latin language 
and literature. 

(a) Chrestomathies and Reading-books. F. Gedike's lateinisches Lesebuch, 18th 
ed. Berl. 1820. 8.— By same, Lat. Chrestomathie. 4th ed. Berl. 1822. 8.—F. Ja- 
cob's(and F. W. Darings) lat. Lesebuch. Jen. 1818. The latter has been pub- 
lished in this country under the title of The Latin Reader, edited by George 
Bancroft, in 2 vols. (Parts I and II.)— -The Liber Primus (sterotyped 1827), Viri 
Roma (as published for Boston Lat. School 1833), and Histories Sacra, are also 
used in teaching beginners. — The Excerpta Latina, Bost. 1810. 8, was designed 
for students more advanced. — Analecta Latina Majora; containing selections 
from the best Latin Prose Authors, with English notes &c. on the plan of dalzel's 
Analecta Graca. Lond. 1831. 8. 

The authors usually read first after the Chrestomathy are Cornelius Nepos, 
Casar, Virgil, Ovid, Cicero, Sallust, Horace. 

(b) Grammars. Of the great number of grammatical helps we mention the 
following; G. J. Vossius, Aristarchus s. de arte grammatica. Amst. 1653. 2 vols. 
4. — Fr. Sanctii, Minerva s. de causis linguae lat. Comment, (ed. C. L. Bauer) 
Lips. 1793-1801. 2 vols. $.{K&.Eb. Scheidius,) Amst. et Goth. 1809. 8.-4. F. Bern- 
hardt Vollst. lat. Grammatik. Berl. 1795-97. 2 vols. 8.—/. S. G. Sckeller, Aus- 
fuerhrliche lat. Sprachlehre. Lpz. 1803. 8,—Ch. G. Brader, Praktische Gram- 



INTRODUCTION. 295 

matik der lat. Sprache. (14th ed.) Lpz. 1820. 8.— H. B. Wench's lat. Sprachl. (ed. 
G. F. Grotesend) Frankf. 1820-23. 2 vols. 8.—C. G. Zumpt'slat. Gramm. (4th ed.) 
Berl. 1824. 8. Trans, into Eng. by Kenrick. Also publ. N. York, 1829. 8.—K. 
L. Schneider, Ausfuehrl. Gramm. der lat. Sprache. Berl. 1819. 2 vols. 8.— Port 
Royal Lat. Grammar (A new method &c. translated from the French of the 
Messrs. de Port Royal) by T. Nugent. Lond. 1803. 2 vols. 8.— The Grammar O t 
most usually adopted in our schools is that of Adam ; the best editions of which ^h.ti 
are those of Gould, and of Fisk, >^»- - 

We may here mention, as very useful helps in studying the first principles of 
Latin grammar in the method suggested on a former page (§ 6. 2), the following ; 
Goodrich's Outlines of Latin Grammar &c. — Willard's Introduction to the Latin 
Language. Boston, 1835. 12. 

(c) Dictionaries. — The most complete are J. M. Gessner, Novus Lingua? Ro- 
manse Thesaurus, post R. Stephani et aliorum curas digestus. Lpz. 1749. 4 vols. 
fol. &/. T. G. Scheller, Ausfuerhliches lateinisch-deutsches u. deutsch-lat. Woer- 
terbuch. Lpz. 1804, 5. 7 vols. 8. — The Universal Latin Lexicon of Facciolatus 
and Forcellinus, edited by J. Bailey, Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4. — A smaller work of 
great utility is Scheller's Handlexiicon, verbessert und vermehrt durch G. H. Ltt- 
neniann. 5th ed. Lpz. 1822. 3 vols. 8. — Anew Dictionary is in press at Boston 
(in 8ro.), which promises to be very good ; A new and copious Latin-English and 
English-Latin Lexicon, chiefly abridged from the Magnum totius Latinitatis Lex- 
icon of pacciolati and forcelliw, with improvements drawn from the works of 
Scheller and Lilnemann, edited by F. P. Leverett. — The Dictionaries, which have 
been most commonly used in our schools, are Ainsworth's, Morell's Abridgement 
of Ainsworth, and Young's. — In Germany much use is made of Scheller's Klei- 
nes lat. Wcerterbuch, ed. by Lilnemann, 5th ed. Han. 1816. 8. — J. W. Niblock, 
Latin and English Dictionary. 

(d) We may refer also to a few works on particular branches of Grammar 
or Lexicography. 

1. On Synonymes ; J. Hill, The Synonymes of the Lat. Lang, with crit. Dissert, 
upon the force of its Prepositions. Edinb. 1804. 4. — G. Dumesnil, Synon. Lat. — 
Same, translated from Fr. into German by 1. Ch. G. Ernesti, Lpz. 1799. 3 vols. 8. 

2. On Particles ; Ch. G. Schutz, Doctr. particular. Lat. linguse. Dessav. 1784. 
S.— Hor. Vursellinus, Departiculis ling. Lat. libellus, (cur. J. A. Ernesti) Lpz. 
1769. 8. ed. by J. Bailey, Lond. 1828. 8. 

3. On Analogies and affinities of the language ; Dunbar, Inquiry into the 
Structure and Affinity of the Greek and Latin Languages. Ed. 1827. 8.— It may 
be profitable to consult Harris's Hermes, a Philosophical Inquiry concerning 
Universal Grammar. Lond. 1751. 8. 

(e) In writing Latin, there are various useful helps. — Scheller's Prascepta 
stili bene latini. Lpz. 1797. 2 vols. 8. — C. D. Beck, Artis latine scribendi praeep- 
ta. Lpz. 1801. 8. — E. Valpy, Elegantias Latinse; or Rules and Exercises, illustra- 
tive of Elegant Latin Style. 9th ed. Lond. 1831. Introductory to this are the 
two works styled First Latin Exercises, and Second Latin Exercises, by E. Valpy. 
— The Latin Tutor, or Introduction to the making of Latin &c. Bost. 1819. 
This is now much used in our schools. — W. Robertson, Dictionary of Latin 
Phrases, &c. for the more speedy progress of students in Latin Composition, 
Lond. 1830. 12. — At. Crombie's Gymnasium, or Symbola Critica, Lond. 1830. 2 
vols. 8. — E. H. Barker, Elements of Latin Prosody, with Exercises designed as 
an Introduction to the scanning and making Latin verses. 6th ed. Lond. 1830. 
12. — S. Butler, Praxis on the Latin Prepositions, being an attempt to illustrate 
their Origin, Signification and Government. 3d ed. Lond. 1832. 8. 

(f) For helps pertaining to the subjects of Geography, Chronology and 
Biography, consult § 7. 7 (p. 158). — We add here F. H. Clinton's Chronology of 
Greece and Rome, Lond. 4to. — Biographia Classica, Lond. 1740. 2 vols. 8. Trans, 
from Eng. to Germ. Hal. 1767. 

Among the valuable helps of a historical character we must mention the fol- 
lowing; Geschichte der Roemer, zur Erkleerung ihren klassischen Schriftsteller, 
Lpz. 1787. 2 vols. 8. — F. Fiedler's Geschichte des rom. Staates und Volkes. Lpz. 
1821. 8. — Ad. Fergurson, Hist, of Rise and Progress of Rom. Republic. Often 
reprinted. Trans, into German with additions by C. D. Beck, Lpz. 1784. 3 vols. 
8. — Goldsmith's History of Rome. Often reprinted. Same work abridged ; one of 
the best editions is by Pinnock, (republ. by Key <f> Biddle) Phil. 1835. 12. — Bentz- 
ter's Gesch. der Rcemer (atransl. of Goldsmith), Lpz. 1785.2 vols. 8. — Niebuhr's 
Roem. Gesch. cited P. I. § 109. Cf. Amer. quart. Rev. Vol.iv. p. 367.— N. Hooke, 



296 HISTORY OK ROMAN LITERATURE. 

The Roman History from the building of Rome to the ruin of the Common- 
wealth. Lond. ISOii." H vols. 8.— Ed. Gibbon, Hist, of Decline and Fall of Rom. 
Empire. Otten repr. A French transl. by Suard, with notes by Guizot> T Par. 
1812. 13 vols. 8. (The infidel insinuations of Gibbon are exposed aud refuted 
in Watson's Ap ilogy for Christianity, often reprinted.) 

(g) Works belonging to the class Styled Histories of Latin Literature, or In- 
troductions to the same, are very useful helps. We have already mentioned some, 
which treat of the Latin authors together with the Greek (§7. 9J. Some others 
relating to the Latin may be added here. — I. N. Funccius, cited P. I . § 114. — J. 
A. Fabn'cii, Bibholhcca Latina, rectius digesta et aucta diligentia J. A. Ernesti,, 
Lpz. 1773. 3 vols. 8. — C. F. Millie r, Hist. krit. Einleitung zu nc&thiger Kenntniss 
u. nuetzlichemGebrauche der alten lat. Schnftsteller. Dresd. 1747-51. 5 vols. 8,not 
completed.— J. C. Zeunii lnlroductio in linguam latinam. Jen. 1779. 8.—F. A. 
Wolf's Geschichte der roem. Literatur, em Leitfaden fur akad. Vorlesungen. 
Halle, 1787, 8.— Th. Chr. Harks, Intr. in hist, linguae latina:. Norimb. 1781. 2 
vols. 8. — By same, Notitia literatures romanse, in primis scriptorum latinorum. 
Lpz. 1789. 8. with Supplements Land 11. Lpz. 1799, 1801, and III. led. C. F. H. 
Singling) Lpz. 1817. — By same, Notitia liter, romanse etc. accomod. in. us. schol. 
Lpz. 1803. 8. with Addilamenta by Kliigling, Lpz. 1819. 8. — F. Schcetl, Histoire 
Abregee de la Litterature Romaine, Par. 1815. 3 vols. 8. Cf. Ed. Rev. No. 80. 
Vol. 40. p. 375. — J. Dunlop, History of Rom. Literature from the earliest period 
to the Augustan age. Lond. 1823. 2 vols. 8. repr. Phil. 1827. Cf. Ed. Rev. as. 
just cited. — Other works of this class are cited by Dunlop at the close of his Ap- 
pendix. 

On editions and translations, we refer to the works cited § 7. 9, at the close. 
On German translations the following may be added; T. F. Degen, Versuch 
einer vollstandigen Literatur der deutschen Uebersetzungender Roemer. Altenb. 
1794. 2 vols. 8. Supplem. Erl. 1799. 8.— Consult also Harks, Notitia etc. above 
cited; where are found likewise references on most of the subjects specified un- 
der the preceding heads. 



//. — General View of the principal Roman Authors, and of 
their works that are extant. 

I— Poets. 

\ 
§ 297. In the first centuries after the building of the city the Ro- 
mans were but little acquainted with poetry. It was only on solemn 
occasions and festivals that they sung the praises of the gods and he- 
roes. Of distinguished celebrity were the songs of the Salian priests in- 
stituted by Numa. It was only in the 514th year of the city, that 
dramatic poetry and dramatic representation there obtained a better 
aspect. Even this improvement of poetical taste, and still more the in- 
creasing culture of it, was owing to the Grecian models, which were 
carefully studied and successfully imitated by the poets of every class, 
and even by those of the most distinguished talents. And thus, the 
latter periods of the republic and the first century of the imperial 
government formed the most favorable and flourishing epoch of Ro- 
man poetry. 

$ 298. Livius Andronicus, who lived B. C. about 230, was 
a native Greek and freedman of M. Livius Salinator. He' was the 



poets. 297 

first dramatic writer among the Romans, and, A. C. 514, introduced the 
first play on the stage. His style had yet much of the Greek idiom. 
We have only a few unimportant fragments of his poems, of which 
he wrote many of various kinds, among which there was also a poem 
on the history of Rome. 

§ 299. Ennius Navius, of Campania, flourished ahout the same 
time, was banished from Rome and died at Utica. He wrote a his- 
torical poem on the first Punic war ; also tragedies, comedies, satires, 
and epigrams, containing much wit, but in a very rude style. There 
are but few fragments of his poems remaining. He is not to be con- 
founded with the more recent poet Novius. 

§ 300. Quintus Ennius, a poet of the same century, and native of 
Rudise in Calabria. The elder Cato brought him from Sardinia with 
him to Rome, where he was a teacher of Greek. He also contributed 
much to the improvement of the Latin language, and was the first 
epic poet in it, highly valued even by the later and better writers, par- 
ticularly Cicero and Virgil. He is very happily characterised by 
Quinlilian. X. I. ' Ennium, sicut sacros vetustate lucos, adoremus, 
in quibus grandia et antiqua robora nan tantam habent speciem, quan- 
tam religionem.' He wrote Roman Annals, a poem in eighteen books ; 
an epic poem called Scipio ; six books of satires ; many comedies, 
tragedies &c. Of all these, there are only scattered passages, quoted 
by other authors. 

§ 301. M. Accius Plautus flourished not long after these poets, 
about 200 B. C. and was a native of Sarsina in Umbria. His cir- 
cumstances were so straitened, that he worked for wages in a stamp- 
ing-mill. He possessed very happy talents for a comic writer, a rich 
flow of excellent wit, happy invention and all the force of comic ex- 
pression. The Greek comic writers, Epicharmus and Diphilus, were 
his chief models. He was particularly successful in the love comedy, 
although in adaptation to the taste of the age, he often transgressed in 
this the bounds of decency. Of a multitude of comedies, which Gel- 
lius numbers as high as 130, only twenty have reached us, which 
have been also frequently used and imitated by recent dramatic writers. 

§ 302. M. Pacuvius, of Brundusium, and of the same period, 
and nephew of the poet Ennius, celebrated both as a Roman poet and 
tragic poet. Quindlian commends the dignity of thought, of diction 
and characters in his tragedies. Of these we have only a few unim- 
portant fragments remaining. 

§ 303. L. Accius, or more correctly Attius, a native Roman, the 
38 



298 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

contemporary of Pacuvius, and like him a tragic poet. He also wrote 
Annals of the Roman history in verse. There are but few fragments 
remaining. 

$ 304. P, Terentius Afer, who flourished A. U. C. from 560 
till 594, was a native of Africa, perhaps of Carthage, a freed- 
man of the Roman Senator Terentius Lucanus, and a favorite of 
Lalius and Scipio. As a comic writer he was an imitator of Menan- 
dcr, and his six comedies, still extant, are in every respect excellent, 
both with respect to the characters, the consistency and refinement of 
the dialogue, and the judicious management of the plot. He had less 
invention, less comic force than Plautus ; but on the other hand more 
taste and refined knowledge of human nature. There is no evidence, 
that he wrote more than the six comedies now extant. Of the older 
expounders of this poet, the most noted are Donatus a grammarian of 
the fourth century and Eugraphius of the tenth. 

§ 305. C. Lucilius, of Suessa in Campania, nourished towards 
the close of the second century B. C. and was a Roman knight. With 
a great knowledge of language he combined a great talent for satire, 
of which he was the founder among the Romans ; he wrote thirty 
books of poetry, or more probably, thirty satires abounding in wit and 
animadversion ; he also wrote hymns, epodes and a comedy. Only 
a few fragments of his poems remain. 

§ 306. T. Lucretius Carus,& Roman knight, lived in the first and 
second centuries B. C. He terminated his life by suicide. His phi- 
losophical poem of the nature of things, in six books, contains the sys- 
tem of the Epicurean sect, of which he was a zealous advocate. 
This poem interweaves his philosophy represented in its most impos- 
ing features, reduced to a system with much art, and decorated with 
poetical coloring. The poem is not altogether free from monotony 
and dullness ; but this is rather the fault of the subject than of the 
poet, whose composition in particular passages is very rich in scenery 
and florid, and bursts at turns like the lightning from a cloud. Car- 
dinal Polignac wrote a poem in opposition to this called Anti-Lucre- 
tius, which, though of a more correct philosophy, is inferior in poeti- 
cal value. 

§ 307. C. Valerius Catullus was born B. C. 86, in the penin- 
sula of Sirmio in the territory 'of Verona. Little is known of the 
circumstances of his life excepting his intimacy with Cicero. As a 
lyric poet, he has much that is excellent in the softer species, much re- 
finement of feeling and expression, but he was also too yielding to the 



poets. 299 

corrupt taste of his age, and did not unfrequently in his verses sacri- 
fice decency and morality. Many of his poems have been lost ; and 
of those yet extant, many appear to be the productions of another hand. 

§ 308. Albius Tibullns, a Roman knight, who lived from A. U. 
711 until 735. According to the judgment of duintilian, he de- 
serves the first rank among Roman elegiac writers. He combined 
soft, tender feeling with the noblest and most expressive diction, with 
the most elegant variety of invention, of images and allusions, without 
any far-fetched art and unnatural ornament of style. His elegies are 
comprised in four books, the last of which, however, are ascribed to 
Sulpicia. 

§ 309. Sextus Aurdius Propertius, a native of Umbria, lived 
from 701 A. U. until 739, and was a favorite of Maecenas. 
There are four books of elegiac poems by him yet remaining, the 
chief merits of which are passionate expression, rich poetical diction 
and correctness of style ; but he often transgresses the limits of nature 
and decorum, and is too prodigal in the use of poetical ornament. 
Callimachus (Cf. § 70), and Philetas whose Greek elegies are lost, 
were his chief models. 

§ 310. Cornelius Gallus flourished about the same time; he was 
a native of Gaul, a friend of Virgil's, who addressed his tenth eclogue 
to him. He was one of the most happy writers of elegy, although 
of less agreeable diction than Tibullus and Propertius. His poems, 
however, are lost: and the six elegies, that are usually ascribed to him, 
are certainly the production of a later and inferior poet. 

§ 311. Publius Virgilius Maro flourished from 684 A. U. until 
734, and was the greatest of the Roman poets in pastoral, didactic and 
epic poetry. His ten eclogues are imitations of Theocritus, but re- 
plete with scattered and peculiar beauties ; his poem on Agricultural 
subjects in four books, is rich in instruction and elegance ; his ./Eneid, 
in twelve books, although an imitation of the Iliad, is at the same time 
the matured fruit both of genius and taste; in diction it is more finished 
and better adapted to a more cultivated age, than the style of Homer, 
the latter being more perfect and more original in itself. To this must 
be added the great skill of Virgil to make every thing that he borrow- 
ed completely his own, and to interweave it into a whole with the rest. 
There are also many other poems that are ascribed to him, usually 
comprehended under the general name of Catalecta Virgilii, but the 
genuineness of which is very doubtful. Of his older commentators, 
the grammarian Servius Honoratus Maurus is the most remarkable. 



300 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

$ 312. Q. Horatius Flaccus, a native of Venusia a municipal 
town of Apulia, A. U. 6S8. He was a favorite of Augustus and Mae- 
cenas, and passed the greater part of his life on his country seat in the 
Sabine or Tiburtine territory, and died at Rome, 745 A. U. The 
moral character of this poet, so often assailed, has been best defended 
by Lessing in his promiscuous writings. His greatest strength lay in 
lyric composition; the four books of Odes and a book of Epodes re- 
maining of him, still continue models of this species of poetry. In 
his satires and poetical epistles we see a dignified gravity prevailing, 
seasoned with the most refined ridicule and wit ; among these the 
epistle on Poetry, to the Pisos, is the most finished and instructive. 
His most noted annotators are Acron and Porphyrio. 

§ 313. P. Ovidius Naso also flourished in the reign of Augus- 
tus, until A. D. 16, and was of an equestrian family. His history is 
described by himself, Trist. L. iv. Eclog. 10. The most remarkable 
event in his life is his banishment from Rome to Tomi on the Thra- 
cian coast, the real cause of which it is difficult to determine. His 
poetical genius is chiefly distinguished by a very fertile imagination, 
by a lively, blooming wit, which, however, but too often degenerates 
into wantonness, and detracts much from the real expression of feeling. 
He also possessed the faculty of the easiest and most agreeable versi- 
fication. His best and largest poem is the Metamorphoses or Mytho- 
logical transformations, in fifteen books ; besides these we also have 
of him twenty-one heroids ; three books of the art of love ; three 
books of love elegies ; one book of antidotes to love ; six books of 
fasti, or a poetical description of the Roman festivals in the first half 
of the year ; five books of elegiac complaints ; four books of poetical 
epistles from Pontus, and some doubtful smaller poems. Of those 
that are lost, his Medea appears to have been the most important. 

§ 314. Cornelius Severus, a poet of the same age, although more 
of a versifier than poet, to which rank he would have probably risen 
had he lived longer. For in the poem on iEtna, usually ascribed to 
him, the only one that we yet have of him, there are scattered happy 
passages that indicate a warm imagination. The fragment on the 
death of Cicero, is considered by some as a part of his poem on the 
Sicilian war, of which he had completed the first book. 

§ 315. C- Pedo Albinovanus, the contemporary and friend of 
Ovid, and an elegiac poet. We have still remaining of him a poem 
of condolence addressed to Livia on the death of Drusus Nero, which 
some ascribe to Ovid, as also a fragment on the voyage of Drusus 
Germanicus, on the North sea. His epigrams are lost, and the elegy 



POETS. 301 

on the death of Maecenas ascribed to him by some does not appear to 
be worthy of him. 

§ 316. Gratius Faliscus, a Roman poet of the first century, men- 
tioned by no other ancient writer, but Ovid in his last epistle from 
Pontus. There is yet extant of him a poetical treatise on hunting, call- 
ed Cynegeticon, which was first discovered by Sannazaro in France. 

§ 317. Pubiius Syrus, a Roman slave, who on account of his 
happy talents obtained his liberty, flourished in the reign of Augus- 
tus, and was a native of Syria. His Mimi or mimic plays of the kind 
that Cicero called the ethological, or moral, were highly prized by 
the Romans. We have only some detached passages and sentences, 
that chiefly recommend their moral value. 

§ 318. Marcus Manilius, a native Roman, who in all probability 
belongs to the same age, but of whose history little is known. The 
poem, that has descended to us from him, bears the title Astronomicon, 
and consists of five books, the fifth of which, however, is imperfect, 
and was probably not the last. It is more valuable for the history of 
Astronomy, than for intrinsic poetical excellence, a character that can 
be assigned only to particular passages, chiefly the introduction of 
each book. The obscurity of many passages is owing to the defective 
character of the manuscripts. 

§ 319. Ccesar Germanicus, the grandson of Augustus by Drusus, 
the son of Livia, adopted by Tiberius, but afterwards poisoned at Anti- 
och by the command of this emperor. His bodily and mental endow- 
ments are highly celebrated in history. As a poet, he is noted for a 
poetical translation of Aratus (§71) and some fragments, particularly 
a poem of the Diosemeia, or prognostics. There are also some epi- 
grams of his extant. 

§ 320. Phcedrus, a native of Thrace, and a freedman of Augustus, 
celebrated for his five books of JEsop's Fables, in Iambic verse of six 
feet, related with all the natural ease and simplicity of which fable is 
capable in a poetical dress. Notwithstanding the few accounts we 
have of him and the silence of the other ancient writers respecting 
him, his existence cannot be questioned, as has been done by some. 

§ 321. Aulus Persius Flaccus, a native of Volaterra in Etruria, 
about 50 A. D. We have only six satires remaining of him, and 
even Quintilian mentions only one book of these, by which, however, 
he adds, he has acquired much solid fame. Their principal subjects 
are serious and impressive castigations of the then prevalent corrup- 



302 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

tion of morals. By reason of frequent allusions and references to the 
age of the poet, many passages of these satires are ohscure to us, and 
this so much the more as the style is very concise and somewhat heavy. 

^ 322. Lucius Annccus Seneca, of the first part of the first century, 
celebrated more as a philosopher than poet. He was a native of Cor- 
duba in Spain, but came while yet a child to Rome, became subse- 
quently, after many vicissitudes, the instructor of the emperor Nero, 
and at last an innocent victim of his hatred, though indulged with the 
privilege of choosing his death. Seneca chose to have his veins open- 
ed, and as the blood did not immediately flow, he took poison. We 
know that he was a poet from the testimony of other writers. But the 
ten Tragedies, that are ascribed to him, are in all probability by seve- 
ral authors, as their style is very unequal; and the last of them, Oc- 
tavia, whose death he did not survive, cannot possibly be of him. 
They are in general far removed from the noble simplicity of Grecian 
tragedy, and are mostly of very defective plot and execution, though 
not without single poetical beauties. 

§ 323. M. Annceus Lucanus a poet of the first century born A. D. 
38, died 65 ; grandson of the elder Seneca, and a native of Corduba. 
Nero was jealous of his poetical talents, and as Lucan had engaged in 
a conspiracy against him, he was condemned to death. His Pharsa- 
lia, an epic poem on the civil wars between Caesar and Pompey, ter- 
minated by the battle of Pharsalia, is rather historical than epic, too 
faithful to matters of fact, too poor in fiction, too uniform in narrative. 
On the other hand, it abounds in excellent delineations of character and 
finely wrought speeches of the parties engaged. 

§ 324. C. Valerius Flaccus, probably a native of Padua, who 
lived during the reigns of Vespasian and Domitian and after the ex- 
ample of Apollonius of Rhodes, selected the expedition of the Argo- 
nauts as the subject of his epic poem, of which there are yet eight 
books extant. The last book wants the conclusion, and probably the 
whole consisted of several books more. Like the preceding, this epic 
poem has also single beauties, the whole tenor of the narrative is not 
sufficiently animated nor entertaining, the style is often obscure and 
abrupt. Some descriptions, however, are very prominent. (Cf. § 73.) 

§ 225. C. Silius Italicus, a poet of the first century, whose native 
place is doubtful. He seems to have received his surname either from 
the town Italica in Spain, or from Corfinium, which was also some- 
times called Italica. In eloquence he was an imitator of Cicero, in 
poetry of Virgil, but he has by no means reached the latter in his poem 



POETS. 303 

on the second Punic war, which consists of seventeen books, and is 
properly only a historical poem, rather a work of industry than ge- 
nius. Many historical circumstances of this age may therefore be 
deduced and supplied in consequence of the historical fidelity. 

§ 326. P. Papinius Statins, of Naples, flourished in the latter 
part of the first century and was a favorite of Domitian. His great- 
est poem, the Thebais, is also of an epic character, in twelve books, the 
subject of which is the capture of Thebes by Theseus. It is deficient 
in invention, nature and consistency, and the diction is deficient in 
truth and elegance. The Achilleis, another epic poem on the adven- 
tures of Achilles before the Trojan war, is imperfect. Besides which 
three, there are four books of miscellaneous poems, Silvce, of very 
unequal value. 

§ 327. M. Valerius Martialis, a native of Bilboa in Celtiberia, a 
poet of the same age, who wrote his epigrams under Titus and Do- 
mitian. They are reduced by him into fourteen books, to which there 
also belongs yet a particular book on plays, which is placed first and is 
perhaps the production of several authors. The most of these epi- 
grams are uncommonly acute and appropriate ; their multitude and 
proportionate excellence render the almost inexhaustible and always 
lively wit of this poet admirable. 

§ 328. Decimus Junius Juvenalis, a native of Aquino, who flour- 
ished from 38 A. D. until 1 19, applied himself at first to the study of 
eloquence, and subsequently to poetry. It was only a year before his 
death, under the emperor Adrian, that he published his Satires. Of 
these we have yet sixteen, which are sometimes without reason di- 
vided into five books. With a noble animated gravity in these poems, 
he inveighs against the crimes and follies of his times, and paints them 
with a freedom which sometimes is beyond propriety. There is less 
elegance in his language than that of Horace, but much less dullness 

and obscurity than Persius. 

I 

§ 329. Flavius Avienus lived probably in the second century un- 
der the Antonines. Of him we have 42 fables in elegiac verse, the 
text of which, however, is very imperfect, and which in natural ease 
and diction are far inferior to the fables of Phsedrus. 

§ 330. Dionysius Cato, a writer whose history is very little known, 
but probably of the same age of the former, was the author of moral 
sentences which are composed in distichs, and are chiefly valuable 
for their instructive contents. 



:U)I HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

^ 831. M. Aurrfius Oh/mpius Ncmesianus, a poet of the third 
century and native of Cartilage. He vied with the emperor Numerian 
in poetry. We have a poem of his on the chase, Cynegetica, and 
four pastorals which appear to great advantage in style and treatment 
when compared with the poetical productions of his day. 

§ 332. Titus Julius Calpumius, cotemporary of Nemesian and a 
native of Sicily. Of him Ave have seven pastorals valuable in their 
kind, which he dedicated to Nemesian. According to some, the Idylls 
ascribed to the latter are also the productions of Calpumius. 

§ 333. Magnus Ausonius, a native of Burdegalla (Bourdeaux) ; 
a grammarian, rhetorician and poet of the fourth century, and instruc- 
tor of the emperor Gratian, under whom he afterwards lived at Rome 
in the capacity of Consul. The smaller poems that have descended 
to us, are mostly of the epigrammatic kind ; many of them are epi- 
taphs and memorial verses, and the twenty Idylls are rather occasional 
than proper pastoral poems. 

§ 334. Claudius Claudianus, of Egypt, a Greek and Roman poet 
of the fourth and fifth centuries, as also an experienced soldier. The 
Latin poems of his that have reached us, were partly written on par- 
ticular occasions ; others are smaller epics, of which the Giganto- 
machia and the Rape of Proserpine, in three books, are the most im- 
portant. He wrote a poem on the war of Gildo, of which only the 
first book is extant. Two satirical poems of him are written against 
Rufinus and Eutropius, rivals of Stilico. Among his 47 Epigrams 
and other smaller poems, some are happy, but in general his thoughts, 
images and expressions, already too much evince the influence of that 
unnatural artificial style that prevailed in his age; genius and poetical 
energy are however every where perceptible. 

$ 335. Aurelius Prudenlius, surnamed Clemens, a native of 
Spain, a Christian poet of the fourth century, whose Hymns are dis- 
tinguished for their good poetical expression, but still more for their 
pious and devotional contents. 

§ 336. Cmlius Sedulius of the fifth century, probably a native of 
Scotland, or rather Ireland, which latter had then the name of the 
former, and who was also an elder there. His poems also have greater 
religious and moral than poetical value. 

§ 337. Claudius Ruiilius Numantianus, a poet of the fifth cen- 
tury, native of Gaul, and Consul at Rome. He at last returned from 
that city to his native country ; and this voyage he describes in a 



ORATORS AND EPITOLARY WRITERS. 305 

a poem that has come down to us very defective, and which is not 
without poetical beauties. 



II. — Orators and Epistolary Writers. 

§ 338. Eloquence was a favorite study of the Romans, and instruc- 
tion in it was an essential part of Roman education. This, however, 
was the case only in the latter periods of the Republic, when they be- 
gan to be convinced of its happy effects, and when they also extended 
more general protection and patronage to the sciences. At first the 
Rhetoricians or teachers of eloquence, were almost altogether Greeks, 
and before this period of improvement, there was so unfavorable a 
prejudice against their instruction, that A. U. 593 they were banished 
from Rome, and the same prohibition was repeated in the year 663, 
which, however, was occasioned by the abuse of eloquence through 
the Sophists. In subsequent times rhetorical instruction became the 
business of freedmen, of whom L. Plotius Gallus and L. Otacilius 
Pilitus were particularly noted. They now began to discover its use 
more and more, and the practice of it was the chief incentive to the 
increasing and general desire to attain it. Theoretical instruction was 
combined with early exercises in declamation, by which they became 
prepared for the delivery of public formal orations. It was also of 
considerable advantage to the future orator to hear the most celebra- 
ted orators at Athens, or at least to study their productions. The most 
prevalent species of eloquence was the judicial. Many of their ora- 
tors are known to us only by name and the celebrity which they de- 
rive from Cicero, Gluintilian and others. Among these were Cotta, 
Sulpicius, Hortensius, Brutus and Messala. The few of whom we 
still possess orations, are the following. 

§ 339. Marcus Tullius Cicero, the most distinguished of the Ro- 
man orators, who made the Greeks his model, and who as an orator 
possessed the strength of Demosthenes, the copiousness of Plato, and 
the suavity of Isocrates. He was born 648 A. U. and died 711, or 
43 years B. C. Middleton has given us the best and most circumstan- 
tial history of his life. Gesner has given his history more briefly 
though very instructive in his Ciceronian Chrestomathy. Of these 
we only select the following circumstances. He was a native of Ar- 
pinum ; the poet Archias was his first teacher ; in oratory he was in- 
structed by Apollonius Molo of Rhodes ; he visited Athens; after his 
39 



300 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

return, he was first Quaestor and at last Consul; in the latter dignity- 
he rendered the greatest service to the state by the suppression of the 
Catilinarian conspiracy; he was, however, afterwards banished, 
through the influence of P. Clodius the tribune ; he voluntarily retired 
to Greece, but was soon recalled in the most honorable manner ; after 
this he undertook the pratorship of Cilicia; in the civil wars of Cae- 
sar and Pompey he belonged to the party of the latter ; after the battle 
of Pharsalia he was reconciled to Caesar, but was soon after slain by 
Popilius at the instigation of M. Anthony. — We consider him here 
merely as an orator ; and in that capacity his merit is the most splendid. 
We have 59 of his orations remaining, all judicial, the finest models of 
Roman eloquence and style. 

§ 340. C. Plinius Ctecilius Secundus lived in the latter part of the 
first century and part of the second, and in eloquence was a pupil of 
Quintilian. He acquired great eclat and celebrity as a judicial orator. 
Under Domitian he was praetor, and consul under Nero and Trajan. 
His eulogy on Trajan is properly an expression of his thanks for the 
latter dignity, and is the only specimen of his eloquence that has come 
down to us, and which he reviews himself in his epistles. (B. III. 
Ep. XIII.) Notwithstanding many undeniable beauties, however, 
both praise and oratorical ornament is too profusely lavished. 

§ 341. Marcus Fabius Quintilianus, a cotemporary of the younger 
Pliny, a native of Spain, from Calaguris; but who was brought to 
Rome even in his infancy, lived there as a teacher of rhetoric with 
great applause, and formed his pupils, among which were the most no- 
ble of the Romans, partly by his instructions, partly by his own ex- 
ample. He was subsequently raised to the consular dignity by Do- 
mitian. A collection of oratorical exercises or declamations, still ex- 
tant, 19 of a larger and 105 of a smaller kind, is generally ascribed to 
him, but as their merits and style are very unequal, are probably not 
all his productions. 

§ 342. Besides these, there are also some orations of a later pe- 
riod of Roman Literature, by what were called the Panegyrists, 
which are to be regarded merely as remains of literature, but not as 
models of genuine eloquence, since in that period there was an almost 
total declension of taste, fine style, and a bold elevated spirit of elo- 
quence. The authors are Claudius Mamertinus, Eumenius, Nazarius 
and Latinus Pacatus Drepanius. 

More numerous and perfect in their kind are the still remaining 
epistles of the following writers. 



ORATORS AND EPISTOLARY WRITERS. 307 

§ 343. M. 7! Cicero, whose history has been noticed above. The 
collection of his epistles consists, 1. Of sixteen books addressed to dif- 
ferent friends and relatives (ad diversos), and partly of those addressed 
to him, e. g. the eighth book, containing altogether letters of M. Cseli- 
us ; 2. Of sixteen books to his friend Atticus, replete with instructive 
anecdotes, from the Roman history of the day ; 3. Of three books to 
his brother Quintus, which contain chiefly advice and counsels respect- 
ing the management of the Quaestorship with which he was entrusted; 
4. Of one book to Brutus, containing only 18 letters, as also seven of 
a later discovery and doubtful. 

V 344. C. Plinius Secundus, mentioned above as orator, is the 
author of the greatest part of a collection of letters, in 10 books. Many 
of them do not appear to have been written on any particular occasions, 
bnt with a view to their publication, and are addressed only to his 
friends. Although they do not evince so much native simplicity, beau- 
ty and accuracy of style as the epistles of Cicero, yet they are valua- 
ble in many respects both as to the subjects and treatment. One of the 
most remarkable books of this collection is the tenth, which contains 
also letters of Trajan. 

§ 345. Lucius Annceus Seneca, whose history was also noticed 
above among the poets. We here notice his 124 epistles to Lucilius, 
prastor in Sicily, who was also a favorite author. The contents of 
these letters are very instructive, referring chiefly to practical philoso- 
phy on Stoical principles. The 88th epistle particularly deserves the 
attention of young students. Less valuable are they in point of style, 
being written with a tiresome and artificial beauty, full of witty senten- 
tious antitheses, among which, however, many are by no means ob- 
jectionable. Probably these epistles were also for the most part at 
least, written with a view to publicity. 

§ 346. Q. Aurelius Symmachus, a later writer who flourished 
about the close of the fourth century, a native Roman, Proconsul of 
Asia, and subsequently Consul at Rome. His remaining epistles were 
collected by his son in ten books. We discover in him no unsuccess- 
ful imitator of the younger Pliny, but likewise many traces of the 
then by far more degenerate taste. Of these the 61 st letter is the most 
worthy of note. 

§ 347. Sidonius Apollinaris, (properly C. Sollius Apollinaris Si- 
donius,) a native of Gaul, who flourished about the close of the fifth 
century, also known as a poet, and remarkable for the age. In his 
poems, among which are also four eulogies, there is much animation 



308 HISTORY OK ROMAN MTKRATDRK. 

and spirit, but also much of the unnatural and extravagant. He was 
bishop of Clermont in Auvergne, and we have remaining a series of 
letters by him in nine books, more valuable for their historical matter 
than their style. 



///. — Grammarians and Rhetoricians. 

§ 348. At the period when the Arts and Sciences began to find 
patronage at Rome, after the nation was sufficiently sated with con- 
quest, their language also gained in copiousness, cultivation and great- 
er attention to its improvement. 

It was then that many patriotic, men of the learned Romans arose, 
who had studied and admired the Greek language, and who applied 
themselves to a more particular investigation and improvement of their 
own native language : Grammarians, who devoted themselves chiefly 
to the study of language, and gave instruction to the young Romans 
not only on the principles of a correct, but likewise of an elegant style. 
And even subsequently, when Roman taste was verging to its decline, 
men of this character also endeavored to sustain the classical reputa- 
tion of the older writers particularly the poets and orators, by illus- 
trating their beauties. In later periods these philologists were almost 
the sole possessors of all the literature. Their industry, however, was 
not always regulated by the best taste. They often deviated into use- 
less speculations, prolyx analysing, and arbitrary constructions, that 
imparted to the whole of this employment a dry and forbidding as- 
pect. Some of them delivered their grammatical and philosophical 
researches in written lectures, and of these some essays have come 
down to us. 

§ 349. We have-already mentioned the Roman Rhetoricians above. 
We shall only add the remark here, that their instruction regarded 
chiefly the art of the orator, not however, of the prose writer in gen- 
eral. For the beauties of style in other species of composition, ex- 
cept orations properly so called, were investigated by the Grammari- 
ans, and taught both orally and by written works. — Of these the fol- 
lowing are most worthy of notice. 

§ 350. Marcus Terentius Varro, a very learned Roman, about 
the commencement of the Christian era, and an uncommonly fruitful 
writer. In his youth he served as a soldier and took part with Pom- 
pey ; but he afterwards went over to the party of Caesar, who appoint- 



GRAMMARIANS AND RHETORICIANS. 309 

ed him to take charge of his collections of hooks. He was afterwards 
proscribed by Antony, but returned under Augustus, with the other 
exiles, and closed his life in rural quiet. His work on the Latin 
tongue consisted originally of 24 books, of which, however, only the 
IV, V, VI, on Etymology, and the VII, VIII, IX, on the analogy of 
language, remain. Of the other books there are only single fragments 
remaining. By reason of their antiquity and accuracy, these rem- 
nants undoubtedly deserve the first rank among the philological works 
of the Romans. Often, however, he carried his etymological investi- 
gations too far, and was too partial to the domestic origin of Latin words. 

§ 351- M. T. Cicero was not only a practical orator, but also a 
most solid and efficient teacher of his art. His rhetorical works are, 
1. what are called his Rhetorica, addressed to C. Herennius, in four 
books, the genuineness of which, however, is not without reason call- 
ed in question, but the author of which was probably a cotemporary of 
Cicero j 2. two books of oratorical invention, of which two others 
are lost, a work written in his eighteenth year ; 3. three books de 
Oratore, in the form of a dialogue ; 4. Brutus, or a review of 
the most celebrated Orators ; 5. The Orator, or the view of a 
perfect orator, addressed to M. Brutus ; 6. Topics, or doctrine of evi- 
dence, addressed to the lawyer Trebatius ; 7. On oratorical analysis, 
and division, a dialogue between him and his son; 8. On the best 
kind of Orators, a preface to his Latin translation of the alternate ora- 
tions of Demosthenes and iEschines. The third, fourth and fifth of 
these works are the most valuable. 

§ 352. Asconius Pedianus, a native of Padua, a philologist of the 
first century, who wrote annotations on some of Cicero's orations, of 
which there are only some fragments remaining. 

§ 353. Marcus Seneca of Corduba in Spain, and father of L. A. 
Seneca mentioned above, a celebrated Roman rhetorician under Au- 
gustus and Tiberius. He wrote on civil law-suits, Controversion, in 
ten books, of which we have only a part, viz. book I, II, VII, IX, X ; 
and even these not perfect. They belong to the class of rhetorical 
works, because they review and compare the procedure of Greek and 
Latin orators with regard to invention, application and style. 
There is also a book with the title Suasorice, or commendatory orations, 
an appendix to the former work, and also incomplete. The style in 
both is concise, but forced. 

§ 354. M. Fabius Quintilianus mentioned above among the ora- 
tors, but whose merits are much greater in reference to the theory of 



310 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

eloquence. His very valuable work, De Institutione Oratoria, so un- 
commonly conducive to the formation and improvement of taste, con- 
sists of twelve books, and with the best rules at the same time com- 
bines the review and notice of the best models. His ingenious, solid 
institutions accompany the young orator from his first instruction until 
the completion of his character. One of the finest and most instructive 
books is the tenth. A dialogue still remaining, de Caussis corruptee 
cloquentice, is ascribed by some to Quintilian, by others with less 
probability to Tacitus, and generally published with his works. 

§ 355. Aldus Gellius, a Roman philologist of the second century, 
under the emperor Antonine. His Nodes Attica, still remaining, is 
a collection of various observations which he had made from the best 
Greek and Latin authors during his residence at Athens, in the winter 
nights, and which he collected for the improvement and entertainment 
of his children. The order of the materials is not the best, on the 
contrary they are rather scattered remarks, which are the more enter- 
taining by their variety. Of the first book we have only the contents 
of the fifteen chapters which it contained. There were originally 20 
books, of which the eighth and the beginning of the sixth are lost. 
They contain much valuable matter both for the linguist, philologist 
and critic. 

§ 356. Censorinus, in the third century, celebrated by his work de 
die natali, which he dedicated to his friend Q. Cerellius on his birth 
day, and which contains much learning. It chiefly refers to human 
life, the days, nights, months, years &c. mostly considered in a philo- 
logical view. Of his work on the accents which has been lost, single 
passages have been preserved in Priscian. 

§ 357. Nonius Marcellus, a native of Tivoli, a Roman philologist 
of the fourth century. Of him we have a Compendiosa Doctrina de 
proprietate sermonum, in nineteen tracts, for the use of his son ; they 
are valuable both with regard to their subjects and the fragments of 
ancient writers they contain. 

§ 358. Seztus Pomponius Festus, probably of the same age, wrote 
a work, de veterum verborum significatione, in twenty books, which is 
properly an abridgment of a larger grammatical work of Verrius 
Flaccus. From the abridgment of Festus, another abridgment was 
made by Paulus Diaconus in the eighth century, which for a long 
time was the only one known, until at length a single manuscript of 
the genuine Festus was discovered in Illyria. His grammatical in- 
formation is very accurate. 



GRAMMARIANS AND RHETORICIANS. 311 

§ 359. Macrobius Ambrosius Aurelius Theodosius, of uncertain 
origin, lived probably in the first part of the fifth century. Besides a 
commentary on Cicero's dream of Scipio, in two books, containing 
much useful matter for philosophy and mythological history, his seven 
books of Saturnalia, or Table talks, are particularly valuable for phi- 
lology, although for the most part compilations of other authors both 
Latin and Greek. Much of them is from Gellius, and the seventh al- 
most entirely from Plutarch. An abridgment of another work of his 
on the difference and affinity of Greek and Roman verbs, has come 
down to us, probably the work of the Scottish John Erigena. 

§ 360. JElius Donatus, a very celebrated philologist of Rome, of 
the fourth century, and the instructor of Jerome. Of his productions 
we still have several grammatical essays which have been in some re- 
spects a very productive fund of matter for recent grammarians. 
These have reference partly to the elements of the language and to 
prosody, partly to the syntax and elocution. Most valuable is his 
commentary on five of the comedies of Terence, because he in them 
not only illustrates the sense, but comments upon the plan and the rhe- 
torical representation. 

§ 361. Priscianus, a Latin grammarian of Cesarea, who lived at 
Constantinople. He flourished probably in the first part of the sixth 
century. His grammatical Commentaries in 18 books, are the most 
extensive work on the elements of the language that we have, and 
have obtained a classical authority for its kind. The first sixteen 
books, treating of the several parts of speech, are commonly called the 
larger Priscian, and the two latter giving the syntax, the smaller 
Priscian. There are also other smaller tracts on the accents &c. 

§ 362. Diomedes was probably a cotemporary of Priscian, or lived 
before him, because he is quoted by him. His grammatical works 
relate in general to style, parts of Speech, and the different kinds of 
Rhetoricians. 

§ 363. Flavins Sosipater Charisius lived about the same time, was 
a Christian and native of Campania. His Grammatical Institutes, in 
five books, are dedicated to his son. 



IV. — Philosophy. 

§ 364. The Roman philosophy is a daughter of the Grecian. 
For the earlier traces of philosophical sentiments among the Romans 



312 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

are of no great importance, and during the first five centuries of Rome, 
this science in general was not received with much alacrity, as it was 
opposed to the prevalent spirit of domination, and was considered sub- 
versive of military courage. Among the ambassadors that were sent 
from Athens to Rome about 600 A. U. was the philosopher Cameades, 
who was no less popular for his philosophy than for his eloquence. 
Cato, however, had influence enough with the Senate to have these 
philosophers sent back again to Greece, and they together with the 
Rhetoricians were subsequently entirely banished from Rome. 

The conquest in Greece, however, gave many young Romans op- 
portunity to become acquainted with the philosophers of Greece, with 
their schools and principles, and by means of these, e. g. by Scipio 
Africanus, Lcelius and Lucullus, the love of this science became more 
and more extended. From this time philosophy flourished at Rome, 
and almost all the Greek sects found followers there, but of* these, 
particularly the old Academics and the Epicureans. Philosophy, how- 
ever, and the instruction in it, was not limited to a particular station, 
but was studied and taught by the principal and most honorable states- 
men, who made it their favorite study, and selected it in part as the 
subject of their writings. Among these some have been preserved of 
the following authors. 

§ 365. M- T. Cicero, noticed as orator and Rhetorician (§ 351), 
was a Platonist in philosophy, or rather a follower of the old Acade- 
my, although he sets forth the principles of almost every sect in his 
works, and was favorable to every School of philosophy except the 
Epicurean. Of his philosophical works, the Academical investiga- 
tions, in two books, are the most valuable. Much valuable matter, par- 
ticularly for philosophical history, is also contained in his five books of 
the chief good and evil, in his five book of Tusculan questions, three 
books of the nature of the gods, two books of divination, one book 
on fate, three books on laws, the same number on duties, and in two 
separate dissertations on old age and friendship, to which may also be 
added the paradoxes and some fragments. 

§ 366. L. Annceus Seneca was a zealous adherent to the Stoical 
sect, although he previously had made himself acquainted with the 
principles of all the Schools. In his philosophical writings there is 
much acumen and matter for reflection; the style, however, is too of- 
ten artificially elaborate, and tiresome by its antitheses. They treat of 
anger, in three books ; on providence, on equanimity, on lenity, on 
the brevity of life, and on beneficence. To these we may also add his 
seven books of physical, mostly meteorological investigations. 



PHILOSOPHERS. 313 

§ 367. C. Plinius Secundus, surnamed the elder (major) to dis- 
tinguish him from his nephew above mentioned, who is generally call- 
ed the younger Pliny. The former lived in the first century, was a 
native of Verona, and one of the most learned of the Romans. His 
natural history is a work full of learning, and one of the most consid- 
erable monuments of ancient literature, not less important to the Ge- 
ographer and Amateur than the Naturalist. According to his own 
acknowledgment it is a compilation from nearly two thousand five 
hundred authors, of which the greatest number has been lost. The 
younger Pliny justly calls it opus diffusum, eruditum, nee minus vari- 
um, quam ipsa natura. It consists of 37 books, of which the first 
gives a general view of the whole. The order of the subjects is the 
following: 5 books on Cosmography and Geography ; 5 on Zoology; 
11 on plants; 10 on medicines from the vegetable and animal king- 
dom; 5 on metals, statuary and painting, interwoven with the history 
of the principal artists and works of art. The most learned commen- 
tary on these is the count Rezzonicd s Disquisitiones Pliniana. 

§ 368. Lucius Apuleius, a native of Mandaura, a Roman colony 
in Africa, lived about the close of the second century. He was a law- 
yer at Rome, and a Platonic philosopher. During long travels which 
he performed he obtained the reputation of a magician and performer 
of miracles. Although his writings are not distinguished by a very 
correct style, which on the contrary though very witty is often 
very unnatural, yet they are upon the whole very entertaining. The 
most diffuse among them are the eleven books on the golden ass, or 
properly Milesian tales. (Cf. §150.) The rest refer chiefly to the Platon- 
ic philosophy. Many of them are probably the productions of another. 

§ 369. Titus Petronius Arbiter deserves to be classed rather with 
the entertaining writers, than among the philosophers properly so 
called, and flourished in the first century under Nero. He obtained 
the surname of Arbiter, because he had the management of the public 
amusements under Nero. His Satyricon is a representation of the 
prevailing licentiousness of his age, a picture that is sometimes very 
offensive, but not withbut wit and animation, interspersed with verses, 
of which the most remarkable is a poem on the civil war. 

§ 370. Marcianus Capella, of Carthage, lived in the fifth century, 
and wrote in his old age, probably in the reign of Leo Thrax, a kind 
of encyclopaedia, which for its miscellaneous matter is also called Sa- 
tyricon, in sixteen books, the first nine of which are an interesting al- 
legorical, prosaical and poetical narrative of the marriage of Mercury 
with Philosophy. The remaining seven contain the praises of Gram- 
40 



314 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

mar, Logic, Rhetoric, Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy and Music, 
together with their most important principles. The language is very 
uncouth and inaccurate ; but this author is not altogether to be rejected 
in regard to taste and wit. 



V. — Mathematicians, Geographers and Economists. 

$ 371. The Romans had little peculiar merit with regard to the 
Mathematical Sciences, although at the time when they extended gen- 
eral patronage and protection to the sciences, the mathematics were 
not entirely neglected. The practical application of this science, par- 
ticularly in Architecture and the military art, was more universally 
received and encouraged among the Romans, because it was condu- 
cive and favorable both to their love of splendor and their love of con- 
quest. In Geography, also, the knowledge of the Romans did not ex- 
tend much farther than the countries visited and conquered by them, 
which to their national pride seemed to comprise the whole habitable 
earth. But few authors entered into a more minute description of it. 
Greater was the industry that they applied to the Science of Economy, 
the advantages and experiments for its promotion, which also were 
the subjects of particular works, the principles of which although not 
applicable in every respect to the state of agriculture at the present 
day, yet abound in useful hints and observations, and are important 
even with respect to their historical value. 

§ 372. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio of Verona, lived in the first part 
of the first century, performed military service at first under Caesar, 
and was appointed by Augustus over the military preparations and 
public edifices. Rome was improved in beauty by the plan of building 
projected by him. His work on Architecture consists of tea books, 
and has been preserved complete even to the sketches belonging to it. 
Properly speaking only the first seven books treat of Architecture, the 
eighth on Aqueducts, the ninth on Dials, and the tenth on Mechanics. 
He has often been censured for want of elegance in style, without ad- 
verting sufficiently to the novelty and the nature of his materials. 
The text also needs much correction. 

§ 373. Sextus Julius Frontinus lived at the close of the first cen- 
tury, the author of two works. The first is on the Aqueducts of Rome, 
of which he had the charge, but more celebrated are his Strategemat- 
ica, contaiuing in four books the military manoeuvres and remarkable 



MATHEMATICIANS, GEOGRAPHERS AND ECONOMISTS. 315 

speeches of the most celebrated Greek and Roman heroes ; the fourth 
of these books treats of military discipline. 

§ 374. Flavins Vegetius Renatus, a native Roman of the fourth 
century, who lived either at Rome or Constantinople, and was proba- 
bly a Christian. He wrote five books on the military art addressed to 
the emperor Valentinian II. and collected from Cato, Celsus, Fron- 
tin &c. 

§ 375. Julius Firmicus Maternus, a Sicilian, who lived about the 
same time or perhaps earlier, and wrote a Mathesis in eight books, 
but which is properly astrology. There is also a dissertation by him 
on pagan errors, written after his conversion to Christianity. 

§ 376. Pomponius Mela, a writer of the first century and native 
of Spain. His Geography (de situ orbis) consists of three books, 
which are valuable for their style, beauty and accuracy. 

$ 377. Vibius Sequester of an uncertain age, wrote a geographi- 
cal catalogue of the rivers, lakes, mountains, forests &c. for his son 
Virgilianus, from which many illustrations of other authors, partic- 
ularly the poets, may be derived. 

§ 378. C. Julius Solinus of an uncertain age, probably, however, 
of the third century, wrote a collection of miscellaneous curiosities, 
which on the second publication he called Polyhistor, and which for 
the most part contains Geographical accounts. Nearly all is taken 
sometimes almost literally from the elder Pliny, and this with no re- 
markable judgment nor taste. 

§ 379. M. Porcius Cato, celebrated in the earlier periods of the 
Roman Republic, about B. C. 250. He is distinguished from the 
equally remarkable Cato of Utica, and by reason of his rigid princi- 
ples in morals, was also called Censor. His life has been written by 
Plutarch and Nepos. Of his many writings, which are partly orator- 
ical, partly historical, we have only single fragments remaining. Only 
one work belonging to this head has come down to us from him on 
Agriculture, but which is not to be ascribed to him with absolute cer- 
tainty. Or if it be his work, it must have been uncommonly distorted 
by transcribers, as it neither coincides with the genius of his style, 
nor with the testimony of the ancients. 

§ 380. M. Terentius Varro, mentioned above among the gram- 
marians, wrote in his old age three books on husbandry, which deserve 
the first rank among the similar works of antiquity. It contains 
much valuable matter, not merely for hk particular object, but also for 
literature in general. 



316 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

§ 3S1. L. Junius Moderatus Columella a native of Spain, of the 
first eentury, who wrote twelve books on husbandry, to which there is 
added a thirteenth on the planting of trees, probably an appendix or 
perhaps the remaining part of another work. The tenth of these 
books is in verse, and contains precepts for horticulture. Their value 
consists both in the animation and elegance of the style and the rich- 
ness of the matter. 

§ 382. Palladius, probably a Roman, about the close of the se- 
cond century, a man of much literature, particularly Grecian. We 
have of him fourteen books on husbandry, written with simplicity and 
correctness ; the last of them in elegiac verse. 

§ 383. Ccelius Apicius, of whose life and other circumstances so 
little is known with certainty, that the work de arte coquinaria, in 
ten books, under his name, is not improbably the production- of an- 
other of the third century, who only gave it the name of the most cele- 
brated of Roman gluttons. 



VI. — Mythologists. 

§ 384. As the system of gods among the Romans, as well as their 
whole fabulous history considered generally, had considerable resem- 
blance and relation to the Greek, thus also the Roman Mythologists 
drew mostly from Greek sources, and present, therefore, but little 
that is new and peculiar, whether in regard to their narratives them- 
selves or the application and exposition of them. (Cf. P. III.) The 
domestic Mythology of the Romans, the later additions to their system 
of gods and the whole institutions of their religion, are better and 
more fully learned from their historical and antiquarian writers than 
from these collectors of single fables. The most noted of these are 
the following. 

§ 385. C. Julius Hyginus, a freedman of the emperor Augustus, 
and who had the care of his library. Little is known with certainty 
of his life. Perhaps also Hyginus was a later author of the age of 
the Antonines, who has left us a collection of 277 mythological narra- 
tions, which are given in a very summary manner, and are not im- 
probably sketches of ancient Greek and Roman tragedies. There ap- 
pear to have been more of them divided into two books. There is 
also an Astronomicon Poeticon of him to illustrate the constellations. 



HISTORIANS. 317 

§ 386. Fabius Planciades Fulgentius a native of Africa, whose 
age and history are very uncertain. He does not appear to have lived 
before the sixth century. His most important work is three books of 
Mythological fables addressed to Catus Presbyter. The rest are on 
philosophical subjects. 

§ 387. Lactantius Placidus also of an uncertain age. He is gen- 
erally considered the same as Lutatius, a Christian grammarian of 
the sixth century, who wrote a commentary on the Thebaid of Statius. 
He made an extract from the Metamorphoses of Ovid, which are 
sometimes given with the different editions of this poet. 

§ 388. Albricus, whose name is also written Albericus and Alfri- 
cus, does not properly belong to the classical writers of antiquity, as 
he lived only at the commencement of the 13th century, in England. 
His work on the origin and the representation of the heathen gods, 
which in some manuscripts is also entitled Poetria or Poetarium, 
chiefly relates to the mode of representing the gods in images, with 
short illustrations of the subjects handled, and is almost entirely a com- 
pilation from Fulgentius. 



VII — Historians. 

§ 389. The Romans, even in the first periods of their republic, 
began to record its most prominent events in writing ; these first his- 
torical writings, however, were merely dry registers of remarkable 
events and circumstances, although some of them were composed in 
poetry and reduced to what were generally called Annals. Of this 
kind were the poems of Ennius and Ncevius, the former of whom 
composed the whole Roman history in heroic verse, and the latter 
wrote the events of the first Punic war in Saturnine verse. Q. Fabi- 
us Pictor was the first prose historian of Rome, of whose annals we 
have only a few fragments remaining. Of a similar kind were the 
lost historical works of Albinus Posthumius, of Cassius Hemina, C. 
Fannius, Mar. Porcius Cato, Asellus Sempronius, &c. &c. Subse- 
quently they began to make the Greeks their models likewise in this 
species of prose composition, among whom there were some who 
wrote themselves the Roman history in their own language, e. g. Dio- 
nysius of Halicarnassus ; Dion Cassius, Herodian, Appian and Zosi- 
mus. Among the Romans we notice the following. 



318 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

§ 390. Julius Casar, well known in Roman history, is also con- 
spicuous as a historical writer by his commentaries on the Gallic and 
Civil wars. The former are divided into seven books, and refer to as 
many years of the Roman history ; the eighth book usually added is 
said to be by Aulus Hirtius, who was Roman consul and Cassar's fa- 
miliar friend. To him are also ascribed the books of the Alexandrian 
and Spanish wars. The narrative of the civil war consists of three 
books. Both of these works are uncommonly valuable, both from the 
circumstance that Ccesar himself was both an eye-witness and the 
principal sharer in the events detailed, and also by the elegant, appro- 
priate style and historic beauty which prevails in them without sinking 
into dryness. 

§ 391. C. Sallustius Crispus lived about the same time and was a 
Sabine. His character as a writer is more reputable than his morals 
are usually described to be, though perhaps without foundation. Adopt- 
ing Thucydides as his model, he was successful in a happy concise- 
ness of style and an animated representation of events. He limited 
his narrations to two important events of Roman history, the conspir- 
acy of Cataline and the war of the Romans with Jugurtha. Of his 
larger Roman history in six books there are but few fragments re- 
maining. Doubtful are two orations and two declamations ascribed 
to him. 

§ 392. Cornelius Nepos, the circumstances of whose life are for 
the most part unknown, lived a short time before the Christian era 
and was a native of Hostilia, now in the territory of Verona. Of 
his writings we have only the biographies of distinguished Grecian 
generals, which were at first ascribed to jEmilius Probus, but who 
was only the transcriber of them. They are models of the biograph- 
ical style, on account of their concise and yet clear and full dress and 
elegance of diction. He was also the author of other works that have 
perished. 

§ 393. Titus Livius, a native of Padua, lived at Rome until the 
death of Augustus, and afterwards again in his native country where 
he died A. U. 770. Among the formal historians of Rome he deserves 
the first rank. In its whole original compass, his history commenced 
with the arrival of iEneas in Italy, until 744 A. U. C. and consisted of 
140 or 142 books. Of these, however, there are but few remaining, 
viz. the first ten, and the 21st until the 45th. These books are distrib- 
uted into decades by the transcribers. There is also an abridgment of 
the whole work extant, from which Freinshcim attempted to restore it, 



HISTORIANS. 319 

whose 95 supplements are to be found in several larger editions. In 
Livy are combined all the qualities of a dignified and practical histo- 
rian, viz. fidelity, accuracy, observation, and a masterly style. 

§ 394. C. Velleius Paterculus, of the same period, a Roman 
knight and Praetor, is the author of a summary history of Rome, in 
two books, the first of which wants the beginning. It comes down 
from the commencement of Rome to his own times, and deserves 
commendation more for its style than historical credibility, as he was 
evidently swayed by partiality and a servile adulation towards Tiberius 
and Sejanus. 

§ 395. Valerius Mazimus, a Roman of noble origin, lived about 
the same time and collected the sayings and deeds of remarkable men, 
chiefly of Greek and Roman history, in nine books, which he dedi- 
cated to Tiberius. They are taken from different authors, reduced to 
certain heads, and more commendable for the matter than the style, the 
latter being mostly declamatory and unworthy of history. 

§ 396. C. Cornelius Tacitus lived in the latter part of the first cen- 
tury, and was Consul of Rome under Nerva. In his youth he was 
celebrated for his eloquence at the bar. His history is a model of ac- 
umen, of the most judicious arrangement and order of the events, and 
of the most condensed beauty in the expression of thought. It com- 
mences with the reign of Galba, and was continued by him until the 
death of Domitian. But we have only five books of his history (his- 
toriarum) properly so called, which contain little more than the events 
of one year; and of the Annals, which come down from the death of 
Augustus to that of Nero, only the first six books, and of these again 
the fifth is defective, and after this from the eleventh to the sixteenth 
inclusive. We have also a work by him on the situation and inhabit 
tants of Germany, and the life of Agricola. The dialogue on the 
causes of the decline of eloquence, mentioned above (§ 354), is as- 
cribed to him without cause. 

§ 397. Q. Curtius Rufus, probably of the middle of the first cen- 
tury, so little known as to his life, that some, without reason, do not 
class him among the ancient writers. He wrote a history of the 
deeds of Alexander the Great, of which the beginning and several 
passages here and there are wanting, which Bruno, Freinsheim and 
Cellarius have attempted to supply. His style differs much from that 
noble simplicity of the most of the Greek and Roman historians, and 
often sinks into the extravagant and romantic ; his style is also fre- 
quently elaborate and abounds too much in ornament. Notwithstand- 
ing this his narrative is not deficient in suavity and interest. 



3SJ0 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

$ 398. L. Anncms Florus, at the close of the first and beginning 
of the second century, a native of Gaul and Spain. He reduced the 
history of Rome from the foundation of the city until the general 
peace under Augustus in a summary abridgment, divided into four 
books. His style is deficient in solid and equal coloring, it sometimes 
rises far above the limits of prose, and is not unfrequently overloaded 
with the decorations of superfluous learning. 

§ 399. Suet07iius Tranquillus lived about the same time and was 
a grammarian, rhetorician and lawyer at Rome. His Biographies of 
the first Caesars arc distinguished by the most candid impartiality, a 
most conscientious love of truth, very great copiousness in various cir- 
cumstances worthy of note, and an elegant style well adapted to biog- 
raphy. Besides these we have also some smaller critical and bio- 
graphical writings, and several, of which we know the titles, are lost. 

§ 400. Justinus lived in the second century under fhe Antonines, 
and composed an abridgment of universal history of Trogus Pompei- 
us, in 44 books. Trogus Pompeius was a native of Gaul, and lived 
under Augustus ; but his larger work is lost, and we now have only 
this summary abridgment of Justin, which is not destitute of elegance 
of style, and is very entertaining for the variety of its subjects. 

§ 401. Sexius Aurelius Victor, probably a native of Africa, lived in 
the fourth century, and was a favorite of Justinian, who gave him the 
most honorable offices. Under Theodosius he was made Consul of 
Rome. His history of the origin of the Roman people, according to 
its title from Janus until the tenth consulate under Constantine, but as 
we have it only until the first year after the foundation of Rome, con- 
tains many circumstances not mentioned by others or at least not so 
minutely. Other works that often pass under his name are probably 
of other authors. The former he compiled from many older writers. 

§ 402. Flavins Eutropius, of the fourth century, probably not a 
Greek but Roman or at least a native of Italy, wrote an Epitome of 
the Roman history from the foundation of the city until the death of 
Jovian, in ten books, in an easy and plain style. We have also a Greek 
translation of it by Pceanius although not quite complete. 

$ 403. Ammianus Marcellinus, of the same age, a native Greek, 
wrote a Roman history in 3 1 books, from Nerva until Valens, which 
may be regarded as a continuation of Tacitus and Suetonius, and of 
which the first thirteen are no longer extant. It is not so much the 
style as the agreeable variety of matter that constitutes the value of 
this history, which is both instructive and entertaining, particularly in 
the frequent digressions of the author. 



PHYSICIANS. 321 

§ 404. JElius Spariianus lived probably in the third or fourth 
century, and wrote the lives of all the Caesars and princes from Julius 
Cassar until his own day. We have of these yet the lives of Hadri- 
an, JElius Verus, Didius Julian, Severus, Pescennius Niger, Antonine, 
Caracalla and Geta, He was probably also the author of those bi- 
ographies of the emperors, which are sometimes ascribed to JElius 
Lampridius and to Gallicanus. His style has but little elegance, and 
he is destitute of historical order, and they are more personal histo- 
ries of the emperors than of their reigns. 

§ 405. Julius Capitolinus, an author of the third century, who 
also attempted the biography of the emperors. He is mentioned as 
the author of the biographies still extant of T. Antoninus, Marcus 
Aurelius, L. Verus, Pertinax Albinus, Macrinus, the two Maximini, 
the three Gordians, of Maximus and Balbinus. These two are com- 
posed with but little selection and judgment. 

§ 406. Trebellius Pollio belongs to the same age, and wrote the 
lives of the princes and emperors from Philippus to Claudius. There 
are yet remaining only a fragment of the life of the elder Valerian, 
of the younger Valerian, of the thirty Tyrants, and of Claudius. 
His historical narratives are too careless and diffuse. 

§ 407. Flavius Vopiscus, of Syracuse, and cotemporary of the 
former. Of him we have yet the lives of Aurelian, Tacitus, Floridn, 
Probus, Firmus, Saturninus, Proculus, Bonosus, Carus, Numerianus 
and Carinus. He excels the preceding three in method, minuteness 
and learning. 

These last four historians are generally called collectively Scripto- 
res Histories Augusts, or writers of the imperial history. There are 
generally six that are numbered, in which enumeration Gallicanus 
and Lampridius are added, but the latter appears to have been the 
same person as Spartianus, by whom also the lives ascribed to Galli- 
can were written. 



VIII. — Physicians. 

§ 408. None of the sciences received less patronage and distinc- 
tion among the Romans than the science of Medicine. The theoreti- 
cal auxiliary sciences were not unknown to them, but the practical 
part on the contrary, was little valued, and it was no occupation of 
the more noble and cultivated Romans, but was limited to freedmen 
41 



o'2'2 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

and slaves. In this science, however, as in others, they derived their 
improvements from the Greeks, and Archagathus is generally men- 
tioned as the first Grecian physician, who made them acquainted with 
it. (Cf. § 2G3.) Crcsar was the first who granted physicians the privi- 
leges of Roman citizenship, and Augustus honored them with his more 
immediate patronage. The writers belonging to this department are 
the following. 

§ 409. Aurelius or Aulus Cornelius Celsus, a cotemporary of 
Columella, but not merely a physician, although we have only the 
medical part of his comprehensive work on general science, com- 
prising jurisprudence, philosophy, rhetoric, economy, military affairs, 
&c. The eight remaining books on Medicine are important both as 
to the subjects and the style ; the two last treat of Surgery. 

§ 410. Sarbonius Largus, a Roman physician of the first centu- 
ry under Tiberius and Claudius, is considered as the author of a dis- 
sertation still extant on the preparation of medicines. The original 
was perhaps in Greek, and Cornarius perhaps the author of the Latin 
translation. 

§ 411. Q. Serenus Sammonicus in the second and third century, 
a man of much learning, and a favorite of the emperor Severus. Of 
him we only have a poem on diseases and their medicines, which is 
defective at the end and probably not free from foreign interpolations. 

§ 412. Marcellus surnamed Empiricus lived under the emperor 
Theodosius I. at the beginning of the fifth century. His work on 
Medicines he collected from several Roman authors of this kind, 
without selection and judgment. 



NOTE. 

It will be very proper to append in this place a slight notice of some of the 
principal editions of the classics in regular sets, or in uniform sizes. 

The Editiones Principes are a set or collection, consisting of the first edition 
ever printed of each author, at whatever press issued, or by whatever editor. 
They are of course not uniform in appearance. 

The Aldine Classics include those issued from the presses of Aldus Manutius 



NOTE. 323 

and his son and grandson, Paulus Manutius and Aldus Manutius. Aldus the 
elder was born at Bassano in Italy, and early acquired the Latin and Greek lan- 
guages, and in connection with two friends formed the plan of printing the 
works of the ancients. His establishment was at Venice, where the operations 
of his press were continued between twenty and thirty years, and his efforts were 
greatly patronised by the learned. He died 1516. The Aldine editions are 
still considered as great ornaments to a classical library. 

See Renouard, Annales de l'lmprimerie des Aides, ou Histoire des trois Manuces et de leurs edi- 
tions, et Supplement, Par. 1803-12. 3 vols. 8. 

The editions printed by the family of Stephens enjoyed great celebrity. The 
labors of Henry, the founder of the family, commenced at Paris in the begin- 
ning of the 16th century. Their establishment was continued in that city about 
half a century and then removed to Geneva, where the reputation of the name 
was sustainedmore than half a century longer. The glory of thehouse was shared 
by five successive generations. The most distinguished were Robert and Henry, 
the 2d and 3d in the succession, the latter particularly in the department of Greek. 

By the Variorum, Classics is usually designated a series of Latin Authors pub- 
lished in the 17th century, with notes of various scholars (cum notis variorum). 
They were printed at Leyden (bug. Bat.) chiefly in the octavo form. Some of 
the series were printed several times, at different places, and of different sizes. 

The Elzevir editions are those published by the celebrated printers of that 
name, in the 17th century, at Leyden and Amsterdam. There were five broth- 
ers, all of distinguished celebrity in the art. The editions designated by their 
name are in the duodecimo form, and are celebrated for typographical neatness 
and accuracy. They are much sought after by amateurs in bibliography, and 
bring very high prices. 
See Essai Bibliographique sur les Editions des E 1 z e v i r s. Par. 1822. 8, 

The Delphin Classics consist of the Latin authors prepared, in the latter part of 
the 17th century, for the use of the Dauphin or heir of the crown of France (in 
usum Delphini). The plan originated with Bp. Huet, who, with Bossuet, was ap- 
pointed by Louis XIV. as a preceptor to the Dauphin. Besides critical observa- 
tions on particular words and passages, these editions were furnished with a sort 
of running note, or ordo, to exhibit in easier Latin the author's sense. — A com- 
plete set was sold at the Roxburghe sale in 1812 for above £500. 

The Bipontine editions are those published by a Typographic society originally 
established at Deux-Ponts (called in German Zwey-Brucfcen, in Latin Biponti- 
um), in the last century. The first work in the series was printed in 1779. The 
society continued their laborswithout interruption until about 1795, when the 
French troops took possession of the place, and their presses and magazines 
were seized and conveyed to Metz. The company determined to continue their 
impressions in Strasburg (Argentoratum) ; and finding this a more favorable lo- 
cation, at length, in 1798, fixed their establishment here, and from that time pros- 
ecuted their work with renewed activity. The Bipontine editions have scarcely 
any annotations, but the text is carefully corrected, and to each author is prefixed 
a Notitia Literaria, giving an account of his life and works, of the previous edi- 
tions of such as had been published, and the translations of them into living lan- 
guages. The volumes of both the Latin and Greek authors are in the octavo 
form. 

A catalogue and description of the editions, issued previously t,ni8ii is nttachcrl to No. V. of the 
classical Journal. 



324 NOTE. 

In the year 1818 a project was started of a new collection of the Latin Classics, 
incorporating both the Dolphin and the Variorum editions, and giving the various 
readings, and also the Litcraria Notitia from the Bipont editions, continued to 
the present time. This was commenced by A. J. Valpy, as printer and editor, 
under the patronage of the Prince Regent of England, and was sometimes called 
The Regent's Edition. The execution of this plan has been in a high degree 
satisfactory. The form of the volumes is octavo. — It should be observed that 
there was another edition of the Latin authors previously commenced, in 18mo, 
under the name of ' The Regent's Edition,' which is not to be confounded with 
the one here noticed. Cf. Class. Jour. xvii. 213. 

A very good collection of the Latin Classics is that of Lemaire, recently pub- 
lished in Paris ; styled Bibliotheca Classica Lalina, or Collection des Auteurs 
Classiques Latins, avec des Commentaires anciens et nouveaux, des Index Com- 
plets, le Portrait de chaque Auteur, des Cartes Geographiques etc. par Nicolas- 
Eloi Lemaire, Professeur de Poesie Laline a la Faeulte des Lettres, Academie de 
Paris. It consists of 142 volumes in octavo. 

But the cheapest collection of Latin and Greek Classics, and one which can 
easily be procured, is that of Tauchnitz of Leipzic. His Corpus Poetarum 
Gracorum has been cited already (§ 47), in the History of Greek Literature 
(under which also the principal collections of Greek authors in the several de- 
partments are given). Both this and his Corpus Auctor.Pros. Gracorum have been 
stereotyped, and also his collection of Latin Authors, in a very small duode- 
cimo form. They contain only the text, but this is considered as very accurate, 
and the edition is much esteemed. 

Some years since a collection of the Latin authors, entitled Scriptores Romani, 
was commenced in Boston. The works of Cicero and Tacitus were published, 
and then the work was suspended, we believe, for want of satisfactory patron- 
age. 

Valpy's School Classics are only a series of such authors or portions of authors, 
as are more commonly used in Schools and Seminaries. They are accompanied 
with English notes and Questions for Examination, are prepared by various edi- 
tors, and published in a uniform size. The design includes both Greek and La- 
tin authors, and the work, yet in progress, appears to be well received in Eng- 
land. 



PART III. 



MYTHOLOGY 



OF THE 



GREEKS AND ROMANS. 



GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 



Introduction. 

§ 1. Among the early nations of antiquity, before the art of writ- 
ing had come into general use, tradition was the only mode of pre- 
serving and spreading the knowledge of remarkable events. Many 
circumstances contributed to give to early traditions a fabulous char- 
acter. The love of the marvelous, a natural tendency of the mind to 
employ symbolical and allegorical images to express ideas for which 
no definite words have been appropriated, and a disposition to eulogize 
and exaggerate the exploits of ancestors, all united to load history and 
fact with a mass of fiction, so that it became impossible for later inquir- 
ers to distinguish accurately between the true and false. 

^ 2. Traditions of this sort the Greeks distinguished from authen- 
tic history by the name of mythi (pvdoi), and they termed their con- 
tents or the matter of them, as well as the knowledge or study of them, 
mythology ([ivdoXoyla). Mythology, however, was not with them, as 
in modern times, a distinct branch of study. The term is now used 
appropriately for that branch of knowledge, which considers the no- 
tions and stories, particularly among the Greeks and Romans, re- 
specting gods and demigods, their pretended origin, their actions, 
names, attributes, worship, images and symbolical representations. 
It is often employed also in a wider sense, including the religious fa- 
bles of all ages and nations, and thus is made synonymous with the 
history of fable, t 

§ 3- It is important to distinguish the point of view, in which 
these mythological narratives were contemplated by the ancients, from 
that in which we are to regard them. To the former they were closely 
connected with their national ^history and their religious faith, were 
indeed parts of them ; to us they are only monuments and evidences 
of the state of culture of the human mind, if we view them philo- 
sophically. They exhibit the reflections, upon nature and deity, of 
men guided by sense and imagination, affected much by external ap- 
pearances, and mistaking physical effects for independent or voluntary 
powers. But they afford much valuable and even necessary aid in 



323 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

understanding the Greek and Roman authors, especially the poets, and 
in judging of ancient opinions, usages and art. 

§ 4. The traditions of mythology, in passing down through many 
centuries, were multiplied and augmented, and experienced various 
changes in respect to their general dress, aim and application. Origi- 
nally they consisted in part of actual occurrences, in part of arhitrary 
fiction, springing from fear, reverence, gratitude, patriotism, credulity 
and love of the marvelous, or duplicity, cunning and ambition. They 
were, it is probable, sometimes of native origin, but more frequently 
were introduced from foreign sources, by settlers and otherwise. By 
the poets they were woven into epic song ; by early philosophers they 
were clothed in mystery and allegory, by the later interpreted in di- 
vers conflicting ways ; while artists found in them an ample range of 
subjects for the chisel and the pencil. 

$ 5. Classical literature has been viewed in modern times as so 
important in education, and a knowledge of Greek and Roman my- 
thology has been so obviously necessary to its cultivation, that many 
works have been published on the subject, as an auxiliary branch. 
These works have either merely stated the fables as reported among 
the ancients, or in addition have sought to trace them to their origin, 
either by making conjectures of allegorical, historical and physical 
meanings in the stories, or deducing them from the events of early 
ages recorded in the Bible. But as these traditions arose in various 
ways, and often accidentally, there will of course be error in every 
system, which attempts to refer them all to one common source and 
purpose. 

The foundation of very many of the fictions of mythology is laid 
in the idea, which arose from the simplicity and inexperience of the 
first ages, conversant only with objects of sense; viz. that every thing 
in nature was endued with an appropriate activity and spontaneity 
like that in man. In consequence of this idea, wherever an unusual 
appearance or agency was observed, it was ascribed to a distinct being 
or existence operating directly or immediately. This creation of per- 
sonal existences out of natural phenomena, this personification of phys- 
ical objects and events was, in all probability, one of the most prolific 
sources of fable and of idolatry ; for which the stars and the elements 
seem to have furnished the first and the most common occasion. 

Many of the pagan stories are ingeniously solved by referring their origin to 
symbolical or allegorical descriptions of physical principles and changes. Cf. 
P. I. § 41.— On the rise of Idolatry, we refer to Faber, Origin of Pagan Idolatry, 
X,ond. 1816. 3 vols. 4. Cf. also Shuckford. Sac. & Prof. Hist. B. V. 



INTRODUCTION". 309 

j^ll f ° n °™g ^ditional remarks, on the sources of fable, are from the Traitfi 
des Etudes of Rolhn. They were translated by Mr. Wellington H Tvler who 
has consented to their insertion here. y ' ° 

tnr 1 ,; pj 1 / source of Fable is the perversion or alteration of facts in Sacred His- 

tory ; and, indeed this is its earliest and principal source. The famiW Noah 

perfectly instructed by him in religious matters, preserved for cSerabte time 

he worship of the true God in alllts purity. But when after the fruitless ?t 

SK^r"? the t0 nT ° f Babe1 ' the ambers °f this family were epamted 
and scattered over different countries, diversity of language and abode ™ 
soon followed by a change : of worship. Truth, which had^ee^ hXeno intruT 
, ° u tbe l m S\ e channe l °f oral communication, subject to a thousand variation^ 
and which had not yet become fixed by the use of writing that sure -uardian of 

fSa^STp H bS< l Ured by a V^ tenumber °f fables, th & e later of whfchg'eady 
increased the darkness in which the more ancient had enveloped it. § 7 

all naHnn, Z f S f P n ( nci P les and S™* events has been preserved among 
frith S a ' ^ed, without some mixture of fiction, but yet with traces of 
truth, marked, and easy to be recognized ; a certain proof that these nations had 
a common origin Hence the notion, diffused among al people tf a sovereiS 
God, a 1-powerful, the Ruler and Creator of the universe a^dconseauentlv he 
^3™ nnr nal W r hiP) by meanS ° f ^remonies and sacSr&nce 

mm™dfatreSifn I1 nf ra n ?S?ent l ° Cen ? n great faCls ' the creation of man by an 
immediate exertion of Divine power, his state of felicity and innocence rlktin 

f^ f e nV£ th K goldena ?> in wh ichUie earth, without Ling listened bylhe" 

Ktan&TAefauSnff ^ P ainful > bor > gelded hfmanteT fruit th n 

But the detail of particular actions, being less important and for that reason 
less known, was soon altered by the introduction of Ihbles and fictions as mav be 
clearly seen in the family of Noah itself. The historical feet that 'he « Tthe 
fn tWpV-S" 668 ? 118 and / h u at the ir descendants after the flood we e dispersed n- 
hrle snn, r m ^Vf the l arth ' haS given rise to lhe fable of Saturn whoTe 
world ? ' may Ve the P ° etS ' Shared belween the mthe empire of the 

On several of the points above suggested by Rollin, the pagan mythology exhibits striking coinci- 
dences wtth facts in sacred history. These are pointed out by several writers we mention partta 
teriyO»«««.De veritate Rel. Christ, (lib. I. c. 16).-Faier, Hor* Mosaicae.^cI^T Lecture on 

mf; off 5eco '^ source of Fable was furnished by the ministry of angels in hu- 
man aflairs. God had associated the angels with his spiritual nature his intel- 
hgence and his immortality; and he was farther desirous of assoc aling hem 
with his providence in the government of the world, as well in the department 
£™« 6 w the e ements > as *» reference to the conduct of men. The S- 
K. ?h ak of t an S els >. wb °. a ™ed with their glittering swords, ravage all E 3 
destroy by pestilence in Jerusalem an innumerable multitude of people and en- 
tirely exterminate the army of an impious prince. Mention is made of an an- 
gel, the prince and protector of the Persian Empire ; of another prince of the 

(uan. A. M J\). I he visible ministration of angels is as ancient as the wnrlH 
t a o^TaS^an h c e e CllerUbi,n Stall ° Ded " the ^ ° f ^^^ISd^Sffi 
.,-^ oahand the other patriarchs T re Perfectly instructed in this truth, which to 
them had an intense interest; and they took pains, no doubt, to instruct their 
families on a subject of such importance ; but these by degrees losing "he more 
pureand spiritual notions of adivinity concealed and invisible, attended only to 
utTT' ih T gh J h om they received their blessings and punishments. Hence 
If . X me £ formedthe ld ea of gods, some of whom preside overthe fruits of 
It Z ' °f her . S °T nVerS ' some over war and others over peace, and so of all 
the rest; of gods whose power and agency were confined to certain countries 
and nations, and who were themselves" under the dominion of the supreme God ' 



3ol) GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

3, ' A third, source of Fable may belli a native principle deeply fixed in the 
minds of all people ; this is the persuasion which has always prevailed, thai 
Providence presides over all human events great and small, and that each, without 
exception, experiences his attention and care. But men, frightened by the im- 
mense detail to which the divine Being must condescend, have felt bound to re- 
lieve him by giving to each of a number of deitiessome particular, appropriate, 
personalduiv ; Singulis rebus propria, disp'ertientes officia numinum. The over- 
sight of the w hole iichi would devolve loo many concerns upon a single deity; 
the soil was entrusted to one, the mountains to another, the hills to a third, and 
the vallies to another still. St. Augustin (de Civilale Dei, iv. 8.) recounts a doz- 
en different deities, all occupied upon a stalk of grain, of which each, according 
to his office, takes a special care at different times, from the first moment that the 
seed is cast into the ground, until the grain is perfectly ripened. 

Besides the crowd of deities destined to perform the inconsiderable duties of 
such affairs, there were others which were regarded as of a higher grade, be- 
cause supposed to take a more noble part in the government of the world.' 

The number of gods admitted in the Greek mythology was immense, if we may take Hesiod's testi- 
mony for authority. He says there are 30,000 gods on earth guardians of men. 

4. ' A fourth source of Fable was the corruption of the human heart, which 
ever strives to authorize its crimes and passions. The more important and re- 
nowned of these gods are the very ones, whom Fable has most disparaged and 
defamed, by attributing to them crimes the most shamelul and debauchery the 
most detestable, murders, adulteries, incests. And thus it is that the human 
heart has been ready to multiply, distort and pervert the fictions of mythology, 
for the purpose of palliating and excusing practices the most vicious and fright- 
ful by the example of the gods themselves. There is no conduct so disgraceful, 
that it has not been authorized and even consecrated by the worship, which was 
rendered to certain deities. In the solemnities of the mother of the gods, for 
instance, songs were sung, at which the mother of a comedian would have blush- 
ed; and Scipio Nasica, who was chosen by the senate as the most virtuous man 
in the republic to go and receive her statue, would have been much grieved that 
his own mother should have been made a goddess to take the place and honors 
of Cybele.' 

I 5. ' I do not propose to introduce here all the sources from which Fable takes 
its rise, but merely to point out some of those best understood. And as a. fifth 
source, we may refer to a natural sentiment of admiration or gratitude, which 
leadsmen to associate the idea of something like divinity with all that which par- 
ticularly attracts their attention, that which is nearly related to them, or which 
seems to procure for them some advantage. Such are the sun, the moon and the 
stars; such are parents in the view of their children, and children in that of 
their parents; persons who have either invented or improved arts useful to the 
human family; heroes who have distinguished themselves in war by an exhibi- 
tion of extraordinary courage, or have cleared the land of robbers, enemies to 
public repose; in short, such are all who, by some virtue or by some illustrious 
action, rise conspicuous above the common level of mankind. It will be readily 
perceived without further notice that history, profane as well as sacred, has given 
rise to all those demigods and heroes, whom Fable has located in the heavens, by 
associating, with the person and under the name of a single individual, actions 
widely separated in respect to time, place and person.' 

§ 6. The advantages of an acquaintance with mythology are many. 
One of the most important, aside from its aid in reference to ancient 
philosophy, religion and history, is the better understanding it enables 
one to obtain of the Greek and Roman writers and of the works of 
their artists. The chief object of our glance will therefore be to give 
the fables of the two nations ; which, in this view, have much in com- 
mon, although differing in many circumstances relating to the mythi- 
cal persons and their attributes. These differences and peculiarities, 
however, will be noticed in the proper place. 



INTRODUCTION. 331 

On the benefits of studying the ancient mythology we add an extract from Rol- 
lin, as cited under the last section. 

1. 'It apprizes us how much we are indebted to Jesus Christ the Saviour, who 
has rescued us from the power of darkness and introduced us into the wonderful 
light of the Gospel. Before his time, what was the real character of men 1 Even 
the wisest and most upright men, those celebrated philosophers, those great 
politicians, those renowned legislators of Greece, those grave senators of Rome 1 
In a word, what were all the nations of the world, the most polished and the 
most enlightened'? Fable informs us. They were the blind worshipers of 
some demon, and bowed the knee before gods of gold, silver and marble. They 
offered incense and prayers to statues, deaf and mute. They recognized, as gods, 
animals, reptiles, and even plants. They did not blush to adore an adulterous 
Mars, a prostituted Venus, an incestuous Juno, a Jupiter blackened by every 
kind of crime, and worthy, for that reason, to hold the first rank among the gods. 

See what our fathers were, and what we ourselves should have been, had not 
the light of the gospel dissipated our darkness. Each story in Fable, every cir- 
cumstance in the life of the gods ought at once to fill us with confusion, admira- 
tion and gratitude.' 

2. 'Another advantage from the study of Fable is that, by discovering to us 
the absurd ceremonies and impious maxims of paganism, it may inspire us with 
new respect for the majesty of the Christian religion, and for the sanctity of its 
morals. Ecclesiastical history informs us, that a Christian bishop ( Tlieophilus of 
Alexandria), to render idolatry odious in the minds of the faithful, brought forth 
to the light and exposed before the eyes of the public, all which was found in the 
interior of a temple that had been demolished ; bones of men, limbs of infants 
immolated to demons, and many other vestiges of the sacrilegious worship, which 
pagans render to their deities. This is nearly the effect, which the study of Fa- 
ble must produce on the mind of every sensible person; and this is the use to 
which it has been put by the holy Fathers and all the defenders of the Christian 
religion. The great work of St. Augustin, entitled 'The City of God,' which 
has conferred such honor upon the Church, is at the same time a proof of what 
I now advance, and a perfect model of the manner' in which profane studies 
ought to be sanctified.' 

We would here refer to a very able and interesting treatise On the Nature and Moral Influence of 
Heathenism among the Greeks and Romans, in Bibl. Repository, vol. ii. translated from Tholuck by 
Prof. Emerson of Andover.— ' Whosoever,' says Tholuck, ' stands on a lofty mountain should look not 
merely at the gold which the morning sun pours on the grass and flowers at his feet; but he should 
sometimes also look behind him into the deep valley where the shadows still rest, that he may the 
more sensibly feel that that sun is indeed a sun. Thus it is also salutary for the disciples of Christ, at 
times, from the kingdom of light to cast forth a glance over the dark stage, where men play their part 

in lonely gloom, without a Saviour, without a God ! ' Respecting Theophilus, see Murdock's Mos- 

heim, I. 392. 

3. ' Still another benefit of very great importance may be realized in the un- 
derstanding of authors either in Greek, Latin or even French, in reading which, 
apersonis often stopped short if ignorant of mythology. I speak not of Poets 
merely, whose natural language is Fable ; it is often employed also by Orators, 
and it furnishes them frequently with the happiest illustrations and with strains 
the most sprightly and eloquent. Such, lor example, among many others, 
is that drawn from the story of Medea in the speech of Cicero (Pro. Leg, Manil. 
Sect. 9.) upon the subject of Mithridates, 'king of Pontus. 

4. ' There is another class of works, whose meaning and beauty are illustrated 
by a knowledge of Fable; viz. paintings, coins, statues, and the like. These are 
so many enigmas to persons ignorant of mythology, which is often the only key 
to their interpretation.' 

It should be added that mythology, at the same time, itself receives new light 
from the study of such remains or imitations of ancient art, so that these two 
branches of classical pursuits reciprocally aid each other. 

kj 7. Greece having been settled by colonies from several eastern 
countries, and having derived her religious notions particularly from 
Egyptians and Phcenicians, the origin of most of the Greek deitieg 



332 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

is to be sought in the religious history of those countries and nations. 
But many changes took place, and this original derivation was greatly 
obscured through the vanity of the Greeks, who wished to claim for 
themselves and ancestors the merit of their whole religious system. 
This motive led them to confound the history and alter the names of 
the primitive gods. 

On the influence on the early culture of the Greeks from the east, cons. P. I. 
§40-42. P. II. § 12.— Some traditions may have come from India. There are 
certainly many points of resemblance between the mythology of Greece and 
that of India. See Karl Ritter, Die Vorhalle Europseischer Vcelkergeschichten 
vor Herodotus um den Kaukasus und an den Gestaden des Pontus, Berl. 1820. 8. 
-Moore's Hindoo Pantheon. — Maurice's Indian Antiquities. Lond. 1806. 7 vols. 8. 

$ 8. The religious system of the Romans gives clearer evidence 
of its Grecian descent, being in scarcely any part of it a native growth, 
but borrowed chiefly from the Greek colonies in Italy. Yet the Ro- 
mans likewise changed not only in many cases the names of the gods, 
but also the fictions of their story, and the rites of their worship. 
They also derived some notions and usages from the Etrurians. (Cf. 
P. I. § 109.) All the religious conceptions and institutions of the 
Romans were closely interwoven with their civil policy, and on this 
account exhibited some peculiarities, particularly in their system of 
auspices, auguries and various omens. We find therefore in Roman 
mythology much which the Greek had not, and much which was bor- 
rowed from it, but altered and as it were moulded anew. 

§ 9. Thus the general division or classification of the gods was 
not the same with both nations. The Greeks made a three-fold divis- 
ion into Superior gods, Inferior gods, and Demigods or heroes ; the Ro- 
mans a two-fold, into gods Superior and Inferior {Dii majorum, et mi- 
norum gentium). Their first class the Romans distinguished as Con- 
sentes, and Selecti ; the second, which included demigods or heroes, as 
Indigetes, and Semones. 

The Deities were also classed according to their supposed residence. 
They are sometimes arranged according to their descent in the fabu- 
lous genealogies. 

When classed according to residence, they are called celestial, terrestrial, ma- 
rine, and infernal. — A genealogical table according to Hesiod's Theogony is ap- 
pended to Cooke's Hesiod. (Cf. P. II. § 51. 4.) 

In the Roman classification the Consentes, so called because they -were supposed 
to form the great council (consentientes) of heaven, consisted of twelve, 6 males 
and 6 females ; Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo, Mars, Mercury, Vulcan ; Juno, Miner- 
va, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Vesta. These were the great celestial gods. The Se- 
lecti were nearly equal to them in rank and consisted of eight, Saturn, Pluto or 
Orcus, Bacchus, Janus, Sol, Genius, Rhea, and Luna. These were called 
Dii majornm genii im, and all the rest Diiminorum gentium, in allusion to the 
division of the senators (palre:). 



INTRODUCTION. 333 

The Indigetes, called also Adscriptilii, were heroes ranked among the gods on 
account of their merits, and included particularly Hercules, Castor or Pollux, 
and duirinus or Romulus. The Semones included those deities, that presided 
overparticular objects, as Pan, god of shepherds, Flora, goddess of flowers, &c. 
Besides these there was, among the Dii minorwm gentium, a numerous class of 
miscetlanei, including the virtues and vices and other objects, personified ; and also 
a number called dii peregrini, foreign gods, introduced at Rome from abroad, 
or at least tolerated, although perhaps worshiped chiefly by foreigners residing 
in the city. 

The Consentcs in the Roman division corresponded to the class, which the 
Greeks, when denominating the gods by their residence, termed the celestial and 
Olympian, "movqavioi, oXv/.itcioi ; which were also called ot ptyuZoi &&bi, and 61 
dtliStxa dtbi. The Athenians had an altar consecrated to these collectively, /?<«- 

jito; TaSv SJidtxa. 

§ 10. But the differences in the systems of the two nations need 
not essentially affect a scientific treatment of the suhject of their my- 
thology. For the principal deities of each were common to hoth, and 
it will contribute to brevity and comprehensiveness to include them all 
in one system of classification, pointing out what may be peculiar in 
each case as it occurs. It is therefore proposed to consider the gods 
of the Greek and Roman mythology in four classes ; viz. (1) Supe- 
rior Gods, (2) Inferior Gods, (3) Mythical Beings, whose history is 
intimately connected with that of the gods, and (4) Heroes. 

In the first class will be noticed the twelve Consentes or great celestial gods, and 
four others, Saturn, Rhea, Pluto and Bacchus. — In the second will be mentioned 
Uranus or Coelus, Sol, Luna, Aurora, Nox, Iris, iEolus. Pan, Latona, Themis, 
iEsculapius, Plutus, and Fama. Here belong also numerous deities of the Ro- 
mans, which were not common to them and the Greeks. The third class com- 
prehends the Titans and Giants, Tritons, Sirens, Nymphs, Muses, Graces, Fates, 
Furies, Genii, Lares, Satyrs and the like. Under the last fall the names of Per- 
seus, Hercules, Theseus and various others, whose achievements led to their de- 
ification. 

§11. It may be proper to remark here, that the ideas entertained 
by the Greeks and Romans respecting the nature of Divinity, were 
exceedingly imperfect. A being possessing powers of body and mind 
superior to those of man, especially superior might, mainly answered 
to ^heir notions of a God. The superiority, which they ascribed to 
their deities, consisted chiefly in freedom from bodily decay, a sort of 
immortal youth, ability to move with wonderful celerity, to appear and 
disappear- at pleasure with a noble and beautiful form, and to exert an 
immediate influence upon the condition of mortals. In these respects, 
however, their power was limited, according to the general opinion, 
being controlled by an eternal and immutable relation of things termed 
fate or destiny. 

§ 12. s Before proceeding to notice more particularly the classes 
specified, we will, in accordance with our general plan in other parts 
of this work, present some references to the sources of information on 



334 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOffY. 

the subject; alluding first to' ancient authorities, and then giving the 
titles to more modern works. 

1." Almost all the Greek and Roman poets make use of, or at least touch 
upon, mythological subjects; although these are not by any means treated in the 
same manner in the different kinds of poetry, epic, lyric, dramatic and didactic. 
We have properly mythic poetry in the Theogony of Hesiod and the Cassandra of 
Lycophron (P. II. §§51, 67), the Metamorphoses of Ovid and in two poems of 
Ciaudian, the Gigantomachy, and the Rape of Proserpine (P. II. § 334). 

Many historians have introduced into their narratives mythological traditions, 
without presenting them, however, as fully entitled to credence; while they have 
also recorded much, that appertained to the worship of the gods and to works of 
art connected with mythology. Herodotus, Diodorus, Strabo, Pausanias, and 
the elder Pliny may be mentioned particularly. 

There were also ancient writers, who made mythology their theme, or treated 
the subject more at length ; as among the Greeks, Apollodorus, Conon, Hephu&tion, 
Parthenius, Antoninus Liberalis, Palmphatus, Heraclides, Phunmtus (P. II. 
§§ 221 ss.) ; among the Romans, Hyginus, and Fulgentius (P. II. §§ 384. ss). No- 
tices on this subject are found also in the works of some of the early writers of 
the church and also in the notes of most of the Greek scholiasts. 

2. M Of the numerous modern works on Mythology, some treat the subject 
more at large, others more compendiously; some present the subjects in an al- 
phabetical order; there are also works accompanied with plates and drawings 
for illustration. 

(a) The following are some of the works which go into more full details. 
Lit, Greg. Gyraldi, Historise Deor. Gentil. Syntagmata XVII. Bas. 1548. fol. 
Also in his 6pp. Omn. (ed. J. Jensius,) Lugd. Bat. 1696. fol. — Vine. Carlari, le 
imagini degli dei degli antichi, Lion. 1581. 4. Also in Latin, Lugd. 1581. 4. oft. 
repr. — Nalalis Comitis Mythologies s. Explicationis Fabularum libri X. Gen. 
1651. 8. — Gerh. I. Vossius, De theologia Gentili et physiologia Christiana, s. de 
origine et progressu idololatria; libri IX. Amst. 1668. fol.— Ant. Banier, La my- 
thologie et les fables expliquees par l'histoire, Par. 1738-40. 8 vols. 12. In Ger- 
man with additions by J. A. Schlegel and J, M. Schrackh, Lpz. 1755-65. 5 vols. 8. 
— P. Creuzer's Symbolik und Mythologie der Alten Vcelker, besonders der Griech- 
en. Lpz. 1819-21. 4 Bde. 8.— Same, (abridged) by G. H. Moser, Lpz. 1822. 8.— 
J. H. Voss, Antisymbolik. Stuttg. 1824. 8. — G. Hermann and F. Creuzer, Briefe 
ueber Homer und Hesiodus. Heidelb. 1818. 8. — G. Hermann ueber das Wesen 
und die Behandlung der Mythologie. Lpz. 1819. 8.-r./. A. Kanne's Mythologie 
der Griechen. Lpz. 1805. 8. — By same, erste Urkunden der Geschichte, oder all- 
gemeine Mythologie. Baireuth 180S. 2 Bde. 8. — By same, Pantheon der a;ltesten 
Naturphilosophie aller Vcelker. Tueb. 1811. 8. — J. L. Hug's Untersuchungen 
ueber d. Mythos d. beruehmtern Vcelker d. alt. Welte, vorzueglich d. Griech. 
Freyb. 1812. A.— J. A. L. RicUer's Phantasien des Alterthums, oder Samml. 
myth. Sagen der Hellenen, Roemer &c. Lpz. 1808-20. 5 Bde. 8. — We may add J. 
Bryant's, New System of Mythology, Lond. 1807. 6 vols. S.—Dupwis, Origine de 
tousles Culfes. Par. 1822. 7 vols. 8. — R. P. Knight, Inquiry into the symbolical 
Language of Ancient Art and Mythology, in different Nos. of the Classical 
Journal. — Constant, De la Religion. Par. 1826-31. 5 vols. 8. 

(5) More compendious treatises, or manuals. C. T. Damm, Mythologie der 
Griechen und Rcemer (ed. Levezow) Berl. 1820. 8. with plates. — M. G: Hermann, 
Handbuch der Mythologie aus Homer und Hesiod. Berl. 1787-95. 3 vols. 8. — By 
same, Mythologie der Griechen, fuer die obern Klassen &c. Berl. 1801. 2 vols. 8. 
— K. Ph. Moritz, Goetterlehre, oder mythol. Dichtungen der Alten. Berl. 1819. 8. 
with plates. Same work in English, Mythological Fictions of Greeks and Ro- 
mans. 12mo. — Pr. Rarnbach, Abriss einer Mythologie fuer Kuenstler. Berl. 1796. 
2 vols. 8. — C. A. Bmttiger's Grundrissezu Vorlesungen ueber die Mythologie. Dres- 
den 1808. 8. — By saTOe,Amalthea oder Museum d. Kunst mythologie u. bildl. Alter- 
thnmskunde, Leipz. 1821.—^. Peidler's Mythologie der Griechen u. italisch. Vcel- 
ker. Halle 1823.— Andrew Tooke, The Pantheon ; containing the Mythological 
systems of the Greeks and Romans. 36th ed. Lond. 1831. 8. with plates. — Valpy's 
Elements of Mythology. Lond. 1832. 18. very brief.— C. K. Dilla-way, Roman An- 
tiquities and Ancient Mythology, Bost, 1831. 12.-- Keightley's Mythology. Lond. 



INTRODUCTION. 335 

(c) Dictionaries of Mythology. — B. Hederich, Mythologisches Lexicon, (ed. 
/. J. Schioabe) Lpz. 1770. 8.— P. F. A. Nitsch, Neues mythol. Woerterbuch. (ed. 
F. G. Klopfer) Lpz. 1821. 2 vols. 8.— K. Ph. Moritz, Mythol. Wcerterbuch fuer 
Schuler.Berl. 1817.8.—/. G. Gruber, "Wcerterbuch der altklassischenMythologie 
und Religion, Weim. 1610. 3 vols. 8.— P. C. Cliompre, Dictionaire abrege de la 
fable. Par. 1818. 12. — Fr. Noel, Dictionaire de la fable, ou. Mythologie grecque, 
latine, egypiienne, celtique, persanne, indienne, chinoise, &c. Par. 1823. 2 vols. 8. 
— Wm. Holwell, A Mythological Dictionary &c. (Extracted from J. Bryant's 
New System or Analysis of Ancient Mythology.) Lond. 1793. 8. 

(d) The following works contain plates illustrating the subjects of mythology, 
accompanied with explanations. — Bernard de Montfaucon, L'Antiquite expliquee 
et representee en figures. Par. 1719. 10 vols, in 5 fol. Supplem. Par. 1724. 5 vols. 
fol. — Jowch. von Sandrart, Iconologia deorum, Nuernb. 1680. fol. — Spence's Poly- 
metis, or an enquiry concerning the agreement between the works of the Roman 
poets and the remains of the ancient artists. Lond. 1747. fol. 1755. fol. — A. Hiri, 
Bilderbuch fuer Mythologie, Archaeologie und Kunst. Berl. 1805-16. 2 vols. 4. — 
A. L. Millin, Galerie myttiologique.ou Recueil des monumens pour servir a l'etude 
de la mythologie, de l'histoire de l'art &c. Par. 1811. 2 vols. 8. containing correct 
pictures of about 800ancient monuments. 

(e) The impressions on ancient gems are of much service in illustrating my- 
thology, to which part of the subject belong the following works. — A. C.Klausing, 
Versuch einer mythologischen Daktyliothek fuer Schuler. Lpz. 1781. 8 (with 
120 neat impressions of engraved gems.) — T. F. Roth's mythologische Daktylio- 
thek. Nuernb. 1805 (with 90 impressed models of engraved stones). — Also Lippert's 
Daktyliothek (P. I. § 210). One thousand of his impressions belong to mytholo- 
gy. — The gems, of which Wedgwood o,nd Bentley have given imitations, pertain, 
many of them to mythology, as also those of Tassie (P. I. § 210). 

(/) Here we may name likewise some works on the Mythology of other nations 
besides the Greeks and Romans. — Moore's Hindoo Pantheon. — Rhode, Ueber die 
religicese Bildung der Hindus. Lpz. 1827. 2 vols. 8. — Kennedy, Researches into 
the Nature and Affinity of Ancient and Hindoo Mythology. Cf. Asiatic Research- 
es. — Maurice, Indian Antiquities. Lond. 1806. 7 vols. 8. — Hager, Pantheon Chinois, 
(or Parallel between the religious worship of the Greeks and the Chinese). Par. 
1810. 4. Cf. Class Journ. i. 178. — Prichard's Analysis of Egyptian Mythology. 
Lond. 1819. 8. — Nyerup, "Wcerterbuch der Scandinavian Mythologie. Copenh. 
1816. 12. 



I. — Mythological History of the Superior Gods. 

6 13.* The Divinities, which we include in the class denominated 
Superior Gods, are the following ; Saturn, Kqovoq, Xoovog, Satur- 
nus ; Janus ; Rhea or Cybele, 'Psa, Pela, Kvfiefoi ■ Jupiter, Zevg ; 
Juno, "Hpa; Neptune, Iloaeidwv, Neptnnus ; Pluto, IIlovTav ; 
Apollo, 'Anollwv ; Diana, "AQTSfiig-j Minerva, IlaXldg: Mars, 
"Jqtjq^ Venus, 'AcpooShr] ; Vulcan, "Hcpaiaroc, Vulcanus ; 
Mercury, 'EQ/ufjg, Mercurius ; Bacchus, Jtowaog] Ceres, ^/j?- 
(iiJTrjQj Vesta, 'Eariot. 

§ 14. (1) Saturn. This was one of the most ancient of the 
gods, called Chronos hy the Greeks and Saturnus by the Romans. 
He was said to he the son of Uranos and Titaa, i. e. the heavens and 
the earth, and to have possessed the first government of the universe. 



336 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

His wife was Rhea, who was bis sister. Saturn and his five breth- 
ren were called Titans, probably from their mother ; Rhea and her 
five sisters, likewise, Titanides. Saturn seized upon the government 
of the universe by his superiority over his father and brothers ; yet 
pledged himself to rear no male children; accordingly he is repre- 
sented as devouring his sons as soon as born. 

§ 15. But this fate, three of them, Jupiter, Neptune and Pluto, es- 
caped, through the artifice of Rhea their mother, who gave him stones 
to devour instead of the children at their birth. Jupiter aided Saturn 
in recovering his throne, after he had been driven from it by his broth- 
ers the Titans and bound in Tartarus. But soon he made war him- 
self upon Saturn, and seized the government. According to Roman 
fiction, Saturn now fled to Italy (thence called Satumia), and acquired 
great honor by teaching arts and morals to the people. Under him 
was the so called golden age, which the Greek poets also assigned 
to the reign of Saturn and described as singularly happy. Probably 
an idea of the perfection and fecundity of nature, when just newly cre- 
ated, is the basis of this story. 

Hes. Op. et Di. vs. 199. Virg. JEn.viii. 319. Ou.Metam. i. 89-112. ■ 

§ 16. From the Greek name of this God, which is the word sig- 
nifying time (xQovog), he has been considered as designed to personify 
time, and the first cause of the visible world. His Latin name also, 
as well as the story of his devouring his children, seems to have some 
reference to the idea of time, as satiated only by the destruction of 
what it has produced. This name, however, may have been given 
from the idea of fertility or productiveness, as he is said to have taught 
agriculture and the use of seeds. The word Saturnus is derived from 
Satur, signifying full, satiated, and'also fertile. 

Saturn is termed Sator, Vitisator, Falcifer (bearing a sickle or 
scythe), Sterculinus or Stercutius (having taught the fertilizing uses 
of manure), Canus and Leucanthes (levxavdrig). 

Some have traced the fables respecting Saturn to the history of Noah. See 
Tooke's Pantheon, P. ii. c. i. § 5. — ' Saturn was not unknown to the ancient Ger- 
mans, among whom he was worshipped by the name of Seaiur ; who is described 
as standing on a fish with a wheel in one hand, and in the other a vessel of wa- 
ter filled with fruits and flowers.' HolweWs Diet, cited § 12. 2 (c). 

§17. It was once customary to offer to Saturn human sacrifices, 
particularly among the Carthaginians, the Gauls, and the Pelasgic in- 
habitants of Italy. His principal temples among the Greeks were at 
Olympia, and at Drepanum in Sicily. The temple of Saturn in Rome 
served also the purpose of a treasury, in memorial, perhaps, of the 



SUPERIOR GODS. JANUS. RHKA. 337 

general security and the community of goods in the Saturnian or 
golden age. 

The chief festival of this deity was the Saturnalia of the Romans, 
which was, like the Ptloria (neXuQia) of the Thessalians, devoted to 
freedom, mirth and indiscriminate hospitality. 

Saturn was represented hy the figure of an old man having a scythe 
or sickle in one hand, and often in the other a serpent with its tail in 
its mouth in the form of a circle, both emblems of time. There are, 
however, but few ancient monuments of this deity. 

Also thus described ; ' a decrepid old man with a long beard and hoary head; 
his shoulders are bowed like an arch, his jaws hollow and thin, his cheeks sunk ; 
his nose is flat, his forehead full of furrows, and his chin turned up ; his right 
hand holds a rusty scythe, and his left a child, which he is about to devour.' 

The custom of sacrificing children to Saturn seems to identify him with Mo- 
loch, the Phoenician idol, to whom the apostate Israelites sacrificed their off- 
spring. Cf. Diod. Sic. xx. 14. Jahn, Bibl. Arch. § 211. The Sun-god of the 

South-Americans was worshiped with the same cruel rites.— Southty's Madoc, 
Notes. 

§ 18. (2) Janus. He was one of the Superior Gods of the Ro- 
mans. They represent him as of Thessalian origin, and as reigning 
over the earliest and so called aboriginal inhabitants of Italy, in the time 
of Saturn. It was to Janus that Saturn fled, and under them was the 
golden age, a period of uninterrupted peace. To Janus, therefore, 
Romulus dedicated that celebrated temple, which was always open in 
time of war, and was closed with much solemnity, whenever there 
was genera] peace in the Roman empire; a thing which happened but 
three times during 724 years from the building of the city. From 
this deity the month of January was named, and the first day of the 
month was sacred to him. 

He is represented with a double, and sometimes with a quadruple 
face; hence the epithets Biceps, Bifrons, Quadrifrons. He is also 
called PatulciuS, Consivius, Clusius, Custos and Claviger. 

He is also represented with a key in one hand and a rod in the other, with 12 
altars beneath his feet, supposed by some to refer to the 12 months of the year. 
His statue erected by Numa is said to have had its fingers so composed as to sig- 
nify 3G5, the number of days in a year. — He was considered as the in venter of 
locks, doors, and gates, which are thence called januce. He was termed Father 
and sometimes God of gods. In sacrifices, prayers were first offered to Janus and 
oblations were made to him, as being the door of access to the gods.— His origi- 
nal name was Djanus or Dianus, which some have derived from dies, day. Ha 
is called the Sun, and was the Sun-god or God of the year, of the original inhab- 
itants of Italy. The story ot his friendly reception of Saturn is by some ex- 
plained as referring to the agreement between the old inhabitants of Latiumand 
the immigrating Pelasgi to worship the two gods in common. — Janus was not re- 
ceived among the gods of the Greeks. 

§ 19. (3) Rhea or Cybele. The common name of the wife 
and sister of Saturn was Rhea or Ops. Yet the history and worship 
of Cybele were afterwards so entirely interwoven with those of Rhea, 
43 



338 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

that both were considered the same person, and although Rhea was 
said to be the daughter of Earth, were each taken for Gaia or Tc.llus, 
and often called Vesta, and the great mother of Gods. The origin of 
Rhea belongs to the earliest periods of mythical story, and hence the 
confusion in the accounts which are given of her. 

Cybele, properly speaking, lived later, and was, according to tra- 
dition, a daughter of Meeon a king of Phrygia and Lydia, or according 
to others, in an allegorical sense, the daughter of Protogonus. Her 
invention of various musical instruments, and her love for Atys, a 
Phrygian youth, whose death rendered her frantic, are the most prom- 
inent circumstances of her history. 

Ovid, Fast. 4. 223.— Catullus, de At. et Ber. 

§ 20. That this goddess was a personification of the earth as in- 
habited and fruitful, is supposed from the manner in which she was 
represented. Her image was generally a robust woman, far advanced 
in pregnancy, with a turreted mural crown on her head. Often she 
was borne in a chariot drawn by lions ; sometimes she rested upon a 
lion. 

She was also formed with many breasts, with a key or keys in her hand, some- 
times a sceptre, and frequently with two lions under her arms. — Besides the 
names above mentioned, she was also called Mater Dyndymena, Berecynthia and 
Idaea, Pessinuntia, and Bona Dea. 

A figure in silver, with some parts plated with gold, and the whole elegantly 
finished, representing Cybele, was found at Macon (ancient Matisco) on the Saone 
in 1764. It was published by Count Caylus (Vol. 7. pi. 71). — Authors Lemp. 

§ 21. Her worship was especially cultivated in Phrygia, but 
spread thence through Asia. The celebration of her festivals was 
exceedingly tumultuous, as her priests, called Corybantes, or Galli, 
and the chief one Archigallus, went about with clamorous music and 
singing, acting like madmen and filling the air with the mingled 
noise of shrieks, howlings, drums, tabrets, bucklers and spears. 

The removal of her image from Pessinus to Rome, and the estab- 
lishment of her worship in the latter city, was a remarkable event. 
The festival called Megalesia (from fiEydlrj, the great mother) was 
maintained in her honor. 

Ldv. Hist. 29. 10, 11, 14. Vol. Max. 8. 15, The place called Pessinus was 

said to have derived its name from Iltauv, to fall, because it was the spot upon 
which the image of this goddess fell, being like the fabled Ancile and Palladium 
sent down from Jupiter. 

At her festival, the Megalesia, Roman matrons danced before her altar; 
the magistrates assisted in robes of purple ; a great concourse of people and 
strangers usually assembled, and Phrygian priests bore the image of the god- 
dess through the streets of the city. The festival called Hilaria was celebrated 
in a similar manner, and attended with many indecencies. — There appears to be 
a strong resemblance between Cybele and Pracriti, the goddess of nature among 
the Hindoos. The latter is represented as drawn by lions, and her festival is 
attended with the beating of drums.— Moore's Hindoo Pantheon. 



SUPERIOR GODS. JUPITER. 339 

§ 22. (4) Jupiter. The highest and most powerful among the 
gods was called by the Greeks Zevg, by the Romans Jupiter. It 
would seem, that by this god was originally represented nature in gen- 
eral, afterwards the superior atmosphere, and finally the supreme exis- 
tence. Many tales of the early history of Crete were incorporated 
among the traditions respecting him. 

He was a son of Saturn and Rhea, educated in Crete. He robbed 
his father of his kingdom, and shared it with his two brethren so that 
Neptune received the sea, Pluto the infernal world, and himself the 
earth and heavens. The Giants, sons of the earth, disputed the pos- 
session of his kingdom with him, and attempted to scale Olympus, 
but he defeated them with thunderbolts forged by the Cyclops. 

Enraged by the wickedness and deep corruption of men, he des- 
troyed the whole race by a vast deluge, from which Deucalion and 
Pyrrha alone escaped. The supposed date of this flood is not far 
from 1500 years B. C. 

Oti. Metam. i. 151. 260. — Claudian's Gigantomachia. 

§ 23. The ordinary residence of Jupiter was upon Olympus, a 
mountain of Thessaly, which the poets, on account of the constant se- 
renity of its summit, represented as a suitable place for the abode of 
the gods. 

His first wife was Metis, whom he destroyed, because it was foretold 
him, that she would bear a child that would deprive him of the king- 
dom. Afterwards the goddess Minerva was produced from his head. 
By his second wife, Themis, he begat the Horce and the Parcce. — 
The third and most celebrated was Juno, by whom he had his sons 
Mars and Vulcan. — Tradition, particularly the tales respecting meta- 
morphoses, relate numerous amours of Jupiter; e. g. withEuropa (1), 
Dana'e, Leda, Latona, Maia, Alcmena, Semele (2) and Io (3). Apol- 
lo, Mercury, Hercules, Perseus, Diana, Proserpina and many other 
gods and demigods were called the children of Jupiter. The name of 
son or daughter of Jupiter, however, was often employed merely to de- 
signate superior dignity and rank, and not intended to imply literal re- 
lationship. 

(1) Ov. Met. ii. 836. (2) lb. iii. 265. (3) lb. i. 588. 

§ 24. The worship of Jupiter was universally spread, and numer- 
ous temples were erected to his honor. The largest and the most cel- 
ebrated in Greece was that in Olympia in Elis, remarkable for its own 
magnificence, and for its colossal statue of Jupiter wrought by Phidi- 
as, and for the Olympic games held in its vicinity every fifth year. 
His oracle in the grove of oaks at Dodona was renowned, and con- 



340 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY'. 

sidered the most ancient in Greece. — In Rome, the Capitol was special- 
ly dedicated to him, and he had in that city many temples. 

Jupiter is generally represented as sitting upon a throne, with a 
thunderbolt in his right hand, and in his left a long sceptre resembling 
a spear. The eagle, sacred to him, appears standing near, or as in 
some monuments, resting at his feet with extended wings. As Jupiter 
Ammon, he was represented with the horns of a ram. 

The eagle sometimes is perched upon his sceptre. He is also spoken of as 
wearing 'golden shoes and an embroidered cloak adorned with various flowers 
and figures of animals.' — In Lybia a temple was consecrated to him under the 
naraeof Ammon, the site of which was discovered by an English traveler in 
1792, and was'visited by Belzoni in I816.-See Rennell's Geog. of Herod. Sect. xxi. 

§ 25. This god received a multitude of names and titles derived 
from circumstances of his history, or the places of his worship. The 
Greeks termed him Zsvg, and applied to him various epithets, as the 
ldcean(6 ' Id aiog), Olympic (' Olvfimxog), Dodoncean (Jwdcovaiog), 
thunder er (xegavviog), deliverer (eXsvdef>i,og), hospitable (Zeviog), 
punisher of the perjured (oQxiog), &c. The Romans styled him Op- 
timus Mazimus, Capitolinus, Stator, Diespiter, Feretrius, &c. As 
the avenger of crime, he was called also Vejovis or Vedius ; yet some 
consider these as names of another distinct divinity ; and others take 
them for names of Pluto. 

Among the epithets applied by the Greeks were also the following; from his 
sending r&ira, ofcfiqiog, viriog, rBipsXtjytqiriig, oQBivsqlg ; from his darting thunder, 
Bar^QoTtrjrljg, (Sqovtolios, TtQizixlqavvog, ; from his protection of suppliants, ixiaiog, 
[xenjoiog. The Romans also called him sometimes Inventor, Elicius, Latialis, 
Sponsor, Victor, Fluvialis. — His Latin name Jupiter is from Ztv JJU-viq, Z being 
changedin J. From Zivg, in Doric 2devg and iEolic Jtvg, eame also probably 
the Latin Deus. The word, is by some supposed to be of eastern origin ; others 
say it is applied to this deity as the source of life, Iroraiaw. 

Very discordant opinions have been maintained respecting the meaning of the 
various fables about Jupiter. It is evident, that attributes drawn from many dif- 
ferent personages and probably eastern deities were associated with his name, in 
the descent of mythological traditions from one generation to another. When 
the different tales are united, they form a very incongruous mixture, combining 
historic narrative, poetic ornament, and philosophic allegory. 

§ 26. (5) Juno. The wife and sister of Jupiter, daughter of 
Saturn and Rhea, and as wife of Jupiter mistress of gods and men, was 
called by the Greeks "Hqa, and by the Romans Juno. Her birth- 
place was assigned by the Greeks to Argos, or the island Samos, and 
to other spots in Greece, although her story and her worship was 
rather of Phoenician origin. The chief peculiarities of her charac- 
ter were love of power, and jealousy; the latter passion was constant- 
ly inflamed and fed by Jupiter's infidelity. 

In consequence of this jealousy she wrought several metamorpho- 
ses, as in the case of Calisto (1) and Galanthis (2). Hence also her 
wrath against Io (3) and Semele (4), and her ill will towards the Tro- 



SUPERIOR GODS. JUNO. 341 

jans because Paris denied her the prize of beauty in the contest with 
Pallas and Venus. By her jealousy she often aroused the anger of 
Jupiter, who once, according to Homer's representation (5), suspended 
her in the air by a golden chain. Ixion's love for her was punished 
by Jupiter with everlasting torture, he being bound to a wheel con- 
stantly revolving. 

(1) Ov. Met. ii. 474. (2) lb. ix. 306. (3) lb. i. 568. (4) lb. iii. 256. 
(5) Iliad xv. 15, 18. 

$ 27. The worship of Juno was far spread, and the number of 
her temples and festivals was very great. Her worship was ' especial- 
ly cultivated in Argos, Samos, Sparta, Mycenae and Carthage, cities 
which committed themselves particularly to her protection. In Elis 
were games, every fifth year, sacred to her, called 'Hgala. This was 
the name also of her great festival celebrated at Argos and other places, 
which was likewise called ixaTo/j^oia, because it was customary on 
the occasion to sacrifice a hecatomb of oxen at the temple of the god- 
dess. There was a similar festival at Rome called Junonia and Ju- 
nonalia. 

From her, tutelary angels or guardians of females were called 
among the Romans Junones. The Roman women took their oaths in 
her name, as the men did in the name of Jupiter. Both Greeks and 
Romans honored her as the protectress of marriage. Her daughters 
were Hebe, goddess of youth, and Ilithyia, who presided over births. 
Her messenger and servant was Iris, the goddess of the rainbow. 

§ 28. The ancient artists endeavored to exhibit the haughtiness 
and jealousy of Juno in their representations of her. Among the 
symbols of her attributes the most remarkable was the peacock, held 
as sacred to her, and found by her side in many figures. Sometimes 
her chariot is drawn by two peacocks. She was frequently repre- 
sented by Roman artists upon their coins, which, however, often con- 
tain the Empresses exhibited as Junos. — The Romans dedicated to her 
the month of June, named (1) after her. — She is often described by 
the poets as the Queen of gods and men. 

(1) Ov. Fast. vi. 26. Juno had a great variety of names ; as Argiva, Cin- 

gula, Egeria, Juga{Zvyia), Lucinia or Lucina, Moneta, Nuptialis (rafnjf.la), 
Opigena, Populonia, Sospila, Unxia &c. — She is usually represented as a grave, 
majestic matron; usually with a sceptre in her hand and a veil on her head and 
a crown decked with flowers ; sometimes she has a spear in her hand, or a pate- 
ra or vessel for sacrifices. The peacock is sometimes at her feet. Homer ex- 
hibits her in a chariot adorned with gems, having wheels with brazen spokes, 
and naves of silver, and horses with reins of gold. But generally she is repre- 
sented as drawn by peacocks in a golden chariot. 

The fables respecting Juno are interpreted differently according to the mean- 
ing attached to those respecting Jupiter. When Jupiter is considered as typify- 
ing, or allegorically representing, the active productive power in nature, Juno is 
the passive. Their quarrels are then explained as physical allegories. 



342 GREKK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

§ 29. (6) Neptune. The government of the waters of the 
earth was, in the division of authority already mentioned (§22), assign- 
ed to the brother of Jupiter, called Ilooeid&v, or Neptune. The idea of 
a god ruling the waters arose from the surprise of the first observers of 
the power of that element ; even before Neptune, Oceanus, son of the 
heavens and the earth, and husband of Thetis, was honored as god of 
the sea. Oceanus was, according to Hesiod, one of the Titans, and 
was considered as ruler of the exterior waters encompassing the earth, 
while the interior seas and rivers were assigned to Neptune. 

The wife of Neptune was Amphitrite, a daughter of Nereus or 
Oceanus, and Doris. He obtained Amphitrite by the aid of a dolphin, 
and in return honored the fish with a place among the constellations. 
The principal sons of Neptune were Triton, Phorcus, Proteus and 
Glaucus. The chief characteristics of these minor deities of the sea 
were the power of divination and ability to change their forms at 
pleasure. The daughters of Nereus and Doris were the so called 
Nereides, or sea-nymphs, fifty in number. They belonged to the train 
of Neptune and were subservient to his will. 

§ 30. The principal exploits and merits ascribed to Neptune are 
the assistance rendered to his brother Jupiter against the Titans, the 
building of the walls and ramparts of Troy, the creation and taming 
of the horse, the raising of the island Delos out of the sea, and the de- 
struction of Hippolytus by a monster from the deep. He was feared 
also as the author of earthquakes and deluges, which he caused or 
checked at pleasure by his trident. 

The Greeks seem to have derived the worship of this god not from 
Egypt, but Libya. He was honored particularly in cities situated 
near the coasts, as presiding over their navigation. Thus at Nisyrus 
on the isthmus of Corinth, he had a celebrated temple, and also on the 
promonontory of Tsenarus. Of his temples at Rome, the most noted 
was that in the ninth district (1) containing a suite of pictures repre- 
senting the Argonautic voyage. The victims usually sacrificed to 
Neptune were horses and bulls. In honor of him the Greeks main- 
tained the Isthmian Games, and the Romans the Neptunalia, and the 
Consualia, which were afterwards from the place of celebration called 
Ludi Circenses. 

(1) See description of the city of Rome on a subsequent page. 

§ 31. His figure upon remaining monuments is in accordance with 
the dignity ascribed to him, commanding and majestic, with a front 
calm and serene, even in anger (iEneid i. 1 24). In his hand he 
commonly holds the trident, or a long antique sceptre, with three tines, 



SUPERIOR GODS. PLUTO. 343 

with which he makes the earth tremble and throws the waters into 
commotion. He is often represented as moving upon the waters, 
drawn in a chariot by dolphins or war-horses, and surrounded by a 
retinue of attendants. 

The following are some of his many names, and epithets ; ^Aacpd- 
hog, upholding the earth, Seiolxdwv, earth shaker, "Inneiog, Petrce- 
us, Conms. 



Virs. ./En. i. 124. Horn. II. xiii. 23. Virs. Mxv. i. 155. Stat. Achil. i. 60- 



Various etymologies have been given of the names Iloouiuiv and Neptunus ; the 
latter is by some derived from nubo, because the water covers or conceals the 
earth ; the former fvomnovg and Sita, as Neptune binds the feet, that is, man can- 
not walk on the water. But such speculations cannot be relied on. — Neptune is 
represented as standing upright in his sea-chariot, which is a large shell; he is 
arrayed in a mantle of blue or sea-green, and is accompanied by his wife ; he is 
described with black hair and blue eyes. Sometimes he appears treading on the 
beak of a ship. — The government and protection of ships was committed to him. 
He also presided over the horse, which was sacred to him, and over horse-races; 
at the Consualia, all horses were allowed to rest from labor. 

§ 32. (7) Pluto. He was a second brother of Jupiter, and re- 
ceived, as his portion in the division of empire, the infernal regions or 
the world of shades. Under this idea the ancients imagined the exis- 
tence of regions situated downfar below the earth, and they represented 
certain distant and desert lands as serving for a path and entrance to 
the under world. Hence the fictions respecting Acheron, Styx, Cocy- 
tus, and Phlegethon, as being rivers of Hell. These regions below 
the earth were considered as the residence of departed souls, where • 
after death they received rewards or punishments (1) according to 
their conduct upon earth. The place of reward was called Elysium; 
that of punishment Tartarus. 

The chief incident in the history of this god is his seizure and ab- 
duction of Jlegoecpovt], or Proserpine, who thereby became his wife, 
and the queen of the lower world. She was a daughter of Jupiter and 
Ceres; The circumstances of this event are related fully and poeti- 
cally by Claudian (2) and Ovid (3), and furnished the ancient artists 
with frequent subjects for their skill in device and representation (4). 

(1) Virg. Mn. vi.637.— Tibull. i. El. 3. v. 57ss. (2) De Raptu Proserpinae 
Lib. iii. (3) Metam. v. 341. (4) See Montfaucon, Ant. Expl. T. I. pi. 37-41. 

§ 33. Pluto is represented both by poets and artists with an air 
menacing, terrible, and inexorable. The latter usually exhibit him 
upon a throne, with a bifurcated sceptre, or a key, in his hand. A rod 
is sometimes put into his hand instead of his sceptre. The device 
which places upon his head a sort of bushel or measuring vessel, in- 
stead of a crown, is of Egyptian origin, borrowed from the images 
of Serapis. 






344 GRKKK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

His worship was universal ; but it was attended with special solem- 
nities in Bceotia, particularly at Coronea. His temple at Pylos in 
Messenia was also celebrated. The Roman gladiators consecrated 
themselves to Pluto. The victims offered to him were usually of a 
black color. Some of his principal names were Zsvg cmtyiog, Sora- 
nus, Summanus, Febiuus. 

The Greeks named him W.ovrwr, as some suppose, from7r*oiJTo;, wealth, which 
comes from the bowels of the earth. The Romans gave him the name Vis, hav- 
ing the same sense. He is also called "jldis, Orcus, Jupiter infemus, &c.— His 
chief festival was in February, when the Romans offered to him the sacrifices 
called Februa, whence the name of the month. His rites were performed by 
night or in the dark. The cypress was sacred to him, branches of which were 
carried at funerals. — He appears crowned with ebony, sometimes with cypress 
leaves, sometimes with flowers of narcissus. — He is said to have possessed a hel- 
met, which rendered its wearer invisible. 

$ 34. Under the control of Pluto were the three judges of the 
lower world, Minos, Rhadamanthus and JEacus. These decided the 
condition of all the spirits brought into Pluto's realms by Charon. 
Minos held the first rank. They were sons of Jupiter. They ap- 
pear in Grecian history as real persons. At the entrance to the world 
of shades, in Pluto's vestibule, lay the dog Cerberus, a three-headed 
monster, that hindered, the spirits from returning to the upper world. 
The most memorable of those represented as punished in Tartarus 
were Ixion, Sisyphus, Tityus, Phlegyas, Tantalus, the Danaides, and 
the Aloides. 

Charon is said to have been the son of Erebus and Nox. His office was to eon- 
duct the souls of the dead in a boat over the river Styx and Acheron to the 
realms of Pluto. As all were obliged to pay him an obolus, a small piece of 
money, it was customary to place a coin for that purpose under the tongue of the 
deceased before the funeral rites. Such as had not been honored with a funeral 
were compelled to wander on the shore a hundred years before they could be 
transported. The fable respecting Charon is borrowed from the Egyptians, who 
had the custom of a trial and sentence upon their deceased, before allowing them 
the honors of burial. For this trial all were carried across a lake in a boat, whose 
helmsman was called Charon. — Rollin, Anc. Hist. B. I. Ch. 2. Sect. 2. 

§ 3.5. (8) Apollo. The earliest and most natural form of idola- 
try was the worship of the stars, and especially of the sun, whose splen- 
dor, light, heat and salutary influence upon all nature were taken as 
the supernatural and independent powers of a deity. Hence the an- 
cient fiction ascribing personality to this luminary, which was wor- 
shiped by the Egyptians under the name of Horus, by the Persians 
under that of Mithras, by the later Greeks and Romans under that of 
Phcebus (ftolfiog) and Apollo. The two latter people, however, con- 
sidered their "HXiog and Sol as a separate divinity, and attached to the 
history of Apollo many circumstances not connected with his original 
character as the god of light. 



SUPERIOR GODS. APOLLO. 345 

§ 36. According to both nations, Apollo was the son of Jupiter 
and Latona, born on the island Delos. He was regarded as the god of 
the sciences and the arts, especially poetry, music and medicine. ^They 
ascribed to him the greatest skill in the use of the bow and arrow, 
which be proved in killing the serpent Pytho, the sons of Niobe, and 
the Cyclops. The last achievement incensed Jupiter, and he was ban- 
ished from Olympus. During his exile Apollo abode as a shepherd 
(1) with Admetus king of Thessaly. He also assisted Neptune in 
raising the walls of Troy, beguiling the toil of the laborers with his 
lyre and songs. His musical contest (2) with Pan and Marsyas is re- 
ferred to the same period of his history. 

Other memorable circumstances in bis history are his love for 
Daphne and her transformation into a laurel-tree (3) ; that of Clytie 
for him and her metamorphosis into a sun-flower (4) ; his friendship 
for Hyacinthus (5), who was killed by Apollo's inattention, but chang- 
ed into the flower of that name, and for Cyparissus also accidentally 
slain and changed into a tree (6); the indiscreet request of his son, 
Phaethon (7), to guide his father's chariot for one day, and the fatal con- 
sequences of the attempt. 

(5) (1 i.^ Me ( t 6) ii x .To6. %1. So 2 : xL l46 - (3) Met - L452 - (4) iv - 206 > 256 - 

$ 37. The worship of Apollo was much celebrated among Both 
Greeks and Romans. As the god of inspiration and prophecy he 
gave oracles at Didyma, Patara, Claros and other places. His temple 
at Delphi, and the oracle connected with it, was the most celebrated • 
next in fame was that in Argos, and the one at Rome on the Palatine 
hill, built by Augustus and adorned with a famous library The 
Greeks celebrated in honor of Apollo the Pythian games, and the 
Romans those called ludi Apollinares, and the ludi seculares. The 
laurel and olive, the wolf and hawk, the swan and grasshopper, the 
raven, crow and cock were sacred to Apollo. 

The image of this god, as expressed by poets and artists, was the 
highest ideal of human beauty, a tall and majestic body, and an im- 
mortal youth and vigor. Accordingly he appears on extant monu- 
ments with long hair, crowned with laurel, having in his hand a bow 
and lyre, and a quiver on his shoulder, naked, or but lightly clad 
The most celebrated monument (1) is the marble statue, called the' 
Apollo Belvidere. 

The following names were applied to Apollo; Cynthius, Belius 
Nomius, Patareus, Pythius(IIvdiog), Smintheus, Thymbraus. 

(1) See P. I. § 186. 4. Cf. Tibull. L. iii. Ele. 4. v. 27.-' Sometimes he is paint- 

44 



946 GREEK AND KOMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

ed with a crow afid a hawk flying over him, a wolf and a laurel tree on one side 
and a swan and a cook on the other; and under nisfeet grasshoppers creeping.'— 
He had also the following names; Ao$i,ctg, IXuiuv/Exi/jJuAos, Toioyigog, Ai.»\i- 
xuxa;. — A statue of Apollo stood upon the promontory of Aetium, as a mark to 
mariners, and was seen at a great distance at sea.— The stories respecting Apollo 
resemble in many particulars those respecting Crishna in the Hindoo Mythol- 
ogy.-- Asiatic Researches. Vol. viii.— Robinson's Calmet, Anthoris Horace, p. 334. 

§ 3S. (9) Diana. She was a daughter of Jupiter, and was born 
of Latona on the island Delos, at the same time with Apollo. As in 
Apollo the sun was deified and adored, so was the moon, lima,<Tehlvrj, 
in Diana, who was called by the Greeks "ApTB/ng. She was also re- 
cognised as the goddess of hunting or the chase, of which she was 
passionately fond in her youth. She was likewise viewed sometimes 
as a goddess of the infernal regions under the name of Hecate. As 
presiding over the chase, she received from Jupiter a bow with ar- 
rows, and a train of sixty nymphs. 

She also obtained from him the grant of her petition to live a vir- 
gin, and was therefore the goddess of chastity. Hence her displeasure 
at the transgression of one of her nymphs, Calisto(l), and her trans- 
formation of Actason into a stag (2). The only one, towards 
whom she was not indifferent, was the shepherd or hunter, Endymion. 
She slew the nymph Chione (3) from jealousy of her beauty, and the 
daughters of Niobe (4) because Latona was slighted by their mother. 

(1) Ov. Met. ii. 464.-(2) iii. 194.— (3) ix. 321.- (4) vi. 148. Cf. P. I. § 186. 2. 

§ 39. No where was the worship of Diana so much regarded, 
no where had she a temple so splendid, as at Ephesus. With this ex- 
ception, that in Chersonesus Taurica was the most celebrated, espe- 
cially through the story of Orestes and Iphigenia. Her principal 
temple at Rome was that erected by Servius Tullius on Mount Aven- 
tinus. In Rome the festival of the ludi seculares were sacred to her 
in conjunction with Apollo, and she was particularly honored under 
the name of Lucina, as presiding over births. In this view she was 
also called by the Greeks and Romans Ilithyia (sdeidvux), although 
this was the name (§ 27) of a distinct divinity. 

Some of her other names were Pkcebe, Cynthia, Delia, Hecate, 
Dictynna, Agrotera (dygotsQct), Trivia, from her statues being placed 
in crossways as she presided over streets, Chitone {x^^' /T l), and Tri- 
formis(j(>l(*oQq>og), from her three-fold character as goddess of the 
moon or month, the chase, and the lower world. 

Other names or epithets were applied to her; Xo/sla, xwiiybg, oQtalyoirog, tqi- 

oSing, lo/iaiqa and roiotpuQog. ' Diana is called Triformis and Tergemina. 

First, because thougti she is but one goddess, yet she has three different names as 
well as three different offices. In the heavens she is called Luna; on the earth 
she is named Diana, and in hell she is styled Hecate or Proserpina. In the hea- 



SUPERIOR GODS. DIANA. MINERVA. 347 

vens she enlightens every thing by her rays; on the earth she keeps under all 
■wild beasts by her bow and her dart; and in hell she keeps all the ghosts and 
spirits in subjection to her by her power and authority.— Secondly, because she 
has, as the poets say, three heads; the head of a horse on the right side, of a dog 
on the left, and a human head in the midst; whence some call her three-headed 
or three-faced.— Thirdly, according to some, because the moon has three phases 
or shapes; the new moon appears arched with a semi-circle of light; the half 
moon fills a semi-circle with light ; and the full moon fills a -whole circle or orb 
with splendor.' 

§ 40. As goddess of the chase she is represented, in monuments 
of art, tall and nimble, with a light, short, and often flowing costume, 
her legs bare, her feet covered with buskins, with bow and arrows, 
either alone, or accompanied by her nymphs, often with a hound near 
her, often riding in a chariot drawn by two white stags. She is thus 
represented in a beautiful statue supposed to have come from the same 
hands as the Apollo Belvidere. As the goddess of night, or the 
moon, she is represented in long robes, with a large starred Veil, hav- 
ing a torch in her hand, and a crescent on her head. We have fig- 
ures of the Ephesian Diana, in the Egyptian style, and in Greek imi- 
tation of it, in which she is exhibited with numerous breasts, and very 
similar to Isis, whereby the fruitfulness of nature seems to have been 
represented. 

' Sometimes she appears with wings, holding a lion in one hand, and a panther 
in the other, with a chariot drawn by two heifers, or two horses of different co- 
lors.' The poppy.was sacred to Diana. The Athenians sacrificed to her goats, 
or a white kid, sometimes a pig or ox. The inhabitants of Taurica offered on 
her altar strangers that were shipwrecked on their coast. 

§ 41. (10) Minerva. Under the name of Minerva among the 
Romans and of JJalldg and 'Ad r t vd among the Greeks, ancient fiction 
personified and deified the idea of high intelligence and wisdom. She 
was a daughter of Jupiter, sprung from his head. She is said first to 
have revealed herself near the lake Tritonis in Libya, from which 
circumstance she was called Tritonia, according to some; others 
derive this epithet, and the Greek Tgnoyeveia, from the word t^itw 
signifying head. 

The Greeks ascribed to this goddess the invention of many arts 
and sciences (1), which had a great influence on their civilization. 
She was regarded as inventress of the flute, of embroidery and spin- 
ning, the use of the olive, and various instruments of war; in short of 
most works indicating superior intelligence or skill. Arachne's con- 
test with her in working with the needle, and consequent despair and 
transformation are beautifully described by Ovid (2). 

(1) Ov. Fastor. iii. 815— (2) Met. vi. 5. 

§ 42 The city of Athens was consecrated to Minerva, and boasted 
of receiving its name from her. The splendid temple at that place dedi- 



348 ORE1CK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

cated to her was called Parthenon, in reference to her virgin purity 
(naQdivog). She had other temples, at Erythrae, Tegea, and Sunium, 
and several at Rome. Her principal festivals among the Greeks 
were the Panathenaa, the greater and the less, and among the Ro- 
mans the Quiuqualria; on each of which, games and contests were 
held. The owl was sacred to Minerva, and is often found on her 
images and on the Athenian coins. 

The following is the story respecting the name of the city of Athens. When 
Cecrops built a new city, Neptune and Minerva contended about its name ; and 
it was resolved in the assembly of the gods, that whichsoever of the two deities 
found out the most useful creature to man, should give the name to the city. 
Neptune struck the ground with his trident, and a horse issued from the earth. 
Minerva caused an olive to spring up. The latter was pronounced the more 
useful thing, and Minerva therefore gave the city her own name, ' J&rjvh. — Dr. 
Clarke imagines that this story had its origin from the fact, that the plains of 
Greece were once covered or nearly so with water, which was afterwards re- 
moved by evaporation and other causes, and thus a cultivable soil was presented 
to the inhabitants. — Clarke's Travels in various countries &c. P. II. Sec. ii. ch. 
12. — Respecting the Parthenon, cf. P. II. § 234, 242. On the remains of the tem- 
ple of Sunium, cf. Am. Quart. Rev. vol. vi. p. 237. 

§ 43. Minerva is usually represented in military armor, with a 
helmet, the JEgis or her peculiar cuirass hearing on it Medusa's 
head, with a spear, and often a shield or buckler in her hand. Her 
helmet is generally ornamented with the figure of the owl, but pre- 
sents various forms. The colossal statue of Minerva, wrought by 
Phidias, and the Palladium were much celebrated; the former (1) 
on account of the perfection of its workmanship, the latter (2) on 
account of the superstitious confidence placed in it by the Trojans, 
Greeks and Romans. 

Besides the names Minerva, Pallas and Athena, this goddess was 
often called nagdevog,'EQydTig, and Egydvrj, Ilolidg; she is also 
termed Musica, Pylotis, and very often rlavxQnig or Cassia. 

(1) See P. I. § 160, 161, 179.--{2] The Palladiumwas a statue of Pallas, with 
a spear in one hand and a distaff in the other, about three cubits high. It was 
said to have fallen from heaven into the citadel of Troy or Ilium, before it was 
completely built, and that the oracle of Apollo being consulted upon this occur- 
rence answered, that " the city should be safe so long as that image remained 
within it." When the Greeks besieged Troy, it was therefore thought of the 
first consequence to obtain this image. Ulysses and Diomedes succeeded in 
getting it by stealth (Vir. Mn. ii. 162). It was said to have been afterwards 
recovered from Diomedes by iEneas, carried to Italy, and finally lodged in the 
temple of Vesta. 

Minerva is supposed to have been originally an Egytian deity, worshiped 
particularly at Sais, under the title of Neith or Netha. Various etymologies of 
her name A&riva have been given ; among them is the conjecture, which derives 
it from the name of the Egyptian deity just mentioned by inverting the order of 
the letters, vrfia, adtjv. 

§ 44. (11) Mars. The god of war and battles was a son of Jupiter 
and Juno, and educated in Thrace. He was viewed as presiding over 
rude and fierce war, the origin of which was ascribed to him, while 



SUPERIOR GODS. MARS. VENUS. 349 

Minerva had the credit of inventing" tactics and the proper mili- 
tary art. 

Notwithstanding the high idea, which Homer gives of the strength 
and heroism of Mars, he represents him as taken prisoner hy Otus and 
Ephialtes, and wounded by Diomedes; it was, however, by the help 
of Minerva (II. v. 383, 855). Besides these occurrences, his amours 
with Venus and his dispute with Neptune respecting the son of the 
latter, Hallirrhotius, who was put to death by Mars, constitute all, that 
is remarkable in his history. 

§ 45. He was most worshiped in ThracB (I), where probably 
the whole conception of such a god originated. He had however 
temples and priests in most of the Grecian cities. The Romans re- 
garded him as the father of Romulus, and the founder and protector' 
of their nation. They erected to him many temples, consecrated to 
him a large public place, the Campus Martius, and a peculiar order 
■of priests, (2) the Salii, who celebrated his festival with music and 
dancing in solemn processions. 

(l'i " Mars was never a favorite deity with the Hellenic tribes of Greece,, and 
his worship was comparatively neglected. But among the Romans, few gods 
were more popular ; they even claimed him as the founder of their race. It is 
not easy to discover the origin of this deity ; he seems to have been derived from 
the Pelasgi, or some other warlike and barbarous tribe, rather than Egypt. He 
bears a striking resemblance to the northern Odin, and probably was the same 

deity under another name." Took's Pantheon, Lond. ed. 183=1. (2) Liv. 

i. 20. Ov. Fast. iii. 259. It was a special business of these priests to guard 
the ancilia, or sacred shields. Several animals were consecrated to Mars ; the 
horse for his vigor ; the wolf for his fierceness ; the dog for his vigilance. Mag- 
pies and vultures were also offered to him on account of their greediness. 

§ 46. The ancient artists have represented Mars in full, manly 
vigor, with a strong but agile body, and an air calm and collected, 
rather than vehement or passionate. He commonly appears equipped 
in armor ; sometimes naked ; sometimes in the attitude of marching, 
as Mars Gradivus. He was called "Aqi-jg by the Greeks; his other 
names are Odrysius, Strymonius, Enyalius, Thurius, Quirinus, JJltor. 

He is also represented as riding in a chariot drawn by furious horses, covered 
with armor and brandishing a spear in his right hand. Sometimes Bellon a, the 
goddess of war, drives the chariot, bearing in her hand a flaming torch. Some- 
times he is represented as attended with a horrid retinue, Clamor, Anger, Dis- 
cord, Fear, Terror and Fame. 

Bellona, called by the Greeks 'Ewca, is sometimes said to be the wife, some- 
times the sister, and sometimes the daughter of Mars. She had a temple at 
Rome, and before it was a pillar called Bellica, over which the herald threw a 
spear when a war was proclaimed. 

§ 47. (12) Venus. The ideal of the most perfect female beauty, 
and the love awakened by it, was in eastern fiction expressed and 
personified in an imaginary goddess ; she was called by the Romans 
Venus, and by the Greeks 'Acpqodiuj. According to the common 



'350 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

stovy, she was born from the foam (dcpqdg) of the sea ; in Homer she 
is presented as a daughter of Jupiter and Dione. After her birth 
she came first to Cythera, and thence to Cyprus. 

Many of the gods sought her ; but Vulcan obtained her as his 
spouse. She, however, loved Mars, Mercury, and Adonis especially 
although with unrequited passion; the early death of the latter she 
bitterly lamented. In her contest with Juno and Minerva, Paris 
awarded to Venus the prize of beauty. Hence her memorable zeal 
for the interests of the Trojans. 

(1) Ov. Met. x. 560, 717. Bion, Idyl on the Death of Adonis. Cf. P. II. § 69.— 

The story respecting Adonis, the young favorite of Venus, is, that being engaged 
in hunting of which he was excessively fond, he received a mortal wound from 
a wild boar. At this Venus was immoderately grieved, and Proserpina restored 
him to life on condition of his spending six months with Venus, and six with 
herself. It has been explained thus : " Adonis, or Adonai, was an oriental title of 
the sun, signifying Lord ; the boar, supposed to have killed him, was the emblem 
of winter^ during which the productive powers of nature being suspended, 
Venus was said to lament the loss of Adonis until he was restored again to life ; 
whence both the Syrian and Argive women annually mourned his death, and 
celebrated his renovation." — Lucian (De Syria Dea) gives an account of the 
festival Adonia, held in honor of him at Byblus. 

§ 48. The most celebrated places of her worship were Golgi, 
Paphos, and Amathus, upon the island of Cyprus, which was wholly 
consecrated to her; Cythera, Cnidos, and Eryx in Sicily; all situ- 
ated near the sea, and in delightful regions. In Rome she was hon- 
ored as the pretended mother of iEneas, the ancestor of the nation, 
although her worship was first formally introduced from Sicily, in the 
sixth century after the building of the city. The pigeon or dove, the 
myrtle, and the rose were especially sacred to the goddess of love. 

Some have considered the worship of Venus as derived from corruptions of the 
tradition respecting the universal deluge ; her rising from the sea being a type 
of the world emerging from the waves of the flood. — Bryant's Mythology. — Hol- 
■wcll's Myth. Diet. 

$ 49. The poets and artists of antiquity endeavored in the descrip- 
tion and representation of Venus to embody the fullest and purest ideal 
of female beauty. The most distinguished antique statue of her is 
the famous Medicean Venus at Florence (1). Various images and 
attributes (2) were given to her, under the different characters of Venus 
Urania, Marina, Victrix &c. She was likewise known under the 
names Erycina, Anadyomene (dvadvoiievrj), Paphia, Idalia. 

[1] See P. I. § 186. 5. (2) Heyne, ueber die Vorstellungsarter der Venus, in 
his Antiquar. Aufsstze. Manso's Abhandl. ueber die Venus, in his Versuch. 
ueber mytholog. Gegenstsende. 

The names and epithets of Venus were exceedingly numerous ; as, Cypria, 
Jluvhjfiog, Cytherea, <I>tXofinii'ig, Ttl£aoiya/,io$, Verticordia, 'Eialfia, Acidalia, 
Libertina, Saligenita, Qalanaia, &c. — She is represented on coins and in the de- 
scriptions of the poets in various ways; sometimes she is clothed with a purple 
mantle glittering with diamonds, her head crowned with myrtle and roses, riding 



SUPERIOR GODS. VENUS. VULCAN. 351 

in a chariot made of ivory, finely carved, painted and gilded, and drawn by 
swans, doves or sparrows. Sometimes she is attended with the Graces and sev- 
eral Cupids. At one lime she appears like a young virgin, rising from the sea 
and riding in a shell ; at another, she holds the shell in her hand. In the cele- 
brated picture by Apelles [Cf. P. I. § 222], she appears rising from the bosom of 
the waves and wringing her tresses on her shoulders. In some representations 
she has golden sandals on her feet, and holds before her a brilliant mirror. The 
Sicyonians exhibited her with a poppy in one hand and an apple in the other. In 
Elis she was painted as sitting on a goat and treading on a tortoise. She usually 
had a belt or girdle called Cestus, in which all kinds of pleasures were said to be 
folded. Her sacrifices were goats and swine, with libations of wine, milk and 
honey. The myrtle and rose, the swan, owl and sparrow were sacred to Venus. 

§ 50. The son of this goddess, "Egag, Amor, or Cupid, was her 
common companion, and the god of love, which he was supposed to 
influence by his arrows. He is represented with a bow and arrows, 
often with a burning torch in his hand. He was very frequently exhib- 
ited on ancient works of art, and in a great variety of forms. Often 
several cupids appear in company. His attachment to Psyche is the 
chief incident in his story, and forms one of the most beautiful allego- 
ries of antiquity. 'AvTsgag, Anteros, who is usually considered the 
god of mutual love, was originally the god that avenges despised love. 
He is sometimes represented as wrestling with Cupid. 

See Manso as cited in the preceding section. Hymenals was also one of the 
imaginary companions of Venus. He presided over marriage. He was repre- 
sented as of fair complexion, crowned with the amaracus or sweet marjoram, car- 
rying in one hand a torch, and in the other a veil of flame color, indicating the 
blushes of a virgin. 

§ 51. (13) Vulcan. In unenlightened periods, the violent agen- 
cies of the elements, as well as the appearances of the heavenly 
luminaries, excited astonishment and were deified. Traces of the 
worship of fire are found in the earliest times. The Egyptians had 
their god of fire, from whom the Greeks derived the worship of 
"Hcpaioxog, called by the Romans Vulcanus or Vulcan. Fable styles 
him the son of Jupiter and Juno. On account of his deformity his 
mother thrust him from Olympus; or according to another story, 
Jupiter hurled him out, because he attempted to help Juno when fas- 
tened by the golden chain. He fell upon the island Lemnos, after- 
wards his chief residence, and was, according to the later fictions (2), 
lamed by his fall. 

[I] Horn. II. xviii. 395. i. 590. (2] Vat. Flac. Argon, ii. 87. 

§ 52. To Vulcan was ascribed the invention of all those arts, that 
are connected with the smelting and working of metals by means of 
fire, which element was considered as subject to him. His helpers 
and servants in such works were the Cyclops, sons of Uranus and 
Gaia, whose residence also was in Lemnos and of whom there are 
commonly mentioned three, Brontes, Steropes and Pyrakmon. These 



352 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

are to be distinguished from the Sicilian Cyclops of a later period. 
Mount ./Etna was represented as the workshop of Vulcan; so also 
Lipara, one of .-Eolian isles, called likewise Vulcanian. 

Works requiring peculiar art and extraordinary strength, especially 
when metals were employed as materials, were called by the poets 
Vulcan's masterpieces. Among these were the palaces of Phoebus 
(1), of Mars (2), and Venus (3) ; the golden chain of Juno (4), the 
thunderbolts of Jupiter (5), the crown of Ariadne (6), the arms of 
Achilles (7) and of iEneas (8) &c. 

(1) Ov. Met. ii. 1.— (2) Stat. Theb. vii. 38.— (3) Claud. Epithal. Honor, et 
Mar. v. 58.— (4) Pausan. Att. c. 20. Lacon. c. 17 —f5] Ov. Met. i. 258. (6) Ov. 

Fast. iii. 513.— [7] Horn. II. xviii. 468.— (8) Virg. Mn. viii. 407. Vulcan is 

also said to have formed, by request of Jupiter, the first woman ; she was called. 
Pandora, because each of the gods gave her some present, or accomplishment. 
Cf. Hes. Works and Days, v. 94. 

§ 53. According to the earlier fictions Vulcan had for his wife 
Charis, or Aglaia, and according to the later, Venus, after Minerva 
had rejected him. Harmonia was his daughter, or the daughter of 
Mars and Venus. The Giants Cacus and Cseculus were called his 
sons. — He was worshiped particularly in Lemnos, and the Vulcani- 
an isles. A temple was dedicated to him upon iEtna. At Rome the 
Vulcanalia were celebrated in honor of him, and at Athens the 
Xalxeia. 

Vulcan was usually represented as engaged in his work, with ham- 
mer and pincers in his hands ; sitting more frequently than standing. 
His lameness is not indicated in any existing monuments, although it 
was in many ancient statues (1). — Some of his names are Lemnius, 
Mulciber, Cyllopodes (xvllonoSijg), Amphigyeis (d(iq>iyvi]Ei,g). 

(1) Cic. de Nat. Deor. 1. 30. " That by Vulcan is understood fire, the name 
itself discovers if we believe Varro, who says that the word Vulcanus is derived 
from the force and violence of fire ( Vulcanus, quasi Volicanus, quod ignis per 
aerem volitat, vel a vi ac violentia ignis) ; and therefore he is painted with a blue 

hat, a symbol of the celestial or elementary fire." ( Tooke). "Vulcan was 

represented covered with sweat, blowing with his nervous arms the fires of his 
forges. His breast was hairy and his forehead blackened with smoke. Some 
represented him lame and deformed, holding a hammer in the air ready to 
strike ; while with the other hand he turns with pincers a thunderbolt on his 
anvil. He appears on some monuments with a long beard, disheveled hair, half 
naked, and a small round cap on his head with hammer and pincers in his hand." 
(Lemp.) — A calf and a male pig were the principal victims offered in sacrifice 
to him. 

Some writers derive the name and story of Vulcan from Tubal-Cain men- 
tioned by Moses (Gen. iv. 22).—Holwell, Myth. Diet. 

§ 54. (14) Mercury. The Greeks borrowed the worship of 
this god from the Egyptians, whose Hermes Trismegistus is so cele- 
brated in their early history. According to the Greek and Roman 
fables, 'Eq(ir[$, Mercurius, or Mercury, was the son of Jupiter and 



SUPERIOR GODS. MERCURY. 353 

Maia. Maia was a daughter of Atlas, found by Jupiter in the cave 
Cyllene in Arcadia, and afterwards with her six sisters placed by him 
among the stars, thus forming the constellation named Pleiades from 
their mother Pleione. 

The principal characteristics of Mercury were cunning and dex- 
terity, which he exhibited even in his childhood, and not always in 
the most praiseworthy manner. This appears from the tricks related 
of him and from the circumstance, that he was considered as the god 
not only of mercature, but also of theft ; although the latter in early 
times was not viewed so much as a crime, as an evidence of power and 
adroitness. Mercury stole the cattle of Admetus guarded by Apollo, 
Apollo's arrows, the girdle of Venus, the pincers of Vulcan &c. By 
his flute the guardian of Io, even the hundred-eyed Argus, was lulled 
to sleep. (Ov. Met. i. 663.) 

§ 55. The principal means of his success in his feats was his 
eloquence ; this art was ascribed to him in a high degree. He in- 
vented also the lyre, attaching strings to the shell of the tortoise, and 
presented it to Apollo. In return Apollo gave him the celebrated 
wand (caduceus), the origin of which is variously stated ; its efficacy 
was potent in calming the passions and stilling contention. Mercury 
carried this rod as the messenger of the gods, and employed it to 
awaken dreams, and to conduct the shades of the dead to the lower 
world ; for he was called to offices and labors in that world, as well 
as on earth and in Olympus. 

' The caduceus was a rod with wings at one end and entwined by two serpents, 
in the form of equal simicircles. Originally it was nothing more than a rod 
adorned with green leaves, and with a skillfully tied knot as the symbol of traffic. 
In a later age these decorations were changed by the poets into serpents and 
wings. Various interpretations of the meaning of it have been given. Pru- 
dence is generally supposed to be represented by the two serpents, and the wings 
are the symbol of diligence ; both necessary in the pursuit of business and com- 
merce, which Mercury patronized.' — See Bmttiger's Amalthea, 1. 104. 

§ 56. Mercury is usually represented as a slender youth, holding 
his wand, almost always in motion, either flying or rapidly marching, 
wearing a winged hat (petasus), and winged sandals (talaria). Some- 
times he holds a purse in his hand, as the god of eommerce ; some- 
times a tortoise appears by him in reference to his invention of the 
lyre. The monuments called Hermae (P. I. § 165) were originally 
statues of Mercury. They had their origin when art was in a very 
imperfect state, but were afterwards retained, and were used to repre- 
sent other gods and memorable men. 

The worship of Mercury was very common among Egyptians, 
Greeks, and Romans, and many temples were consecrated to him. At 

45 



354 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

Rome there was a particular festival (festum mercatorum) held for 
the expiation of merchants, in honor of Mercury. The cock was 
sacred to him, and appears sometimes as an attribute in the images of 
Mercury. His more common epithets are Cyllenius, Atlantiades, Ales, 
Agoraeus (ayogaiog), Caducifer. 

Other common epithets are 'AqyettfovzrK, diaxvaq, and ofyyos ; he is also termed 
tfMio? crafty, xegteo?, as presiding over wealth, rqixsipaXog, because his statues 
were placed where three ways met. — At his festival above named, held in the 
middle of the day, the votaries sacrificed to him a sow or a calf, and offered 
especially the tongues of animals, and sprinkling themselves with water, prayed 
to him to forgive all their artful measures or falsehoods in pursuit of gain. 

§ 57. (15) Bacchus. The Greeks and the Romans worshiped 
the inventor and god of wine under the name of Bacchus, Bdxxog ; the 
former also called him Jiowaog. In the fictions of both, he was the 
son of Jupiter and Semele, a daughter of Cadmus. In answer to her 
request, Jupiter appeared to her in his full majesty and divinity, the 
fiery splendor of which caused her death (Ov. Met. iii. 260). Jupiter 
saved alive the infant Bacchus not yet born, t and carried him in his 
own thigh until the proper time of his birth. Hence, according to 
some etymologists, the poets called him dtOvga/i^og, as having been 
twice born ; a name which was afterwards given to the irregular 
hymns sung at his festivals. 

§ 58. The ancients ascribed to Bacchus manifold offices, and 
related a multitude of achievements as performed by him. Especially 
was he celebrated for his advancement of morals, legislation, and com- 
merce ; for the culture of the vine and the rearing of bees ; and for 
his military expeditions and success, particularly in India. He was 
universally worshiped as a god, and a miracle-worker, except in 
Scythia. The power ascribed to him is illustrated in the story respect- 
ing Midas, king of Phrygia, who restored to Bacchus his nurse and 
preceptor Silenus, and received as a compensation the fatal attribute of 
turning into gold (1) every thing he touched. 

Some of the remarkable incidents of his story are, changing the 
Tyrrhenian sailors into dolphins (2) ; his residence upon the island 
Naxos, where he found Ariadne, forsaken by Theseus, and espoused 
her, but likewise forsook her, and after her death placed her crown 
among the stars (3) ; his descent to Hades in order to convey his 
mother Semele back to Olympus, where she was deified under the 
name of Thyone. 

(1) Ou.Met. xi. 85.— (2) Met. iii. 650.— (3) Fast. iii. 459. 

§ 59. The worship of Bacchus, originating very early in the east, 
probably in India, was among the earliest and most general practiced 



SUPERIOR GODS. BACCHUS. CERES. 355 

in the Grecian or Roman territories. Pentheus and Lycurgus, who 
refused to participate in it, were punished with death, and the daugh- 
ters of Minyas and Orchomenos for the same reason were changed 
into bats. Thebes, Nysa, Mount Cithsron, Naxos, and Alea in Ar- 
cadia, were renowned for their festivals in honor of Bacchus. The 
most eminent of his festivals were the Trieterica and the Dionysia, in 
which his military enterprises were commemorated. These celebra- 
tions at length became wild and licentious orgies, and were finally 
on that account abolished in Rome by the Senate, in the year of the 
city 568. 

The vine and ivy and the panther were especially sacred to him. 
Goats were usually offered in sacrifice to him, because they are par- 
ticularly injurious to the vine. 

The Oscophoria, Elpilenia, Apdturia, Ambrosia, and Ascolia are named as fes- 
tivals of this god. — See G. F. Creuzer, Dionysus, s. comment. Acad, de Rerum 
Bacchic, originibus et causis. Heidelb. 1809. 4. — Rolle, Recherches sur le Culte 
de Bacchus. Paris, 3 vols. 8. 

§ 60. The ancient representations of Bacchus are much more 
dignified than those, with which the later artists were accustomed to 
degrade him. By the poets and artists of antiquity he was exhibited 
as a handsome agreable boy, just on the border of youth, with a forrn 
more resembling a female, than that of Mercury or Apollo. Of no 
other god have we a greater number or variety of representations, in 
statues, bas-reliefs, and gems (1), than of Bacchus with his train, 
Silenus, the Fauns and Satyrs, and Bacchanals. — He is called Lyseus, 
Thyoneus, Evan, Nyctelius, Bassareus, Thryambus, Thyrsiger (2), 
Liber, Ignigena, and Bimater. 



(1) See Montfaucon, Ant. Expl. T. I. pi. 142— 167— (2) Ov. Met. iv. 11.- 



Among the various representations of this god, we sometimes find him with 
swollen cheeks, and a bloated body. He is crowned with ivy and vine leaves, 
having in hand a thyrsus, an iron-headed javelin, encircled with ivy or vine 
leaves. Sometimes he appears an infant, holding a thyrsus and cluster of grapes 
with a horn. Sometimes he is on the shoulders of Pan or in the arms of Silenus. 
Sometimes he is in a chariot, drawn by tigers, leopards, or panthers, surrounded 
by his retinue of Satyrs and BacchEe, and followed by old Silenus on an ass. 

The worship and story of Bacchus is of eastern origin ; in several points they 
resemble those of the Egyptian Osiris. There is also thought to be a striking 
resemblance between Bacchus and the Sc/iiva, of India. It may be remarked, 
that the abominations of the Dionysiac festivals are to this day practiced at the 

temple of Juggernaut in Hindostan. Cf. Constant, de la Religion, vol. ii. 

— Voss. Antisymbolik. — Asiatic Researches, vol. viii. 

• 

§61. (16) Ceres. However useful the planting of the vine might 

be, agriculture in general was much more so, and formed one of the 
earliest and most common pursuits of men. The observation of its 
importance and of the productiveness of nature occasioned the concep- 
tion of a particular divinity, to whom its discovery and improvement 



350 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

were ascribed. The usual name for this divinity was Jtjmttiq among 
the Greeks and Ceres with the Romans. She was considered as one 
of the most ancient of the goddesses, and was called a daughter of 
Saturn and sister of Jupiter. Her native place was Enna, situated in 
a fertile region of Sicily. 

In this country she is said to have first taught men to cultivate 
grain, and instructed them in all the labors pertaining to it. To her 
is ascribed also the establishing of laws, and the regulation of civil 
society. Afterwards she imparted her favors to other lands, and the 
people of Attica particularly boasted of her protection, and her in- 
struction in agriculture and the use of the plough. She associated 
Triptolemus with her as a companion in her travels, and sent him 
over the earth, to teach husbandry, and thereby raised him to the rank 
of a god. 

Comp. Horn. Hymn to Ceres.- Ov. Fast. iv. 507— 562.— Met. v. 642—661. 

§ 62. The seizure and abduction of her daughter Proserpine by 
Pluto has been already mentioned (§ 32). Ceres sought for her with 
a burning torch every where, and thus diffused universally a knowl- 
edge of agriculture and good morals. She at length discovered that 
Pluto had borne her to his realms, supplicated Jupiter for her deliver- 
ance, and received a favorable answer, on condition that Proserpine had 
tasted of no fruit of the infernal world. But she had just tasted of the 
pomegranate, and therefore received her freedom and liberty to return 
to this world only for half the year (1). 

To the history of Ceres belong also the following mythical circum- 
stances ; her changing herself into a horse, and into one of the furies, 
to escape the pursuit of Neptune ; her transformation of Lyncus into a 
lynx on account of his perfidy (2) ; and her punishment of Erysich- 
thon, who had violated a grove sacred to her, by afflicting him with 
insatiable hunger (3), so that he devoured at last his own limbs. 

(1) Ov. Met. iv.552.— Claudian, de Raptu Proserpinae.— (2) Ov.Met. v. 649.— 
(3) lb. viii. 738.— Callim. Hymn, in Cer. v. 26. See Ermsti's Excursus, in his ed. 
of Call, (cited P. II. § 70. 2) vol. I. p. 262. 

, § 63. One of the most celebrated festivals of this goddess was the 
Qeanoydqia, which was maintained in many Grecian cities, especial- 
ly in Athens, in honor of her as having taught the use of laws. Still 
more celebrated, however, were the Eleusinian Mysteries, which 
were likewise sacred to Ceres, and which were of two sorts, the great- 
er and the less, the latter held annually, the former only every fifth 
year. Besides these, the Greeks and Romans honored her with seve- 
ral festivals before and after harvests, e. g. the Ilgoijgoaia, and the 
'M<5a, the Cerealia and the Ambarvalia. 



SUPERIOR GODS. CERES. VESTA. 357 

J. Meursii, Eleusinia. Lugd. Bat. 1619. i.—Sainte Croix, Recherches histor. 
etcrit. sur les Mysteres. (Silv. de Sacy ed.) Par. 1817. 2 vols. 8. — Ouwaroff, Es- 
say surlesmyste res d'Eleusis. St.Petersb. 1815. 8.— Cf. P.I. §41. P. IV. § 77.2. 

The ruins of the famous temple of Ceres at Eleusis, where the mysteries were 
celebrated, were conspicuous when Dr. Clarke visited the spot. He found also a 
fragment of a colossal statue of the goddess among the mouldering vestiges of 
her once splendid sanctuary. With great exertions that traveler procured the 
removal of the statue, in order to its being transported to England. See Clarke's 
Travels, P. II. Sect. 2. ch. 18. 

$ 64. The symbolical accompaniments to the image of Ceres are 
ears of corn, and the poppy, her usual ornament. She is often exhib- 
ited with a torch in her hand to signify her search after Proserpine. — 
Ceres bore several names and epithets, as Jtjw, Oeapotpogog, 2ix<b, and 
Eleusinia. 

In some representations she appears a tall and majestic lady, with a garland on 
her head composed of ears of corn, a lighted torch in one hand, and a cluster of 
poppies and ears of corn in the other. She also appears as a country woman 
mounted upon the back of an ox, carrying a basket and a hoe. Sometimes she 
Avas represented as in a chariot drawn by winged dragons. Her associate 
Triptolemus also appears occupying her chariot ( Ov. Met. v. 646.)— The name 
Jijfi>lri]Q is by some derived from dij for yfj and /k/'t»/§, signifying mother-earth. — 
See Knight's Enquiry into the Symbol. Lang. &c. Class. Journ. 

§ 65. (17) Vesta. The ideas conceived in the Greek and Ro- 
man fables respecting the earth as a person and goddess were exceed- 
ingly numerous and various. Besides Gaia, Titaea or Tellus, who 
represented the earth taken in a general sense, they imagined Cybele 
to denote the earth as inhabited and cultivated ; Ceres more particu- 
larly signified the fertility of the soil ; and the name of Vesta, or 'Ea- 
xia was employed to represent the earth as warmed by internal heat. 
The latter goddess also represented civil union and domestic happi- 
ness, being supposed to preside over the household hearth. She was 
called the daughter of Saturn and Rhea, and said to have first taught 
men the use of fire. Jupiter guarantied her vow of perpetual celibacy 
(1), and granted to her the first oblations in all sacrifices. 

(1) Ov. Fast. iv. 249. She is sometimes termed Vesta the younger, to dis- 
tinguish her from Cybele f§ 19), who is also called Vesta the elder, Vesta the 
younger is the same with Ignis or fire. 

§ 66. The establishment of family habitations was ascribed to 
Vesta, and for this, altars were usually erected to her in the interior or 
front of all houses. The same was done in the buildings termed 
IlQVTccvela, which were usually found in the Greek cities near their 
centre ; that at Athens was the most famous. More rarely were tem- 
ples raised for her. In her temple at Rome the celebrated Palladium 
was supposed to be kept. 

She was represented in a long robe, wearing a veil, bearing in her 
hand a lamp, or sacrifical vase. It is, however, more frequently a 
priestess of Vesta, that is thus represented. 



358 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

The temple of Vesta erected by Numa at Rome was round, and without any 
image of the goddess. — Vesta is sometimes represented as holding in one hand a 
javelin, or a Palladium ; sometimes also with a drum in one hand and an image 
of victory in the other. 

$ G7. Her priestesses among the Greeks were widows. But 
those among the Romans under the name of Vestales, the vestal vir- 
gins, were much more celebrated ; the mother of Romulus having be- 
longed to the order, although their first regular institution is ascribed to 
Numa. He appointed but four ; two were afterwards added. Young 
virgins, free from bodily defect, and not above ten years old, were se- 
lected ; they were bound to their office for thirty years ; their principal 
duty was to watch and keep alive the sacred fire of Vesta. Their 
rigid seclusion was rewarded by various privileges, and a peculiar sa- 
credness was attached to their persons. 

Cf. Liv. i. 20. — Plut. Life of Numa. The extinction of the fire of Vesta 

was supposed to forebode sudden and terrible disasters, and if it ever happened, 
all business was at once interrupted until expiation had been made with great 
ceremony. Negligence on the part of the virgins was severely punished. The 
fire was every year renewed or replaced, on the Calends of March, by fire pro- 
duced from the rays of the sun. 



II. — Mythological History of the Inferior Gods. 

§ 68. The divinities included in the class, which are here denominated Infe- 
rior Gods, are Coelus or ' Ovqavbg, Sol or "HXiog, Luna or Stl^vn, Aurora or 'Ha?, 
Noxor Nv%, Iris ~Iqtg, JEolus or -AXoXo?, Pan n'av, Latona or Aijrm, Themis 
or &>jfug, iEsculapius or ' Aoxlriniog, Plutus or UXovrog, Fortuna or Tv/v, and 
Fama or <£>>frt>;, all which were common to the Greeks and Romans. But to this 
class are also to be referred several divinities, which were peculiar to the Romans 
as distinguished from the Greeks ; among which we may place the following ; (1) 
a number of gods and goddesses of the rural species, as Terminus, Flora and 
the like ; (2) a large number of such as were imagined to preside over particular 
pursuits and employments; (3) some foreign gods admitted by the Romans 
from countries conquered by them ; (4) the deified emperors. 

§ 69. (1) Cains. Although this god was considered as one of 
the most ancient and the father of Saturn, yet not much importance 
was attached to his worship either among the Greeks or Romans. 
His wife was the goddess of the earth, Titeea or Gaia ; their offspring 
were the Titans, the Cyclops and the Centimani. Through fear that 
these sons would deprive him of his kingdom, he precipitated them 
all to Tartarus, whence they were liberated, however, by the aid of 
Saturn, who himself usurped his father's throne. Venus and the Fu- 
ries were called daughters of Uranus, or Ccelus. 

§ 70. The fictions respecting this god perhaps had some founda- 
tion in the history of early nations. According to the account of Di- 



INFERIOR GODS. CCSLUS. SOL. 359 

odorus (1), Uranus would seem to have been a king of the Atlantides, 
the founder of their civilization, and the author of many useful inven- 
tions. Among other things he was a diligent observer of the heaven- 
ly bodies, and became able to announce before-hand many of their 
changes. Admiration of such knowledge might lead to his deifica- 
tion. Perhaps it might occasion the use of his name ('O gavds) to 
signify the heavens. The idea, however, of a deity thus called, ap- 
pears to have been very ancient. 

(1) Diod. Sic. L. iii. c. 56. L. v. c. 44. — The Atlantides were a people of Af- 
rica, living near Mt. Atlas. — The Titans, called the sons of Uranus, are by some 
considered to refer merely to the constellations. 

§71. (2) Sol. Although the Greeks and Romans worshiped 
Apollo as the god and dispenser of light, and in view of this attribute 
named him Phoebus, yet they conceived another distinct divinity, dis- 
tinguished from Apollo especially in the earlier fables, under the lite- 
ral name applied to designate the sun, viz. Sol or "Hhog. These 
words therefore were employed to express not only the actual body in 
the heavens, but also a supposed being having a separate and person- 
al existence. In the Homeric Hymn addressed to Helius, he is called 
the son of Hyperion and Euryphaessa. Eos and Selene are called 
his sisters. 

§ 72. The early prevalence of Sun-worship, which was one of 
the first and most natural forms of idolatry, renders it probable, that 
the worship of this god was early introduced into Greece. Many 
temples were consecrated to Helius. The island Rhodes in particular 
was sacred to him, where was erected his celebrated colossal statue, 
one of the seven wonders of the world. Among the Romans his wor- 
ship was organized with special solemnities by Heliogabalus, who 
had been a priest of the same god in Syria, and afterwards erected a 
temple to his honor at Rome. 

Sol or Helius is represented usually in a juvenile form, entirely 
clothed, having his head surrounded with rays, and attended by the 
Horas, and the Seasons. He is sometimes riding in a chariot drawn by 
four horses, which bear distinct names. These and many other cir- 
cumstances, pertaining to him, are also related of Phoebus or Apollo, 
when considered as the god of the sun. 

Cf. Ov. Met. ii. The seven wonders of the world were, (1J the colossal 

statue of the Sun at Rhodes, 70 cubits high, placed across the harbor so that a 
large vessel could sail between its legs; (2) The Mausoleum, or sepulchre of 
Mausolus king of Caria, built of marble, above 400 feet in compass, surrounded 
with 36 beautiful columns ; f 3 1 The statue of Jupiter in Olympia by Phidias 
(Cf. P. I. § 179) ; (4) The temple of Diana at Ephesus, with 127 pillars; 60 feet in 
height, with a splendid image of the goddess ; (5) The walls of Babylon built by 
Semiramis, 50 or 80 feet wide.and 60 miles in circuit (Rollin's Anc. Hist. Bk. iii. 
ch. 1,); (6) The pyramids of Egypt ; (7] The palace of Cyrus. 



3C0 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

$ 73. (3) Luna. She was the daughter of Hyperion and Thek, 
and was called Seli\v^ by the Greeks, being distinct in name, descent 
and story from Diana or "Aqzefiig, who was, however, taken as god- 
dess of the moon. To Luna was ascribed great influence in relation 
to the birth of men. Pandia was said to be a daughter of Luna and 
Jupiter or Saturn (Horn. Hymn to Luna). In common with her 
brother Helius, Luna seems to have been especially worshiped by the 
Atlantides. Both the Greeks and Romans consecrated appropriate 
temples to her, although the worship of Diana as the goddess of the 
moon was much more prevalent among them. She was represented, 
like Diana in this character, as a goddess riding in a chariot through 
the skies, with the stars as her attendants. 

$ 74. (4) Aurora. A sister of Luna, of the same parents, was 
the goddess of the morning or day-dawn, styled by the Greeks "Hag 
or 'HftEQu, by the Romans Aurora. By others she is said to have 
been the daughter of the giant Pallas, and therefore called Pallantias. 
Orion and Tithonus were her principal lovers, and Lucifer and Mem- 
non her most distinguished sons. The latter is memorable for the ho- 
nors paid to him in Egypt, and for his famous vocal statue (1) at 
Thebes. Cephalus was insensible to the love of Aurora towards 
him, although she seized and bore him away from his beloved Procris, 
whom, after his return to her, he had the misfortune to kill (2) through 
an accident occasioned by her jealousy. The early death of a youth 
was very frequently called, in poetic language, a seizure or theft by 
Aurora ('H/iegag dgnayrj). 

(1) This statue is supposed to be one of those existing at the present day 
among the ruins of ancient Thebes, near the place now called Medinet Abou. 
A part of the body of it is said to be now in the British Museum. It is called by 
the Arabians Salamat, the statue which bids good morning, a name evidently 
originating in a belief of the ancient and common tradition ; which was, that 
this statue uttered sounds at the rising of the sun, when it shone upon it. The 
statue is covered with inscriptions by persons declaring, that they had heard its 

voice at the rising of the sun. — Russell's Egypt. — Am. Quart. Rev. No. ix. 

[2J Ov. Met. vii. 661, 703. 

§ 75. This goddess was considered as the harbinger of the sun 
and of the day, and was sometimes called by the literal name of the 
latter among the Greeks, 'Hfieqa. By the poets she is represented as 
a beautiful young woman, whose chariot was drawn by white or 
light red horses, and who opened the portals of the Sun with rosy 
fingers. Homer designates her by the epithet 'JPodo ddxTvlog. 

She is described as rising from the ocean in a saffron robe (xQoxomnlog), in a 
rose-colored chariot, and scattering the dew upon the flowers. She was called 
the mother of the stars and of the winds. 

§ 76. (5) Noz. The Night was personified in ancient fable and 



INFERIOR GODS. NOX. IRIS. .EOLUS. 361 

placed among the divinities as a daughter of Chaos. On account of 
this early origin she is called, in the Orphic Hymns, the mother of 
gods and men. Generally, however, she is an allegorical rather 
than a mythological personage, and in such, a sense, sleep, death, 
dreams, the furies &c, are called her children. According to the de- 
scriptions of poets, and in some representations by art, she is exhibited 
as enveloped in a long dark robe, with her head covered with a veil 
spangled with stars. Sometimes she has black wings, or is drawn in a 
chariot by two horses with a retinue of stars. A black cock was the 
offering commonly presented to her. 

A black sheep was also offered to her as mother of the furies. Pausanias de- 
scribes a statue of Nox, holding in her right hand a white child, and a black 
child in her left, representing sleep and death. She has also been described as a 
woman with her face veiled in black, crowned with poppies, and in a chariot 
drawn by owls and bats. 

§ 77. (6) Iris. By the name 'Iqig was designated among the 
Greeks the rainbow, as personified and imagined a goddess. Her fa- 
ther was said to be Thaumas, and her mother Electra, one of the 
daughters of Oceanus. Her residence was near the throne of Juno, 
whose commands she bore as messenger to the rest of the gods and 
to mortals. Sometimes, but rarely, she was Jupiter's messenger, and 
was employed even by other deities. She had also sometimes in refe- 
rence to dying females an office, which was usually assigned to Pro- 
serpine, to cut off their hair, and thereby effect their dissolution (1). 
The rainbow was the path, by which she descended from Olympus, 
and returned thither. 

(1) Virg. Mn. iv. 693, 704. She is represented with wings having the va- 
rious colors of the rainbow, and often appears sitting behind Juno as waiting to 
execute her commands. Being the messenger of Juno, she was not unfrequent- 
ly sent on errands of strife and discord ; whence some have thought her name 
derived from 'iqtg, strife. Others derive it from tiQia, to speak or declare. 

§ 78. (7) Molns. Under the name of jEolus both Greeks and 
Romans worshiped a god and ruler of winds and storms. He was 
called the son of Jupiter, sometimes of Neptune, and by others, of 
Hippotes, an ancient lord of the Lipari Isles. From Jupiter he re- 
ceived his authority over the winds, which had still earlier been form- 
ed into mythical persons, and were known by the names Zephyr, Bo- 
reas, Notus and Eurus, and were afterwards considered the servants 
of iEolus. He held them imprisoned in a cave of an island in the 
Mediterranean sea, and let them loose, only to further his own designs 
or those of others, in awakening storms, hurricanes and floods. He 
is usually described by the poets as virtuous, upright, and friendly to. 

strangers. 

46 



362 GREEK. AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

Cf. Horn. Odyss. x. 1.— Virg. JEn. i. 52.— —The island where iEolus is said 
to have reigned was Strongyle {2rqoyyvXr{), so called on account of its round fig- 
ure, the modern Stromboli.—See Heyne, Excurs. ad Mn. i. 51. — Cf. Pliny N. H. 
iii. 8. — The name jEolus is thought to come from aloXog, changeable. 

$ 79. (8) Pan. One of the most singular of the inferior gods, 
was Pan, whose worship was universally regarded. He was the god 
of shepherds and herdsmen, of groves and fields, and whatever per- 
tained to rural affairs. His worship was probably derived from the 
Egyptians. He was said to be the son of Mercury and Dryope ; but 
his genealogy was variously stated. His favorite residence was in 
the woods and mountains of Arcadia. From his love to Syrinx, who 
was changed into a reed (1), he formed his shepherd-pipe out of seven 
reeds, and called it by her name. His pride in this invention led him 
into his unlucky contest with Apollo (2). He also invented a Avar- 
trumpet, whose sound was terrific to the foe ; a circumstance (3), 
which gave rise to the phrase, panic fear or terror (nartxdv dei/ta). 

(1) Ov. Met.i. 689.— (2) lb. x. 146.— (3) Pausan. Phoc. c. 23. 

§ 80. Pan was originally, among the Egyptians, worshiped in the 
form of a goat, and under the name of Mendes (1). In Greece, Ar- 
cadia was especially sacred to him, and here he is said to have given 
oracles on mount Lycseus. His festivals, called Avxaia by the Greeks, 
were introduced by Evander among the Romans, and by them called 
Lupercalia (2). Goats, honey and milk were the usual offerings to 
Pan. 

His image (3) was generally human only in part ; having com- 
monly the form of a satyr, with ears sharp-pointed, and standing erect, 
with short horns, a flat nose, a body covered with hair or spotted, and 
the feet and legs of a goat. His Greek name ndv signifying the 
whole ox all, had reference to the circumstance, that he was considered 
the god of all the natural world ; or according to others it was de- 
rived from nd(f) (to feed), and referred to his patronage of shepherds 
and their flocks. The Romans called him likewise Inuus, Lupercus, 
Masnalius, and Lycaeus. 

(1) Herod, ii. 46. (2) Ov. Fast. ii. 31, 267. (3] Sil. Hal. Pun. xiii. 326. 

In some representations of Pan his head was crowned with pine, which was sa- 
cred to him, and he bore in one hand a crooked staff, and in the other a pipe of 
reeds. — ' The figure of Pan is a rude symbol of the universe, and he appears to 
have been originally a personification of the Anima Mundi, or terrestrial soul, 
by which some ancient nations believed that the entire universe was directed.' 
This god does not appear in the poems of Homer or Hesiod. 

§ 81. (9) Latona. She was called Ayr® by the Greeks and held 
a distinguished place as mother of Apollo and Diana, and on this ac- 
count was often ranked among the superior deities. She was a daugh- 
ter of Cceus or Polus and Phoebe, and one of the objects of Jupiter's 



INFERIOR GODS. LA.TONA. THEMIS. 363 

love. The jealousy and anger of Juno was excited against her, and 
she adjured the goddess of Earth to allow Latona no place to bring 
forth her offspring. Neptune, however, granted the island Delos for 
the purpose. But here she found no sure asylum, and fled to Lycia, 
where (l)she was hindered from quenching her thirst at a lake by 
some peasants. These offenders were in return changed into frogs. 
Still more severe was her vengeance in the case of Niohe (2), a 
daughter of Tantalus and wife of Amphion king of Thebes. Niobe 
slighted the divinity of Latona, and the latter engaged both her child- 
ren, Apollo and Diana, to avenge her; they, by their arrows, slew the 
seven sons and seven daughters of Niobe, who by grief was changed 
into stone. 

(I) Ov. Met. vi. 335.— (2) Met. xi, 321. Cf. § 38. 

§ 82. This goddess was honored particularly in Lycia, on the isl- 
and Delos, at Athens, and in many of the Grecian cities. In Crete a 
festival was sacred to her, called'2?J«<W<na. Latona is sometimes spoken 
of as the goddess of night; and it is possible that her name originat- 
ed in this idea, derived from li\da, to be concealed, as nature was buried 
in profound darkness before the birth of the Sun and Moon or Apollo 
and Diana. 

She is usually represented as a large and comely woman, with a black -veil, so 
painted, or in engraved gems expressed by a dark-colored vein in the stone. 

§ 83. (10) Themis. The goddess of justice (Qs/nig) was one of 
the most celebrated of the Titanides, or daughters of Uranus and Ti- 
taea. To her is ascribed the first uttering of oracles, and also the first 
introduction of sacrifices into Greece. She had by Jupiter three 
daughters, JLxrj^Ewofilu, and 'Eiq-^vrj, which were commonly called 
the Horce ( c Slgai), who are represented by the poets in various lights, 
but particularly as goddesses presiding over the division and distribu- 
tion of time (§ 105). Astrsea also was by some called a daughter of 
Themis. Astrcca was likewise a goddess of justice or rather of 
property, and, according to Ovid's account (Met. i. 149), was the last 
of the divinities to quit the earth. She was placed among the constel- 
lations of the Zodiac under the name of Virgo, anciently called Eri- 
gone, and represented with a stern countenance and holding a pair of 
scales in one hand and a sword in the other. There was still another 
goddess, Nemesis, who was supposed to judge respecting moral ac- 
tions, and to exercise vengeance towards unrighteousness. She was 
called Adrastia sometimes, from the circumstance that Adrastus first 
erected a temple to her, and also Rhamnusia from having a temple at 
Rhamnus in the territory of Attica. 



3G4 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

See Aid. Gell. Noct. Attic, xiv. 4.— Herder's Zerstreuten Blattern, Samml. 2. 
p. 213. 

§84. (11) JEsculapius. In proportion as men in the early ages 
were io-norant of the efficacy and use of remedies for disease, there 
was the greater admiration of those who were distinguished in the art 
of healing, and the greater readiness to deify them. Hence the deifi- 
cation of iEsculapius, who was viewed as the god of medicine, and 
said to be the son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis (1). Hygiea, the 
goddess of health, was called his daughter, and two celebrated physi- 
cians belonging to the age of the Trojan war, Machaon and Podali- 
rius, were called his sons, and honored like him after their death. 
JEsculapius was killed with a thunder-bolt by Jupiter, at the request 
of Pluto. His most celebrated grove and temple was at Epidaurus 
(2), where he was worshiped under the form of a serpent. The ser- 
pent was usually attached as a symbol to the image of this god, either 
free or wound about a staff, expressing the idea of health, or prudence 
and foresight. 

(1) Ov. Met. ii. 591.— (2) lb. kv. 622.— The ruins of the temple at Epidaurus 
are still visible at the place now called Jero, pronounced Yero, a corruption per- 
haps of 'Ieqov (sacra cedes). There were at this ancient seat of thegod of health 
medical springs and wells, which may yet be traced. — Clarke's Travels, P. II. Sect. 
2. ch. 15. 

The serpent was also attached by the Romans to their goddess of health, Sai/us. 
She was honored by them with a temple and festivals. One of the city gates, be- 
ing near her temple, was called Porta Salutaris. She was represented with a 
bowl in her right hand and a serpent in her left. Her altar had a serpent twining 
round it and lifting his head upon it. 

V 85. (12) Plutus. The god of riches, nlovrog, was probably 
of allegorical rather than mythical origin, since his name in Greek 
is but the common term for wealth. His father, according to the fa- 
ble, was Jasion, a son of Jupiter by Electra, and his mother was Ce- 
res, who gave him birth in a beautiful region in Crete. Jupiter, as it 
was allegorically represented, deprived him of sight, and his usual 
residence was low beneath the earth. It is not known by what figure 
he was visibly represented. Pausanias barely remarks, that in the 
temple of Fortune at Thebes, he appeared in the form of an infant in 
the arms of that goddess, and at Athens the goddess of Peace held him 
as an infant in her arms. 

By some Plutus is considered as the same personage as Pluto, ruler 
of the world of spirits, and this may have been the case. 

Plutus was blind and lame, injudicious, and mighty timorous. He is lame, 
because large estates come slowly. He is fearful and timorous, because rich 
men watch their treasures with a great deal of fear and care.' 

§ 86 (13) Fortune. Of a like allegorical character was the god- 
dess of Fortune, Tvxi, Forluna, to whom was ascribed the distribution 



INFERIOR GODS. FORTUNE. FAME. 365 

and the superintendence of prosperity and adversity in general. 
Among the Greeks she had temples at Elis, Corinth, and Smyrna j 
and in Italy, before the building of Rome, she was honored at Antium, 
and especially atPraeneste (1). In the temple at Antium were two 
statues of Fortune, which were consulted as oracles, and gave answer 
by winks and nods of the head, or by means of the lot. Similar divi- 
nations were practiced also at Praeneste, where her temple was one 
of the richest and most celebrated. The Romans made her worship 
in general very splendid, and gave her various epithets originating 
from different occasions ; as Fortuna Publica, Equestris, Bona, Blan- 
da, Virgo, Virilis, Muliebris &c. 

(1) Hor. L. i. Od. 35. 'The goddess of Fortune is represented on ancient 

monuments with a horn of plenty and sometimes two in her hands. She is 
blindfolded, and generally holds a wheel in her hand as an emblem of her in- 
constancy. Sometimes she appears with wings, and treads upon the prow of a 
ship, and holds a rudder in her hands.' 

§ 87. (1 4) Fame. The goddess styled 'P'jV'?. or Tama, was also 
of allegorical origin. Virgil calls her the youngest daughter of 
Earth, who gave birth to this child, in revenge for the overthrow of 
her sons, the Giants, in order that she might divulge universally the 
scandalous conduct of Jupiter and the other gods. She had a place in 
the Greek Theogony, and was honored with a temple at Athens. She 
was viewed as the author and circulator of reports both good and bad. 
The poets represented her as having wings, always awake, always 
flying about, accompanied by vain fear, groundless joy, falsehood 
and credulity. 

Cf. Virg. JEn. iv. 173.— Ov. Met. xii. 39.— Stat. Theb. iii. 426. 

§ 88. (15) Deities peculiar to the Romans. (a) Termi- 
nus . — In order to express and render still more sacred the rights of 
property and the obligations of fixed boundaries in landed possessions, 
the Romans invented a god, who had it for his peculiar province to 
guard and protect them, called Terminus. His statue, in the form of 
those called Hermce(§ 56), was employed usually to mark the limits 
of fields. Numa first introduced this usage, and ordained a particular 
festival, the Terminalia, which was celebrated in the month of Febru- 
ary by the occupants and proprietors of contiguous lands (1). Upon 
these occasions offerings were presented to the god on the boundaries 
or separating lines. He had a temple on the Tarpeian rock. 

Oftentimes the statues of other gods, particularly the rural, were 
placed in the form of Hermae, to mark the limits of landed property, 
and Jupiter himself was sometimes represented under the name of 
Terminus, or received the epithet Terminalis. 






366 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

The Romans ranked Priapus among the deities, whose province 
was the protection of fields and cultivated grounds. His image was 
usually placed in gardens (2), which were considered as more particu- 
larly his care. 

(1) Ov. Fast. ii. 639— (2) Hor. Lib. i. Sat. 8.— Priapus is usually represented 
with a human face and the ears of a goat ; he has a sickle or scythe to prune the 
trees and cut down the corn, and a club to keep off thieves; his body terminates 
in a shapeless trunk. An ass was generally sacrificed to him. 

§ 89. (b) Vertumnus. — Under this name an old Italian 
prince, who probably introduced the art of gardening, was honored 
after death as a god. The Romans considered him as specially pre- 
siding over the fruit of trees. His wife was Pomona, one of the 
Hamadryads (1), a goddess of gardens and fruits, whose love he gained 
at last after changing himself into many forms, from which circum- 
stance his name (2) was derived. This goddess is represented on 
some monuments of ancient art, and is designated by a basket of 
fruit placed near or borne by her. 

[1] Cf. § 101.— [2] Ov. Met. xiv. 623. — ' Vertumnus is generally represented 
as a young man, crowned with flowers, covered up to the waist, and holding in 
his right hand fruit, and a crown of plenty in the left.' 

§ 90. (c) Flora. — The Romans had also a particular goddess 
of blossoms and flowers, whom they worshiped under the name of 
Flora. She is said to have been the same as the Grecian nymph 
Chloris ; although others maintain, that she was originally but a 
Roman courtezan. But this goddess seems not to have been wholly 
unknown to the Greeks, since Pliny speaks of a statue of her made by 
Praxiteles (1). She was represented as very youthful, and richly 
adorned with flowers. She had a festival and games at Rome, cele- 
brated (2) in the month of April, called Floralia ; they presented 
scenes of unbounded licentiousness. 

(1) Plin. N. H. xxxvi. 5.— (2) Ov. Fast. v. 283.— The indecency of this festival 
was checked on one occasion by the presence of Cato, who chose however to 
retire rather than witness it ( Valer. Max. ii. 10). By some the festival is said 
to have been instituted in honor of an infamous woman by the name of Flora. 

§ 91. (d) Feronia. — Another goddess of fruits, nurseries 
and groves, among the Romans, was Feronia. She had a very rich 
temple on Mount Soracte, where also was a grove specially sacred to 
her. She was honored as the patroness of enfranchised slaves (P. IV. 
§ 324), who ordinarily received their liberty in her temple. It was 
pretended that the real votaries of this goddess could walk unhurt on 
burning coals. Her name was derived, according to some from a 
town, called Feronia, near Mt. Soracte ; according to others, from the 
idea of her bringing relief (fero) to the slave; or from that of her 
producing trees, or causing them to bear fruit. 



INFERIOR GODS. DEIFIED EMPERORS. 367 

$ 92. (e) Pales . — Another goddess, of the same class, was 
Pales (from pabulum), to whom was assigned the care of pasturage 
and the feeding of flocks. In her honor a rural festival was held in 
the month of April, called Palilia (1), or Parilia. 

There were also numerous other rural goddesses of inferior char- 
acter recognized among the Romans, as Bubona having the care of 
oxen, Seia, or Segetia, having the care of seed planted in the earth, 
Hippona, presiding over horses, Collina, goddess of hills, and the like. 

(1] Ov. Fast. iv. 721. On the festival of Pales the shepherds placed little 

heaps of straw in a particular order and at a certain distance ; then they danced 
and leaped over them ; then they purified the sheep and the rest of the cattle 
with the fume of rosemary, laurel, sulphur, and the like. The design was to 
appease the goddess, that she might drive away the wolves, and prevent the dis- 
eases incident to cattle. Milk and wafers made of millet were offered to her, 
that she might render the pastures fruitful. Pales is represented as an old lady, 
surrounded by shepherds. 

Among the minor rural goddesses we find also, besides those above named, 
Vallonia, empress of the vallies, Runcina, the goddess of weeding, Volusia, with 
several other goddesses, who watch over the corn in its successive steps to matu- 
rity (Cf. § 5. 3.), Mellona, the goddess, who invented the art of making honey. 
There were also numerous male deities of the same class, as, Occator, the god of 
harrowing, Stercutius. the inventor of manuring, and Pilumnus, the inventor of 
the art of kneading and baking bread. 

§93. (/) Gods ofvarious Conditions or Pursuits 
o f 1 i f e. — In the latter period of the republic, and during the first ages 
of the empire, the Roman system of divinities was greatly augmented. 
Almost every rank in life, every profession and employment, had its 
tutelar god or gods, whose names thus became innumerable, but who 
never obtained a universal worship. For a knowledge of these, we 
are mainly indebted to the writings of the Christian Fathers, espe- 
cially Augustus, against polytheism. To this class belong, for exam- 
ple, Bellona, the goddess of war, corresponding in some degree to 
'Evvw among the Greeks (§ 46), Juturna the goddess of succor, 
Anculi and Ancula, deities presiding over servants, Vacuna, goddess 
of leisure, Strenua, goddess of diligence, Laverna, goddess of theft, &c. 

See Augustin, de Civitate Dei, L. iv. Diseases were exalted into deities. 

Febris, Fever, e. g. had her altars and temple, and was worshiped that she might 
not hurt; and so of others of this species. 

§ 94. (g) Deified Emperors . — To the gods already men- 
tioned we may add those, which were constituted by the apotheosis of 
the Emperors and their favorites. Thus a Cassar, an Augustus, a 
Claudius, an Antinous, and others were elevated to the rank of gods. 
Sometimes this was done in their life-time by the vilest adulation, but 
more frequently after death, in order to flatter their descendants. 

It would probably be as proper to rank the deified emperors in the fourth class 
of our division. They should be mentioned in this place, however, as belonging 
strictly to the number of Roman divinities, in distinction from Greek. 



S68 QREEK AND KOMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

^ '.)"). (/() Virtues nnd Vices. Finally it is to bo ob- 
served, that the poets were accustomed to give a personal representa- 
tion to abstract ideas, especially to moral qualities, to virtues and vices ; 
and in this way originated a multitude of divinities purely allegorical, 
which were however sometimes mingled with the mythological, and 
were honored with temples, rites, and significant images and symbols. 
Such were Virtus, Honor, Fides, Pictas, Spes, Libertas, Paz, Con- 
cordia, Jnvidio, Fraus, and the like. 

1. Virtus was worshiped in the habit of an elderly woman sitting on a square 
stone. The temple of Honor stood close by that of Virtus, and was approached 

by ii. 'l'lie priests sacrificed to Honor with bare heads. The temple of 

Fides, Hood Faith, stood near the Capitol. The priests in sacrificing to her 
covered their hands and heads with a white cloth. Her symbol was a white 

do;;, or two hands joined and sometimes two virgin's shaking hands. The 

temple of Spes, or Hope, was in the herb-market. Her image is said to have 
been placed on some of the coins. She is in the form of a woman standing; 
with her left hand holding lightly the skirts of her garments, and in her right a 
plate with a sort of cup on it fashioned to the likeness of a flower, with this in- 
scription, Spes P. R. A temple to Pietas was dedicated in the place where 

that woman lived, who fed with the milk of her own breasts her mother in prison. 

Cf. Pliii. N. H. vii. c. 3G. Concordia, had many altars. Her image held a 

bowl in the right hand, and a horn of plenty in the left. Her symbol was two 

hands joined together and a pomegranate. In the later periods of Rome, 

Pax had a very magnificent temple in the Forum, finished by Vespasian. 

2. To the vices also temples were dedicated. Fraus was represented 

with a human face and a serpent's body ; in the end of her tail was a scorpion's 

sting. Invidia is described as a meagre skeleton, dwelling in a dark and 

gloomy cave, and feeding on snakes. Ov. Met. ii. 761. 

It is important to remark, that although the particular personifications of vir- 
tues and vices above described refer to Roman Mythology, yet the Greeks also 
personified many of the virtues and vices in a similar way, and the imaginary 
deities thus formed had altars erected to their honor in Athens and other cities. 

§ 96*. (i) Foreign Gods. It is proper to notice here some 
Egyptian deities, whose worship was partially introduced at Rome. 

(1) Osiris. He is said to have been the son of Jupiter byNiobe, and to have 
ruled first over the Argives, and afterwards, leaving them, to have become an 
illustrious king of the Egyptians. His wife was Isis, who is by many said to be 
the same with the Io, daughter of Inachus, who was according to the fables 
changed by Jupiter into a cow. Osiris was at length slam by Typhon, and his 
corpse concealed in a chest and thrown into the Nile. Iris, after much search, by 
the aid of keen-scented dogs found the body and placed it in a monument on an 
island near Memphis. The Egyptians paid divine honor to his memory, and 
chose the ox to represent him, because as some say, a large ox appeared to them 
after the body of Osiris was interred, or according to others, because Osiris had 
instructed them in agriculture. Osiris was generally represented with a cap on 
his head like a mitre, with two horns; he held a stick in his left hand, and in his 
right a whip with three thongs. Sometimes he appears with the head of a hawk. 

(2) Isis. She was the wife of Osiris. Io after her metamorphosis is said after 
wandering over the earth to have come to the banks of the Nile, and there she 
was restored to the form of a woman. She reigned after her husband's murder, 

and was deified by the Egyptians. The cwto was employed as her symbol. 

Isis is often represented as holding a globe in her hand, with a vessel full of ears 
of corn. Her body sometimes appears enveloped in a sort of net. On some 
monuments she holds in her lap a child, her son Horus ; who is also ranked 
among the deities of Egypt. 

The Egyptians had numerous festivals, which were connected with the fables 
respecting Isis and Osiris. The chief festival adopted by the Romans was term- 



INFERIOR GODS. PEREGRINI. 369 

ed the Isia ,■ these lasted nine days, and were attended by such licentiousness as 
to be at length prohibited by the senate. 

Some have considered Osiris and Isis as representing the sun and the moon. 
Their story is by others viewed as corresponding to that of Venus and Adonis 
[Cf. Knight's Enquiry &c). — Some resemblances have been pointed out between 
Isis and Isa, a deity of the Hindoos, and Disa, a goddess worshiped among the 
northern tribes of Europe (Of. Too. Germ. 9). 

See Creuzer's Symbolik. There is a curious piece of antiquity called the table of Isia, because 

supposed to represent her mysteries. It is given in Montfaucon's Anti. Expl. cited § 12, 2 (d). Cf. also 

Shuck-ford's Sac. and Prof, Hist. Conn. B. viii. Among the most remarkable ruins discovered at 

Pompeii, is a temple of Isis. The columns, which surrounded it, are almost entirely preserved. The 
temple itself was entirely built of brick, and on the outside covered with a very solid stucco. It had 
the form of a square and was not covered ; but was surrounded by acovered gallery, which was sup- 
ported by columns and served for a shelter in bad weather. In this temple have been found all the 
instruments which appertain to the religious ceremonies, and even the skeletons of the priests who 
had been surprised arid buried by the shower of cinders, in the middle of the occupations of their min- 
istry. Their vestments, the cinders and the coals on the altars, the candelabra, lamps, sistrums, the 
vases which c ntained the lustral water, patera employed in the libations, a kind of kettle to preserve 
the intestines of the victims, cushions on which they placed the statue of the goddess Isis, when they 
offered sacrifices to her, the attributes of the divinity with which the temple was every where adorned, 
&c, are still shown. Many of these vases have the figure of an ibis, of a hippopotamus, of a lotus, 
and what renders them still more important, they were found exactly in the situations in which they 
were used, so that there can now be no doubt as to their reality and their use. The walls of the temple 
were adorned with paintings, relating to the worship of the goddess : there were figures of priests in 
the costume of their order : their vestments were of white linen, the heads of the officiating priest* 
were shaved, their feet covered with a tine thin lace, through which the muscles might be distinguished. 

(3) Apis. This is the name of the ox, in which Osiris was supposed to reside, 
rather than a distinct deity. The ox thus honored, was known by certain marks ; 
his body was all black, excepting a square spot of white on his forehead, and a 
white crescent or sort of half moon on his right side ; on his back was the figure 
of an eagle, under his tongue a sort of knot resembling a beetle (cantharus), and 
two sorts of hair upon his tail. » This ox was permitted to live 25 years. His 
body was then embalmed, placed in a chest, or ^opo;, and buried with many 
solemnities. A season of mourning then followed, until a new Apis, or ox proper- 
ly marked, was brought to sight.— It is a curious fact that Belzoni, who succeeded 
in finding entrance into the second of the great pyramids of Egypt, found in the 
corner of a large and high chamber in the interior of the pyramid a 2oobg, which, 
on being carefully opened, presented the bones of an ox. 

f4] Serapis. This was one of the Egyptian deities, considered by some to be 
the same with Osiris. Magnificent temples, generally called Serapea, were 
erected to him at Memphis, Canopus, and Alexandria. Tacitus relates a mar- 
velous tale of the removal of an effigy of this god from Sinope, on the southern 
shore of the Ponius Euxinus, to Alexandria. The worship of the god existed, 
however, in Egypt at a much earlier period. The mysteries of Serapis were 
introduced at Rome under the emperors, but soon abolished on account of their 
licentiousness. — Some derive the name from 2oobg and "Amg, as having sig- 
nified at first merely the chest or box, in which the body of Apis was deposited. 

It has been supposed by some, that the Egyptian Apis was a symbol of 

Joseph, and that the various legends connected with the worship of this god, grew 
out of the history of that patriarch. Cf. Vossins de Theologia Gentili, Amst. 
1642. — This notion is adopted by Dr. Clarke. See his Travels, P. II. sect. 2. ch. 5. 

[5] Anubis. This was another deity connected in fable with Osiris. He was 
said to be the son of Osiris, and to have accompanied Isis in her search after her 
husband. He is represented as having the head of a dog. He is also called 
Hermanubis ; or, as others say, the latter is the name of another deity of a simi- 
lar character. — See Creuzer's Symbolik. 

i'6] Harpocrates. He is supposed to be the same as Horus, son of Isis, and 
was worshiped as the god of Silence. He was much honored among the Ro- 
mans, who placed his statues at the entrance of their temples. He was usually 
represented in the figure of a boy, crowned with an Egyptian mitre, which ended 
at the points as it were in two buds ; in his left hand he held a horn of plenty, 
while a finger of his right hand was fixed upon his lips to command silence and 
secrecy.— Porphyry, Cave of Nymphs (Cf. P. II. § 199. 2). 

47 



870 ORKGK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 



///. — Mythical Beings, whose history is intimately connected with 
that of the Gods. 

$ 97. (1) Titans ami (Hants. The enterprises of the Titans 
are celebrated in theancient fables of the Greeks. They have already 
been mentioned in the accounts of Saturn (§ 14), to whom they were 
brothers, being generally considered as sons of Uranus or Coelus and 
Tittea. The oldest was called Titan, and from him, or their mother, 
they derived their common name. The prevalent tradition assigned 
to Uranus five sons, besides Saturn, viz. Hyperion, Cans, Japetus, 
Crius, and Oceanus ; and likewise five daughters besides Rhea, wife 
of Saturn, viz. Themis, Mnemosyne, Thya, Phoebe, and Tethys, called 
Titanides. On account of their rebellion against Uranus, in which, 
however, Saturn and Oceanus took no part, the Titans were hurled by 
their father down to Tartarus, whence they were set free by the aid of 
Saturn. With Saturn also they afterwards contested the throne, but 
unsuccessfully. The Cyclops, mentioned in speaking of Vulcan 
(§ 52), may be considered as belonging to the Titans. 

The number of the Titans is given variously ; Apollodorus mentions 13, Hy- 

ginus 6. The number of 45 is stated by some. The name of one of them, 

Japetus, is strikingly similar loJapheb mentioned in the Bible, whose descendants 
peopled Europe, and it is remarkable that in the Greek traditions, Japetus is cal- 
led the father of mankind. Some have considered the Titans as the descendants 
of Gonier, son of Japhet. (Pezron's Antiquities). — They have also been supposed 
to be the Cushites or descendants of Cush, and the builders of the tower of Ba- 
bel. (Bryant's Analysis of Anc. Mythology).— Others think them merely per- 
sonifications of the elements ; and suppose their fabled war with their father Coe- 
lus, or against Saturn, an allegorical representation of a war of the elements. 

$ 98. The Giants were a distinct class, although their name 
(yiyccg from yfj and yevw) designates them as sons of Earth, or Gaia, 
who gave them birth, after the defeat of the Titans by Jupiter, and 
out of vengeance against him. The most famous of them were, 
Enceladus, Halcyoneus, Typhon, JEgeon, Ephialtes, and Otus. Ac- 
cording to the common description, they had bodies of extraorduiary 
size and strength, some of them with a hundred hands, and with 
dragon's feet, or serpents instead of legs. Their most celebrated 
undertaking was the storming of Olympus (1), the residence of Ju- 
piter and the other gods. In order to scale this summit, they heaped 
mountain upon mountain, as (Eta, Pelion, Ossa, and others. But Ju- 
piter smote them with his thunderbolts, precipitated some of them to 
Tartarus, and buried others beneath the mountains. Typhon or Ty- 
phosus, for instance, he pressed down with the weight of ^Etna (2), 



MYTHICAL BEINGS, ETC. TITANS- SIRENS. NYMPHS. 371 

under which, according to the fable, the giant constantly strives to lift 
himself up, and pours from his mouth torrents of flame. 

(1) Ov. Met. i. 151.— (2) Ov. Met. v. 346— Claud. Gigantomach.— Find. Pyth. 

i. 31. Mgeon or BHareus was another giant eminent in the contest, with 

fifty heads and a hundred hands. He hurled against Jupiter a hundred huge 
rocks at a single throw ; but Jupiter bound him also under .(Etna, with a hund- 
red chains. This story of the war between the Giants and Jupiter is also 

explained by some as an allegorical representation of some great struggle in na- 
ture, which took place in early times. This contest is to be distinguished from 
that of the Titans, who, although often confounded with the Giants, were a dis- 
tinct class. 

99. (2) Tritons and Sirens. Triton has already been mentioned 
(§ 29) as a son of Neptune and Amphitrite. From him, as most 
famous, the other various deities of the sea derived the name of Tri- 
tons. They were represented, like him, as half man and half fish, 
with the whole body covered with scales. They usually formed the 
retinue of Neptune, whose approach Triton himself announced by 
blowing his horn, which was a large conch or sea-shell. 

Cf. Ov. Met. i. 333. — Virg. Mix. x. 209. There were other minor divinities 

of the sea under Neptune ; but Triton seems to have had the pre-eminence, and 
under Neptune a sort of control among them. Phorcus, Proteus, and Glaucus 
have been already mentioned (§ 29). Nereus was ranked among them as a son 
of Oceanus, and the father of the Nereides. Ino and her son Paleemon or Me- 
licertes are also said to have been admitted by Neptune as gods of his retinue. 
Paleemon is thought to be the same with Portumnus, whom the Romans worshiped 
as the guardian of harbors. 

§ 100. The Sirens were a sort of sea-goddesses, said by some to 
be two in number, by others three, and even four. Homer mentions 
but two ( ] ), and describes them as virgins, dwelling upon an island, 
and detaining with them every voyager, who was allured thither by 
their captivating music. They would have decoyed even Ulysses on 
his return to Ithaca, but were not permitted. 

By others they were described as daughters of the river-god Ache- 
lous, and companions of Proserpine, after whose seizure they were 
changed into birds (2), that they might fly in search of her. In an 
unhappy contest with the Muses in singing, they lost their wings 
as a punishment of their emulation. Others make^them sea-nymphs, 
with a form similar to that of the Tritons, with the faces of women 
and the bodies of flying fish. The artists generally represented them 
as virgins, either not at all disfigured, or appearing partly as birds.. 

(1) Horn, Od. xii. 39. 166.-(2) Ov. Met. v. 552. Their fabled residence 

was placed by some on an island near cape Pelorus in Sicily, by others on the 
islands or rocks called Sirennusae, not far from the promontory of Surrentum on 
the coast of Italy.— Various explanations of the fable of the Sirens have been 
given. It is commonly considered as signifying the dangers of indulgence in 
pleasure. 

§ 101. (3) Nymphs. The, Nymphs of ancient fiction were viewed 



( 

i>7 -i OKEKE AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

as holding a sort of intermediate place between men and gods, as to 
the duration of life ; not being absolutely immortal, yet living a vast 
length of time. Oceanus was considered as their common father, 
although the descent of different nymphs is given differently, Their 
usual residence was in grottoes or water caves, from which circum- 
Btance they received their name, Nv/jyou. Their particular offices were 
different, and they were distinguished by various names according to 
the several objects of their patronage, or the regions in which they 
chiefly resided. Thus there were the Oreades or nymphs of the 
mountains ; Naiades, Nereides, and Potamides, nymphs of the foun- 
tains, seas, and rivers ; Dryades and Hamadryades, nymphs of the 
woods ; Napaa, nymphs of the vales, &c. The Dryads were dis- 
tinguished from the Hamadryads (u/ia dqvg) in this, that the latter 
were supposed to be attached to some particular tree, along with which 
they came into being, lived and died, while the former had the care 
of the woods and trees in general. 

Places consecrated to these imaginary beings were called Nvficpata. Such was 
the celebrated spot in the vicinity of Apollonia, famous for its oracle and the fire 
which was seen to issue constantly f torn the ground (Plin. Nat. Hist. xxiv. 7}. 
Such was the place and building at Rome, which was called Nymplucum, adorned 
with statues of the nymphs, and abounding, it is said, with fountains and water- 
falls. Festivals were held, in honor of the nymphs, whose number has been 
stated as above 3000. 

They were generally represented as young and beautiful virgins, partially 
covered with a veil or thin cloth, bearing in their hands vases of water, or shells, 
leaves, or grass, or having something as a symbol of their appropriate offices. 
The several gods are represented more or less frequently as attended by nymphs 
of some class or other ; especially Neptune, Diana, and Bacchus. Under the 
term of nymphs were sometimes included the imaginary spirits, that guided 
the heavenly spheres and constellations and dispensed the influences of the stars ; 
the nymphs being distributed by some mythologists into three classes, those of 
the sky, the land, and the sea. 

§ 102.' (4) Muses. The ancients were not content with having 
in their fictions a god of science and a goddess of wisdom in genera^ 
but assigned to particular branches of knowledge and art their ap- 
propriate tutelary spirits or guardian divinities, whom they called 
Muses, Movaai, and considered as the daughters of Jupiter and Mne- 
mosyne. They were nine in number, according to the common ac- 
count ; with Greek names, as follows, Kleid, KaMtomj, MeXnopevq, 
Qdleia ,' Eqoctu,' Evts qtzt] , TsQipi^oQrj^ Ilolvfivia, and ' Ovqavla. 

They were frequently called by common names, derived from places sacred to 
them, or from other circumstances, as Pierides, Aonides, Heliconiades, Parnas- 
sides, Hippocrenides, Castalides, &c. 

§ 103. In order to represent the Muses as excelling in their sever- 
al arts, especially in music and song, the poets imagined various 
contests held by them ; as for example, with the Sirens, and the 
daughters of Pierus (1), in which the Muses always gained the 



MYTHICAL BEINGS, ETC. MUSES. GRACES. HOURS. 373 

prize. They were described as remaining virgins, and as being under 
the instruction and protection of Apollo. Their usual residence was 
Mt. Helicon, where was the fountain Hippocrene, and Mt. Parnassus 
where was the fountain Castalia, the former in Boeotia, the latter near 
Delphi in Phocis. Mt. Pindus and Mt. Pierus in Thessaly were 
also sacred to the Muses. Particular temples were also consecrated 
to them among the Greeks and the Romans. Festivals in their honor 
were instituted in several parts of Greece, (2) especially among the 
Thespians. The Macedonians observed a festival for Jupiter and the 
Muses, which was continued nine days. 

(1) Ov. Met. v. 300. — (2i See Heyne, de Musar. religione,ejusg. orig.et causis, 
in Comment. Soc. reg. Golting. Vol. viii. 

The Muses are usually represented as Virgins, with ornamented dresses, and 
crowned withpalmsorlaurels. ' According to the best authorities, Clio, History, 
holds in her hand a half opened scroll ; Melpomene, Tragedy, is veiled and 
leans upon a pillar, holding in her left hand a tragic mask ; Thalia, Comedy, 
holds in one hand a comic mask, in the other a staff resembling a lituus or au- 
gur's wand; Euterpe, Music, holds two flutes or pipes; Terpsichore, the dance, is 
represented in a dancing attitude and plays upon a seven stringed lyre; Erato, 
Amatory Poetry, holds a nine stringed instrument ; Calliope, Epic Poetry, has a 
roll of jjarchment in her hand and sometimes a straight trumpet or tuba; Ura- 
nia, Astronomy, holds in her left hand a globe, in her right a rod. with which she 
appears to point out some object to the beholder ; Polyhymnia, Eloquence and Im- 
itation, places the fore finger of the right hand upon her mouth, or else bears a 
scroll in her hand.' (Anth. Lemp.) 

' The Muses are often painted with their hands joined dancing in a ring ; in 
the middle of them sits Apollo their commander and prince. The pencil of na- 
ture described them in thatmanner upon the agate, which Pyrrhus, who made war 
upon the Romans, wore in a ring ; for in it was a representation of the nine 
Muses, and Apollo holding a harp ; and these figures were not delineated by art 
(Plin. L. xxxvii. c. 1), but by the spontaneous handy-work of nature'. — Tooke's 
Panth.— See Montfauc. Ant. expl. T. I. pi. 56-62. 

§ 104. (5) The Graces and the Hours. To the retinue of Venus 
belonged the Graces, Xdqnsg, Gratia, servants and companions of the 
goddess, diffusing charms and gladness. They were said to be daugh- 
ters of Jupiter and Eurynome, or according to others of Bacchus and 
Venus herself, and were three in number, "Jylaia, 6dlet,a, and *Ev- 
cpQoavvTj, (Pind. Olymp. xiv). They were honored especially in 
Greece, and had temples in the principal cities. Altars were often 
erected to them in the temples of other gods, especially Mercury, Ve- 
nus, and the Muses. They are frequently represented on ancient 
monuments as beautiful young virgins, commonly in a group, holding 
each other by the hand, and without drapery. 

§ 105. The Horce, c Slqat,, were the goddesses of Time, presiding 
especially over the seasons and the hours of the day, and were consid- 
ered as the daughters and servants of Jupiter. They came at length 
to be viewed as tutelary patrons of beauty, order and regularity, in 
reference to which Themis was said to be their mother. They were 
named Evvofiia, Jixt], and Eigiji'i]. 



374 OREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

The Hours are usually represented as dancing, with short vestments, and gar- 
land* of palm-leaf, and all of the same age. In some monuments of latei peri- 
ods, four Hoars appear, corresponding to the four seasons.— Winckelmann, Hist. 
de i' An. iv. ch.S. §88. 

The Graces 1 lours, and Muses are all supposed by some writers to have had 
originally a reference to the stars and seasons, and to have afterwards lost t&eir 
astronomical attributes, when moral ideas and qualities became more prominent 
m the Greek system ot fictions.— See Miwmo'js Abhandl. ueber die Horen und Gra- 
cien, in his Mjihol. Versuehm. 

§ 10G. (6) The Fates. The very common poetic representation of 
human life under the figurative idea of spinning a thread gave rise to 
the notion of the Fates, called Moiqai by the Greeks, by the Romans 
Parcee. They were three sisters, daughters of Night, whom Jupiter 
permitted to decide the fortune and especially the duration of mortal 
life. One of them, Clotho (Klwdw), attached the thread, the second 
Lachcsis (Adxeatg) spun it, and the third Atropos ("Argonog) cut it off 
when the end of life arrived. They were viewed as inexorable, and 
ranked among the inferior divinities of the lower world. Their wor- 
ship was not very general. 

The Parcaewere generally represented as three old women, with chaplets made 
of wool and interwoven with the flowers of the Narcissus, wearing long robes, 
and employed in their work, Clotho with a distaff, Lachesis having near her 
sometimes several spindles, and Atropos holding a pair of scissors. — See Catutt. 
Epithal. Pel. et Thet. v. 305.— Manso's Abhandl. v. Parzen, in his Mytkol. Ver- 
suchen. 

§ 107. (7) The Furies and Harpies. Among the divinities of the 
lower world were three daughters of Acheron and Night, or of Pluto 
and Proserpine, whose office it was to torment the guilty in Tartarus, 
and often to inflict vengeance upon the living. The Greeks called 
them 'Egivweg, Furies, and also by a sort of euphemism, or from de- 
sign to propitiate them, Evfievidsg, signifying kindly disposed; the 
Romans styled them Furice. Their names were Tisiphone (from 
ricng and yovog) whose particular work was to originate fatal epidem- 
ics and contagion, Alecto (from alrjxzog) to whom were ascribed the 
devastations and cruelties of war, and Megara{ from (isydtqw) the au- 
thor of insanity and murders. Temples were consecrated to them 
among both the Greeks and the Romans, and among the latter a fes- 
tival also, if we may consider the Furinalia as appropriated to them 
and not to a separate goddess Furina, as some suppose. They were 
represented with vipers twining among their hair, usually with fright- 
ful countenances, in dark and bloody robes, and holding the torch of 
discord or vengeance. 

Virg. Georg. iii. 551. Mn. vii. 341. 415. xii. 846.— Ov. Met. iv. 474— Cf. Furi- 
enmasken im Trauerspiel und auf d. Bildwerkend. alt. Griechen; eine archasol. 
Untersuchung von C. A. Baltiger, Weimar, 1801.8. 

^ 108. The fable of the Harpies, "Jgnviou, seems to have had 



MYTHICAL BEINGS, ETC. HARPIES. DEMONS. LARES. 375 

reference originally to the rapidity and violence of the whirlwind, 
which suddenly seizes and hears off whatever it strikes. Their names 
were Aello (from "AeIIw storm), Cda.no (from xslatvdg dark), and 
Ocypeta (from wxvnsTTjg, flying rapidly), all indicative of the source 
of the fiction. 

They appear to have been considered, sometimes at least, as the goddesses of 
storms, and so were called QiUXiai (Horn. Od. xx. 66\ They were said to be 
daughters of Neptune and Terra, and to dwell in islands of the sea, on the bor- 
ders of the lower world, and in the vicinity of the Furies, to whom they some- 
times bore off the victims they seized. They were represented as having the 
faces of virgins, and the bodies of vultures, with feet and hands armed with 

claws. Virg. Ma. iii. 210.— See Voss, Mytholog. Briefe, Stuttgart, 1827. 

3 vols. 12mo. 

§ 109. (8) The Damons or Genii and Manes. In the earliest 
mythologies we find traces of a sort of protecting deities, or spiritual 
guardians of men, called Jdifiovsg, or Genii. They were supposed 
to be always present with the persons under their care, and to direct 
their conduct, and control in great measure their destiny, having re- 
ceived this power as a gift from Jupiter. Bad daemons, however, as 
well as good, were imagined to exist, and some maintained, that every 
person had one of each class attendant upon him. 

But the daemons cf classical mythology must not be confounded with the fallen 
spirits revealed in the Holy Scriptures, and represented as possessing men in the 
time of Christ — See Farmer, Essay on Demoniacs. — Letters to Channing on 
Fallen Spirits, by Canonicus. Boston, 1828. 

§ 110. The Manes were a similar class of heings. Although 
often spoken of as the spirits or souls of the departed, they seem more 
commonly to have been considered as guardians of the deceased, 
whose office was to watch over their graves, and hinder any disturb- 
ance of their tranquillity. They were subordinate to the authority of 
Pluto, on which account he is styled Summanus. Some describe a 
goddess, named Mania, as their mother. 

The Romans designated by the name of Lemures, or Larva, such 
spirits of the dead, as wandered about in restlessness, disturbing the 
peace of men, issuing from the graves as apparitions, to terrify the 
beholders. 

See Manso's Abh. ueber d. Genius der Alten, in his Myth. Vers. — Simon's Diss, 
sur les Lemures, in Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscr. T. I. — Ov. Fast. v. 421. — Blum, 
Einleitung in Rom's alte Geschichte, Berl. 1828. 12mo. 

§ 111. (9) The Lares and Penates. The system of tutelary 
spirits was carried further by the Romans than by the Greeks. The 
former assigned to each dwelling and family its guardian deities, which 
were called Lares and Penates. The Lares were said to be sons of 
Mercury and Lara or Larunda daughter of Almon. They received a 



37G GREEK AND ROHAN MYTHOLOGY. 

variety of epithets or bynames, according to the particular object, 
over which they wore in different cases supposed to preside, as famil- 
iares, com pi lairs, via/rs, patellarii, publici, privati. They were es-" 
pecially considered, however, as presiding over houses, and had in 
every house their proper sanctuary (Lararium) and altar. They 
seem to have been viewed as the spirits of the departed ancestors, the 
fathers and forefathers of the family, who sought the welfare of their 
descendants. 

The dog was sacred to the Lares, and an image of this animal was placed by 
their statues,. Thesestatnes were sometimes clothed in the skins, and even formed 
in the shape, of dogs. Public festivals were held in their honor, called Compi- 
talia. which were made very joyful occasions ; the slaves of the family shared 
lil«. mIv and equality with their masters as on the Saturnalia. — T. Hempel, Diss, 
de Laribus. 2d ed. Zwiccav. 181G. 8. 

fy 112. The Penates were also domestic or household gods, but 
they were not properly speaking a distinct class by themselves, he- 
cause the master of the dwelling was allowed to select any deity ac- 
cording to his pleasure, to watch over his family affairs, or preside 
over particular parts of them. Accordingly Jupiter and others of 
the superior gods were not unfrequently invoked in this capacity. 
The gods, who presided over particular families, were sometimes styled 
parvi Penates, while those that presided over cities or provinces, were 
styled patrii or publici Penates. Adulation sometimes elevated to 
the rank of Penates even living persons, especially the emperors. 

Cf. Virg. jEn.ii. 717. iii. 148. — Heyne, Excurs. is. ad Virg. Mn. ii.— T. Hem- 
pel, Diss, de diis Laribus (cited above). — Mueller, de diis Rom. Laribus et 
Penatibus. Hafnia3, 1811. 8. — The Lares and the Penates are often confounded, 
but were not the same. ' The Penates were originally gods, the powers of na- 
ture personified ; the mysterious action of which produces andupholds whatever 
is necessary to life, to the common good, to the prosperity of families, whatever, 
in fine, the human species cannot bestow on itself. The Lares were originally 
themselves human beings, who becoming pure spirits after death, loved still to 
hover round the dwelling they once inhabited, to watch over its safely, and to 
guard it as the faithful dog does the possessions of his master. They keep off 
danger from without, while the Penates, residing in the interior of the dwelling, 
pour blessings upon its inmates.' (Anlk. Lemp.) 

§ 113. (10) Sle°p, Dreams, and Death. Among the imaginary 
beings supposed to exert an influence over the condition of mortals, 
"Ynvog, ~"Oveiqog, and Qdvaxog, gained a personification, being called 
sons of Nox, or night, and ranked among the deities of the lower 
world. To" Ynvog, or Somnus, Cimmeria was assigned as his resi- 
dence, on account of the perpetual darkness, which tradition ascribed 
to it; and the poppy, on account of its soporific qualities, was his com- 
mon symbol. He is represented as holding in his hand a light invert- 
ed and about to be extinguished. 

The last symbol was also employed in representing Qdvarog, or 



MYTHICAL BEINGS, ETC. SATYRS. FAUNS. GORGONS. 377 

Death, who was often placed beside his brother sleep on sepulchral 
monuments, and appeared in a similar bodily form, and not a mere 
naked skeleton, as in modern art. When death was the result of vio- 
lence or circumstances of a disgusting character, the Greeks expres- 
sed it by the word xr\q, and they fancied a sort of beings called xrjqeg, 
who caused death and sucked the blood. The Romans made a simi- 
lar distinction between mors and Icthum. 

" Oveiqoc, was the god of dreams, more commonly called Morpheus, 
from the various images or forms (/-togyri) presented in dreaming. Mor- 
pheus is sometimes considered as the god of sleep, but was more prop- 
erly his minister ; Phobetor (<pa>tf?|Tw§), sometimes considered as the 
god of dreams, was another minister of Somnus, and Phantasus (q>uv- 
toc'£w,) another. 

Cf. Ov. Met. xi. 592. 634, 640.— Lessing's Untersuchung, wie die Alten d. 
Tod gebildet. Berl. 1769. L— Herder's Abh. in his Zerstreuten Blattern. Th. 2. 

273. The Romans imagined death as a goddess, Mors. The poets described 

her as roving about with open mouth, furious and ravenous, with black robes and 
dark wings. She is not often found represented on existing monuments of art; 
in one supposed to represent her, a small figure in brass, she appears as a skeleton 
sitting on the ground, with one hand on an urn. 

§ 114. (11) The Satyrs and Fauns. The idea of gods of the 
forests and woods, with a form partly of men and partly of beasts, 
took its rise in the earliest ages, either from the custom of wearing 
skins of animals for clothing, or in a design to represent symbolically 
the condition of man in the semibarbarous or half-savage state. The 
Satyrs of the Greeks and the Fauns of the Romans, in their repre- 
sentation, differed from the ordinary human form only in having a 
buck's tail, with erect pointed ears. There were others called Panes, 
which had also the goat's feet, and more of the general appearance of 
the brute. The Fauns were represented as older than the Satyrs, 
who when they became old were called Sileni. Yet the Romans rep- 
resented the Satyrs more like beasts, and as having the goat's feet. 
The Satyrs, Fauns, Panes, and Sileni, all belonged to the retinue of 
Bacchus (§ 60). The name of Fauni was of Italian origin, derived 
from a national god Faunus, who was son of Picus, king of the Latins, 
and the nymph Canens (1), and whose wife Fauna was also honored 
as a goddess. 

(1) Or. Met. xiv. 320, 336 — See Heyne's Abh. von Unterschied. zwischen Faun. 
Sat. Silen. und Panen, in his Samml. Ant. Aufsatze. Found also in Winckel- 

mann, Histoire de lArt (cited P. I. § 32) vol. I. p. 680. Ueber Faun. Sat. Pan. 

und Silenen. Berl. 1790,91. 8,— Voss, Myth. Briefe. 

§ 115. (12) The Gorgons. Three imaginary sisters, daughters of Phorcys 
and Cete, were termed roQyovc?, from their frightful aspect. Their heads were 
said to be covered with vipers instead of hair, with teeth as long as the tusks of 
a boar, and so terrific a look as to turn every beholder into stone. They are de- 

48 



37S OREBK AM) ROMAN M V TIIOI.OBY. 

sortbedaa having the head, neck and breasts of women, while the rest of the 
body was in the form of a serpent. According io some, they had but one eye 
common to them .ill, which they were obliged to use in turn. 
Their names were Sttwio, ami Medusa. Medusa is said to have been 

at off her head, .while they were in the act of exchanging 
the i 

They are sometimes ranked, with the Furies, among the infernal deities. But 

then' i i i is variously assigned; some placing them in a distant part of the 

i in Libya, and others in Scythia. Some have explained the 

fable i irlike race of women, like the Amazons. Others sup- 

pose it to have nee to the moon as a dark body, which is said also 

io have been called roQyinov, from the face believed to be seen in it. 

§ 11G. (13) The Amazons. The Amazons were no doubt mythical beings, 
although said io be a race ol' warlike women, who lived near the river Thermo- 
don in Cappadocia. A nation of them was also located in Africa. They are 
rnl off their right breast, that they might use the bow and javelin 
with more skill and force; and hence their name, 'Jt/.ia^ivsg, from a undftatog. 
They are mentioned in the Iliad (iii. 18i3. vi. 18G.) and called arnuvei^ai. 

Various explanations of the fable are given. Some consider it as having a 
connection originally with the worship of the moon. Several statues of Ama- 
zons were placed in the temple of Diana at Ephesus (Plin. N. H. xxxiv. 8. J, 
and may have represented some of her imaginary attendants, or some of her 
own attributes. — A figure resembling an Amazon, but having four arms, is seen 
in the caverns of Elephanta. — Creuzer's Symbolik. 

§ 117. This seems to be the place for noticing more particularly several Mon- 
sters, whicti are exhibited in the tales of ancient mythology. 

(«) The Minotaur was said to be half man and half bull. The story is that 
Minos, king of Crete, refused to sacrifice to Neptune a beautiful white bull, 
which was demanded by the god. The angry god showed his displeasure by 
causing Pasiphaa, the wife of Minos, to defile herself with this bull, through the 
aid of Daedalus, and give birth to the monster. Minos confined the Minotaur 
in the famous labyrinth. Here the monster devoured the seven young men and 
the seven maidens annually required from the Athenians by Minos. Theseus, 
by the aid of the king's daughter Ariadne, slew the Minotaur and escaped the 
labyrinth [Cf. § 125). 

(b) The Chinucra was said to be composed of a dragon, goat, and lion united; 
the middle of the body was that of a goat, the hinder parts those of a dragon, the 
fore parts those of a lion ; and it had the heads of all three, and was continually 
vomiting forth flames. This monster lived in Lycia in the reign of Jobates, king 
of that country. This king, wishing to punish Bellerophon in order to gratify 
his son-in-law Pranus, sends him against the Chimaera; but Bellerophon, by the 
aid of Minerva and the winged horse Pegasus, instead of perishing himself, 
destroyed the monster. 

This fable is supposed by some to refer to a volcanic mountain on the Lycian 
coast.— See Clark's Travels, P. II. Sect, ii ch. 8. (vol. iii. p. 211. ed. N. Y. 1815]. 
Plin. Nat. Hist. v. 27. 

(c) The Ccntauri were said to be half men and half horses. Some make them 
the offspring of Ixion and the cloud; others refer their origin to the bestiality of 
Centaurus, the son of Apollo. They were said to dwell in Thessaly. The prin- 
cipal incidents related of them are iheir rude attempts upon the women at the 
marriage of Piriihous and Hippodamia, and the consequent battle with the La- 
pithae, who drove them into Arcadia. Here they were afterwards chiefly de- 
stroyed by Hercules.— Ou. Met. xii. 530. — Some have imagined this fable to al- 
lude to the draining of the low parts of Thessaly, as the horse is in general sym- 
bolical of water. Knight's inquiry, &c. in the Class. Journal. Cf. Mitford, Ch. 
I. sect. 3. 

(d) Geryon was a monster said to be the offspring of Chrysaor and Callirhoe, 
and to have three bodies and three heads. His residence was in the island of 
Gades, where his numerous flocks were kept by the herdsman Eurythion, and 
guarded by a two-headed dog called Orthos. The destruction of this monster 
formed one of the twelve labors of Hercules (§ 123). 

(e) The Hydra was a monstrous serpent in the lake Lerna, with numerous 



MYTHICAL BEINGS, ETC. MONSTERS. 379 

heads, nine according to the common account. When one of these was cut off, 
another or two others immediately grew in its place, unless the blood of the 
wound was slopped by fire. The destruction of the Hydra was another labor 
assigned to Hercules, which lie accomplished by the aid of Iolaus, who applied 
lighted brands or a heated iron, as each head was removed. The arrows of Her- 
cules, being dipped in the Hydra's blood, caused incurable wounds. 

(/) Pegasus was not so much a monster as a prodigy, being a winged horse, 
said to have sprung from the blood, which fell on the ground when Perseus cut 
off the head of Medusa. He fixed his residence on mount Helicon, where he 
opened the fountain called Hippocrene {'innoz and xq>',v)i). He was a favorite of 
the muses, and is called the muses' horse. This horse, having come into the pos- 
session of Bellerophon, enabled him to overcome the Chimera. Afterwards 
Pegasus, under an impulse from Jupiter, threw off Bellerophon to wander on 
earth, and himself ascended to a place among the stars. 

(g) Cerberus was the fabled dog of Pluto, stationed as sentinel at the entrance 
of Hades. He is generally described as having three heads, sometimes as hav- 
ing fifty. Snakes covered his body instead of hair. None from the world of the 
living could pass him but by appeasing him with a certain cake, composed of 
medicated and soporific ingredients. ( Virg. iEn. vi. 420.) — To seize and bring 
up this monster was assigned to Hercules, as one of his labors. 

(Ji) Scylla and Ckarybdis are the names, the former of a rock on the Italian 
shore in the strait between Sicily and the main land, and the latter of a whirl- 
pool or strong eddy over against it on the Sicilian side. The ancients connected 
a fabulous story with each name. — Scylla was originally a beautiful woman, but 
was changed by Circe into a monster, the parts below her waist becoming a 
number of dogs incessantly barking, while she had twelve feet and hands, and 
six heads with three rows of teeth. Terrified at this metamorphosis, she threw 
herself into the sea, and was changed into the rocks which bear her name. — 
Charybdis was a greedy woman, who stole the oxen of Hercules, and for that of- 
fence was turned into the gulf or whirlpool above mentioned. 

(i) The Sphinx was the offspring of Orthos and Chimasra, or of Typhon and 
Echidna ; a monster having the head and breasts of a woman, the body of a dog, 
the tail of a serpent, the wings of a bird, the paws of a lion, with a human voice. 
This monster infested the neighborhood of Thebes, proposing enigmas, and de- 
vouring the inhabitants, who could not explain them. At length one of the enig- 
mas, in which she demanded what animal it was which walked en four legs in 
the morning, two at noon, and three at night, was solved by CEdipus. He said 
that the animal was man, who in the morning of life creeps upon his hands and 
feet, in middle age walks erect, and in the evening of his days uses a staff. On 
hearing this solution, the Sphinx instantly destroyed herself. 

Representations of the Sphinx are very common among Egyptian monuments. 
A very celebrated colossal statue of a Sphinx yet remains near the pyramids. 
Tt is cut in the solid rock, and is 125 feet in length.— Clarke's Travels, P. ii. Sect. 
2. ch. 4.— Denun's Travels (Vol. I. p. 55. Lond. 1804). 



IV — Mythical History of the Heroes. 

§ 118. In Grecian story three periods are distinguished even by 
the ancients ; the unknown, adijlov, of which no historical monuments 
remained to make known the state of society ; the fabulous, fivdixov, 
of which the accounts left are mingled with manifold fictions ; and the 
historical, iorogixov, of which a genuine and trustworthy history is re- 
corded. The first extends to the deluge of Deucalion, the second to the 
introduction of the Olympiad into chronology, and the third through 



380 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

the subsequent times. To the second of these periods belonged the He- 
roes, as they are called, and it is on that account often styled the heroic 
age. These personages are supposed to have possessed extraordinary 
powers of body and mind, and distinguished merit is ascribed to them 
as having founded cities or countries, improved their manners and 
morals, or otherwise exalted or defended them. 

§ 1 19. Grateful sensibility to the merits of ancestors and progeni- 
tors was a most common cause of the sort of deification, with which 
these heroes were publicly honored after death ; and the disposition 
towards this grateful remembrance was quickened and sustained by 
oral traditions respecting their deeds, which were much adorned and 
exaggerated by the poets. Hence it came, that most of the heroes were 
at last viewed as sons of gods, and often of Jupiter himself. The 
veneration for the heroes was however less sacred, and less universal, 
than the worship of the gods. To the latter, important festivals were 
established, regular priests ordained, appropriate temples erected, and 
public solemn sacrifices offered. The heroes, on the other hand, re- 
ceived only an annual commemoration at their tombs or in the vicinity, 
when offerings and libations were presented to them. Sometimes, 
however, the respect paid them exceeded these limits, and they were 
exalted to the rank and honors of the gods. The introduction of 
solemnities in memory of heroes is ascribed to Cadmus. 

Cf. Virg. JEn. iii. 301.— Saltier, in the Hist, de l'Acad. des Inscr. T. iv. p. 299. 

§ 120. The heroes of the Greeks were of different ranks. Some 
were viewed as a sort of household deities, such as after their mortal 
existence watched over their families and friends and were honored 
and worshiped only by them. Others, whose services while they 
lived were of a more extended character, were worshiped by whole 
states and tribes, as demi-gods, and sometimes had their appropri- 
ate festivals and mysteries, and even temples and priests. To such 
was ascribed a more general superintendence of human affairs. It is 
the latter class that we are here to notice particularly, as they were 
the most illustrious, and their worship was not limited to the Greeks, 
but was adopted also among the Romans. Of these only the princi- 
pal can be mentioned, in doing which the order of time will be followed. 

§ 1.21. The Giants and Titans (§ 97) might correctly be ranked 
among the Heroes, and regarded as the most ancient. To the same 
class too belong Inachus, founder of the kingdom of Argos, his son 
Phoroneus, to whom various merits were ascribed, and Ogyges, a king 
of Baeotia, memorable from the flood which occurred in his reisrn. 



HEROES. PERSEUS. HERCULES. 381 

This rank also was enjoyed, especially among their respective people 
and tribes, by Cecrops, founder of the Attic state ; Deucalion, a Thessal- 
ian prince, who with his wife Pyrrha escaped the general flood that 
happened in his times ; Amphictyon, author of the celebrated council 
or confederation of the early Grecian states ; Cadmus, who came from 
Phoenicia to Greece, and contributed so much to enlighten and improve 
the people (P. I. § 34) ; Danaus, to whom the kingdom of Argos was 
indebted for its advancement ; Bellerophon, who was said to have de- 
stroyed the monster Chimsera, and to have performed other exploits ; 
Pelops king in Elis, from whom Peloponnesus took its name, as his 
descendants occupied that peninsula ; and the two princes of Crete by 
the name of Minos, one celebrated as a lawgiver, the other as a warrior. 

Some writers argue against the existence of two individuals by the name of 
Minos. See Hack's Kreta. Gotting. 1823. 3 vols. 8. 

§ 122. Perseus was one of the most distinguished of the early 
Heroes. He was the son of Jupiter and Danae, educated by Poly- 
dectes on the island Seriphus. His chief exploit was the destruction 
of the Gorgon Medusa, whose head he struck off with a sword given 
to him by Vulcan. From the blood, that fell, sprang the winged horse 
Pegasus, on which Perseus afterwards passed over many lands. Of 
his subsequent achievements, the most remarkable were his changing 
king Atlas into a high rock or mountain, by means of Medusa's 
head, and his deliverance of Andromeda, when bound and exposed to 
be devoured by the sea-monster. In connection with the latter adven- 
ture he also changed into stone Phineus, who contended with him for 
the possession of Andromeda. He inflicted the same afterwards upon 
Polydectes for ill treatment towards Danae. To Perseus is ascribed 
the invention of the discus or quoit, with which he inadvertently occa- 
sioned the death of his grandfather Acrisius. Finally he founded 
the kingdom of Mycenae. After his assassination by Megapenthes, he 
was placed among the constellations, and several temples were erected 
to him, besides a monument between Argos and Mycenae. 

Ov. Met. iv. 603. v. 1 — 350. The fables respecting Perseus are by some 

considered as a modification of the story of the Persian Mithras, and apiece of 
ancient sculpture on one of the gates of the citadel of Mycenae has been thought 
to confirm the analogy. — Creuzer, Symbolik. — GelL, Itinerary of Greece. 

§ 123. Of all the Grecian Heroes, no one obtained such celebrity 
as Hercules, son of Jupiter and Alcmena. Wonderful strength was 
ascribed to him even in his infantile years. Eurystheus king of My- 
cenae imposed upon him many difficult enterprises, which he ^carried 
through with success ; particularly those, which are called the twelve, 
labors of Hercules. These were, to kill the Nemasan lion, to destroy 



382 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

the Lernasan hydra, to catch alive the Stag with golden horns, to catch 
the Erymanthian boar, to cleanse the stables of Augias, to exterminate 
the birds of lake Stymphalis, to bring alive the wild bull of Crete, to 
seize the horses of Diomedes, to obtain the girdle of Hippolyta queen 
of the Amazons, to destroy the monster Geryon, to plunder the garden 
of Hesperides guarded by a sleepless dragon, and to bring from the 
infernal world the three headed dog Cerberus. 

These various exploits are often made the theme of description and allusion 
in the poets. The first is detailed in the 25th Idyl of Theocritus. — The twelve 
labors are described in 12 verses in the 3d Chiliad of Tzetzes (Cf. P. II. § 81). 

§ 124. Many other exploits were ascribed to him, by which he 
gave proof of his extraordinary strength, and exhibited himself as an 
avenger and deliverer of the oppressed. Such were, his slaying the 
robber Cacus, so much dreaded in Italy, the deliverance of Promethe- 
us bound to a rock, the killing of Busiris and Antaeus, the contest with 
Achelous, and the rescue of Alceste from the infernal world. Less 
honorable was his love of Omphale queen of Lydia, by which he sank 
into the most unworthy effeminacy. His last achievement was the de- 
struction of the centaur Nessus, whose tunic poisoned Avith blood 
Hercules received at the hands of Dejanira, and on putting it on he was 
thrown into such desperate madness, that he cast himself into the flames 
of a funeral pile on mount JEta. 

The worship of Hercules soon became universal, and temples were 
erected to his honor, numerous and magnificent. He received a great 
many surnames and epithets from his exploits and from the places of 
his worship. Hercules and his labors afforded the artists of ancient 
times abundant materials to exercise their ingenuity in devices, and 
they very often employed them. 

See for the principal representations of Hercules, Montfauc. Ant. expl. T. I. d1. 
123-141, and Ogle's Ant. exp. No. 31-40.— See also Laur. Begeri Hercules Eih- 
nicorum, ex. var, antiq. reliquiis delineatus. Col. March. 1705. M.—Heynii Not. 
ad Apollodor. p. 325.—/ Gurlitt's Fragment e. archaeol. Abhandl. ueb. Hercu- 
les. Magd. 1800.4.— PL Buttmarm,-aeber d.Mythosdes Herakles. Berl. 1810. 8.— 
Dupuis, Orig. de tousles cult. vol. 2.— Respecting the ancient writers on the My- 
thol. of Hercules, see Mueller's Hist, and Antiq. of Dor. Race. Oxf. 1830. vol. I. 
p. 523.— Among the various solutions of the storv of Hercules there is one, which 
very ingeniously applies the account of his twelve labors to the passage of the 
Sun through 12 signs of the Zodiac. A view of this is given in Anthon's Lem- 
pnere. 

§ 125. Theseus, a son of iEgeus and iEthra, or according to 
others a son of Neptune, was excited by the renown of Hercules, to 
engage in enterprizes the most hazardous, and he successfully accom- 
plished them. Among these was the extermination of a multitude of 
robbers and assassins, that infested Greece, and especially the destruc- 



HEROES. THESEUS. JASON. 383 

tion of the Minotaur a terrible monster of Crete, to which the Atheni- 
ans had previously been compelled to send seven male youth and as 
many young virgins annually to be devoured by him. By the help of 
Ariadne, a daughter of Minos, Theseus was enabled to trace the wind- 
ing of the labyrinth, in which the monster had his abode, and put him 
to death. Ariadne accompanied him on his return to Athens, but he 
ungratefully deserted her on the island of Naxos. 

§ 126. The other principal exploits of Theseus were his descent 
to the lower world with his friend Pirithous, his victory over the Ama- 
zons (§ 116), whose queen Hippolyta became his wife, and the assist- 
ance he gave Adrastus,king of Argos, against the Theban prince Creon. 
Great praise was awarded to him for improving the legislation and 
the whole morals of Athens and Attica ; and yet he was for sometime 
an exile. The manner of his death is variously related, but it seems 
by all accounts to have been caused by violence. — The honor paid to him 
was accompanied with unusual solemnities ; a superb temple was con- 
secrated to him at Athens, and a festival was established called Qrfaeia, 
held on the eighth day of every month, with games, and a regular 
sacrifice termed OySoSiov. Provision was made at the public expense 
to enable the poor to share in the festivities of this occasion. 

Cf. Pint, in Vit. Thes.—Diod. Sic. L. iv. c. 61.— Ov. Met. vii. 404. viii. 152. 
xii.2lO.—Mitford's Greece, Ch. 1. Sect. 3. 

§ 127. Jason and the Argonauts. One of the most celebrated en- 
terprizes of the heroic ages, one which forms a memorable epoch in 
the Grecian history, a sort of separation-point between the fabulous 
and the authentic, was the Argonautic expedition. This was a voyage 
from Greece to Colchis in order to obtain the golden fleece, conducted 
by Jason, the son of iEson, king of Thessaly. The undertaking 
was imposed upon him by his uncle Pelias. He invited the most il- 
lustrious heroes of Greece to unite in the expedition, and among those, 
who joined him, were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Peleus, Pirithous 
and Theseus. The vessel built for the purpose was named Argo, 
which after various adverse events arrived at jEa, the capital of Col- 
chis. iEetes was then king of Colchis, and promised to Jason the 
golden fleece only on certain most difficult conditions. 

§ 128. Although Jason fulfilled these conditions, yet iEetes was 
unwilling to permit him to take the desired booty, and sought to slay 
Jason and his companions. This purpose was betrayed by Medea, 
the king's daughter, by whose assistance and magical art Jason slew 
the dragon that guarded the fleece, and seized the treasure. He im- 



384 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

mediately fled accompanied by Medea, but was pursued by her father. 
Medea put to death her brother Absyrtus, cut his corpse into pieces 
and strewed them in the way, in order to stop her father's pur- 
suit. Jason was afterwards faithless to her, and married Creusa or, 
as others name her, Glauce, a daughter of Creon king of Corinth. 
Medea took vengeance by causing the death of Creusa and also 
of the children she had herself borne to Jason. After death Jason re- 
ceived the worship bestowed on heroes, and had a temple at Abdera. 

See the poems on the Argon. Exped. by Orplteus, Apollonius Rhodius, and Vale- 
rius Fluccus. (Cf. P. II. §§48,73.)— Banier, on the Argon. Exp. in Mem. del' Acad, 
des Inscr. T. IX, XII, XlV.—Heynii Not. ad. Apollodor. p. 177.— Various ex- 
planations have been put upon the story of the Argonauts. One writer thinks 
the golden fleece was the raw silk of the east. Hager, Pantheon Chinois.— An- 
other thinks the phrase arose from the habit of collecting gold, washed down 
down from the mountains, by putting sheepskins in the channel of the streams. 
—Mitford Ch. I. Sect. 3.— Bryant ( Anal. Anc. Myth.) considers the whole story 
as a tradition of the flood. 

§ 129. Castor and Pollux, who were among the Argonauts, 
were twin sons of Jupiter and Leda and brothers to Helena. On ac- 
count of their descent, they were called Dioscuri (Jwoxovqot), although 
according to some, Castor was son of Tyndarus, the husband of Leda. 
Castor distinguished himself in the management of horses, and Pollux 
in boxing and wrestling. The last exploit of the Dioscuri was their 
contest with Lynceus and his brother Idas. Castor was slain by Ly n- 
ceus, and Lynceus by Pollux, and as Idas was about to avenge the 
death of his brother, Jupiter smote him with lightning. 

Pollux obtained from Jupiter the honors of deification and im- 
mortality in conjunction with his brother Castor. Both were placed 
among the constellations and represented by the Gemini or Twins in 
the zodiac. Both the Greeks and the Romans consecrated temples to 
them, and they were especially invoked and worshiped by mariners. 

They were said to be placed among the marine gods, from having cleared the 
Hellespont and the neighboring seas from pirates. Theywere invoked as 'Ano- 
tqotioi, averters of evil; and white lambs were sacrificed to them. — The Romans 
honored them especially for services supposed to be received from them in press- 
ing dangers, as in the battle with the Latins near lake Regillus : they constantly 
swore by their names. The oath used by the women was JEcastor, or by the tem- 
ple of Castor ; that of the men was Mdepol, or by the temple of Pollux. 

The festival called Dioscuria (Stoay.ovQia) was in honor of these brothers, cele- 
brated especially by the Spartans. On this occasion the gifts of Bacchus were 
very freely shared. It was amidst the drinking at the feast in honor of Castor 
and Pollux, which Alexander held in Bactra, that he madly slew his devoted 
friend Cleitus. — This festival is supposed by some to have had the same origin 
as the famous mysteries of the Cabiri, which were celebrated particularly at 
Samothrace, and were thought to have great efficacy in protecting from ship- 
wreck and storms.— G. S. Faber, Mysteries of the Cabiri. Oxf. 1803. 2 vols. 8. 

§ 130. Heroes of the Theban War. In the early history of 
Greece, the war of Thebes, which is dated upwards of 1200 years 



HEROES. THOSE OF THE THEBAN WAR. PEL0PIDJ2. 385 

before Christ, is much celebrated. Without relating its incidents we 
shall here only name some of the principal heroes of the time. 
Among these were Eteocles and Polynices, the two sons of (Edipus, 
king of Thebes, whose own private story was so tragical. The war 
arose from the dissension of these brothers, who slew each other in a 
single combat, and were afterwards honored as demi-gods. Several 
famous chiefs, as Capaneus, Tydeus, Hippomedon, Parthenopceus, unit- 
ed with Adrastus, king of Argos and father-in-law of Polynices, to 
take part in the war. The events connected with it furnished the 
poets with matter for numerous tragedies. 

The second enterprize against Thebes, ten years later, was more 
fortunate in its issue, but less celebrated. It was undertaken by the 
sons and descendants of those slain in the first war, and was therefore 
termed the war of the 'Eniyovoi. The most illustrious of these were 
Alcmason, Thersander, Polydorus and Thesimenes. 

Pans. is. 25.—Apollod. i. 3.—Diod. iv.— Gillies, Hist. Greece. Ch. i. The 

Theban war was one of the favorite themes of ancient poets. Antimachus of 
Colophon, a Greek poet and contemporary with Choerilus (P. II. § 20), wrote a 
poem in 24 books on the subject ; the fragments of which were published by Schel- 
lenburg ( Antim. Fragm. Hal. 1786. 8.).— The poem of the Latin poet Statins is 
still extant. Cf. P. II. §326. 

§ 131. Whilst the Thebans and the Argives were the sport of fortune, Tan- 
talus and his descendants, the Tantalides, were equally afflicted by various mis- 
fortunes, occasioned by the impiety of this prince. Being of immortal descent, 
he was honored with a visit from the gods during an excursion they made upon 
earth. In order to prove the divinity and power of his guests, he served up 
among other meats the limbs of his son Pelops, whom he had cruelly murdered. 
The gods perceived his perfidious barbarity, and refused to touch the dish ; but 
Ceres, whom the recent loss of her daughter had rendered inattentive and mel- 
ancholy, ate one of the shoulders. In compassion to the fate of the young 
prince, Jupiter restored him to life ; and instead of the shoulder which Ceres 
had devoured substituted one of ivory, which possessed the property of healing 
by its touch all kinds of diseases. 

As a punishment for his cruelty, Tantalus was condemned in hell (§ 34) with 
an insatiable hunger and thirst iri the midst of abundance. — He had a daughter 
Niobe, who fell a sacrifice to her intolerable vanity. Having a great number of 
■children, she had the temerity to treat Latona, who had only two, with overbear- 
ing arrogance. Provoked at this insolence, Latona applied to Apollo and Diana, 
who f§ 38] destroyed all her boasted offspring except Chloris ; and Niobe was so 
■shocked at her misfortune, that she was changed into a rock. 

Pet.ops quitted Phrygia and repaired to Elis, where he became enamoured of 
Hippodamia, the daughter of king (Enomaus; but this Monarch, having been 
informed that he should perish by the hand of his son-in-law, determined to 
marry his daughter to him only who could outrun him in the chariot race ; and 
those who entered the list were to forfeit their lives if conquered. Undaunted 
at this condition, Pelops boldly undertook the combat, and to secure his success, 
he previously bribed Myrtilus the charioteer of CEnomaus, who disposed the 
axle-tree of the chariot in such a manner as to break it on the course ; and the 
unfortunate king being thrown to the ground, killed himself. CEnomaus thus 
left his kingdom and daughter to Pelops, who acquired great celebrity, and gave 
his name to the peninsula in the southern part of Greece. Pelops, after death, 
received divine honors. He had an altar in the grove Altis at Olympia and was 
much revered, even above other heroes (Pind. Olymp. i. 146. Pausan.v. 13). His 
descendants were called Pelopida. His two sons, Atreus and Thyestes, were 
celebrated for their mutual hatred and crimes. But his two grandsons, Aga- 
memnon and Menelaus, the Atridce, acquired a more honorable renown. 

49 



386 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. ' 

§ 132. Heroes of the Tro j an War. Of all the wars of Grecian 
story, none is more famous than that of Troy, which was the first mili- 
tary campaign of the Greeks out of the limits of their own country. 
The immediate occasion of it was the seizure of Helen, wife of Me- 
nelaus king of LacedaBmon, by Paris, son of Priam king of Troy. 
The siege continued, according to the common account, including the 
preparation and marches, ten years, with various successes and disas- 
ters, until at last the Greeks became masters of the city by stratagem. 
The chiefs, who were engaged in this enterprize, acquired the highest 
renown in Greece, and the poetry of Homer has secured their ever- 
lasting remembrance. The chief commander was Agamemnon, and 
the more illustrious of the heroes with him were Achilles, Ulysses, 
Diomedes, Menelaus, Ajax son of Telamon, and Ajax son of Oileus, 
Idomeneus and Nestor. On the side of the Trojans, Hector, JEneas 
and Antenor were among the most celebrated. 

Thewar of Troy was not more memorable in itself, than for its con- 
sequences. It gave a new spring to Grecian culture(P. I. §40). The 
arts of war were greatly improved. Numerous and important civil re- 
volutions took place in most of the states. But all this pertains to au- 
thentic history rather than to the mythic tales. 

See Mitford, Ch. i.Sect. 4. — Gillies, Ch. i. iii.— Alearned writer, Bryant, (in a 
Dissertation concerning the war of Troy, Lond. 1799. 4.) has maintained that 
the whole tale is mere fable, and that there never was any such war as the Trojan. 

§ 133. At a much later period, after the Roman imperial power was establish- 
ed, it became a regular custom to deify the deceased emperors, as has been al- 
ready mentioned (§ 94). This servile and impious adulation was first practised 
by the Asiatic Greeks towards the successors of Alexander. It was sometimes 
extended to the governors of provinces. The Roman senate made it their busi- 
ness by solemn decree to place every deceased emperor in the number of the gods, 
and the ceremonies of his Apotheosis were united with those of his funeral. 
But as the actions of each one were now faithfully recorded by history, it was 
impossible to connect with the deified name such fabulous and mysterious tales, 
as to give the divinities, thus established by law, much hold upon the popular 
feelings. The list of imperial demigods, therefore,is of comparatively little impor- 
tance in a view of the ancient mythology. This deification of the emperors, it is 
very likely, gave rise to the beatification of saints practiced by the Roman Cath- 
olics.— See Middleton's Letter from Rome. — Cf. Gibbon, Dec. and Fall. &c. Ch. 
iii.— Respecting the ceremonies attending the Apotheosis, see Consecratio, under 
Roman Antiquities, in P. IV. 



PART IV. 



GREEK AND ROMAN 



ANTIQUITIES. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 



Introduction. 

(j 1. Graecia is by some supposed to have derived its name from 
Graicus, a son of Thessalus, his descendants being called Graici, 
rqaixol. The Graici, however, were only a single tribe of the inhab- 
itants, some of whom planted themselves in Italy. The country orig- 
inally seems to have had no common name, comprehending properly 
all its tribes. Grsecia was a name used hy the Romans, not by the 
inhabitants themselves. It was called by them Hellas, from Hellen a 
son of Deucalion, and also Achaia, Pelasgia, Ionia ; and the people were 
called by the ancient writers Achaeans, Argivi, Danai, Hellenes, Pe- 
lasgians, and Ionians. These names of the country and the occu- 
pants, however, were not employed always in a uniform sense, but 
seem to have referred in their general application chiefly to the more 
important colonies or communities, which originally occupied and 
peopled the land. 

§ 2. Greece, in the most comprehensive sense of the term, was 
bounded on three sides by the Mediterranean sea, parts of which were 
distinguished by the names of iEgean, Cretan, Ionian, and Adriatic ; 
on the north it extended to Illyricum and Thrace. In a more limited 
sense it did not include Macedonia ; but contained, in the Peloponnesus, 
Sicyon, Argos, Laconia, Messenia, Elis, Arcadia, Achaia, and Corinth, 
and in Greece Proper, Attica, Megara, Bceotia, Locris, Doris, Phocis, 
iEtolia, Thessalia and Epirus. — Ionia and iEolia were Grecian colo- 
nies in Asia Minor. Greece is otherwise divided also, into the Pelo- 
ponnesus, Hellas, North Greece, and the Grecian islands. 

§ 3. It may be well to mention the principal cities, which were 
distinguished for their power and cultivation. These were Athens, in 
Attica; Sparta or Lacedsemon, in Laconia ; Argos, Mycenae, and Cor- 
inth, in the territory of Argolis ; Thebes, in Bceotia ; Megalopolis, in 
Arcadia ; in the colonies, Miletus and Ephesus in Ionia; Mitylene, 
Chios, Samos and Rhodus, in the islands near Asia Minor ; Byzanti- 
um on the Thracian coast : Corcyraon the island of that name; Ta- 



390 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

rentum, Sybaris, and Locri in Southern Italy ; Syracuse, Agrigentum, 
Gela and Leontium in Sicily ; Cyrene in Africa. In later times Alex- 
andria in Egypt, Antioch in Syria, and Seleucis in Chaldea on the Ti- 
gris, were considered as Grecian cities. 

§ 4. The form of government in Greece underwent, in the course 
of its history, three remarkable changes. In the earliest heroic ages, 
the several tribes or communities obeyed petty princes or chiefs of their 
own choice. Subsequently monarchies properly so called were estab- 
lished in Sicyon, Argos, Attica, Thebes, Arcadia, Thessaly, Corinth, 
Lacedsemon, Elis, iEtolia, iEgialea or Achaia. But the Greeks were 
in the most flourishing condition during the time of the two republics of 
Athens and Sparta. — The Achaean and Etolian league, the kingdom 
of Epirus, and the politicalconstitution of the Greeks in Asia Minor 
are also very valuable portions of the Grecian history. 

§ 5. The first inhabitants of Greece, who probably came from 
Thrace, and who were followed next by the Pelasgi (Cf. P. I. § 33) 
and the Hellenes, lived in a very rude state, without any commercial 
relations or even common laws. They practised upon each other con- 
stant robbery and violence, and were exposed to frequent attacks from 
the occupants of the neighboring islands. Colonies from Egypt, Phoeni- 
cia and Asia Minor, gave the first impulse to their culture, which was 
aided by the commencement of navigation. The famous Argonautic 
expedition was one of the most memorable exploits in the navigation 
of this early period, occurring about 80 years before the Trojan war. 
About 50 years before the same, the first formal state constitution was 
adopte , in Crete, under the direction Minos ; not Avith the perfection, 
however, which was secured at Athens, through the influence of Ce- 
crops, and after him Theseus. The people of Attica were the first to 
adopt a more peaceful, quiet and frugal mode of life ; and this exam- 
ple influenced the inhabitants of other regions to renounce their irreg- 
ular habits and predatory excursions. 

§ 6. Hereby was occasioned a more free intercourse between the 
different people of Greece, and a greater union in regard to objects of 
common interest, particularly in reference to murders and depredations. 
A proof of this was given by the fact of so many states joining to avenge 
the injury of Menelaus (committed against him by Paris in the seduc- 
tion of Helen) and carrying on together the war against Troy. This 
war became a means of the further advancement of Grecian culture, 
although it was also the occasion of many troubles and revolutions 
among the states at home, and thus led to the migration of many Greeks 



INTRODUCTION. 391 

to neighboring islands and to Asia. Finally they became weary of 
wars and tumult, began to love peace, law and social ease, and united in 
adopting public solemnities and religious rites, and maintaining social 
and civil order. 

§ 7. Hitherto the form of government had been chiefly of a mil- 
itary character ; the chieftain who commanded in war was the civil 
head of his people; but now a more monarchical form was assumed. 
Soon however the kings abused their power, and by their tyranny 
forced their subjects to throw off the yoke. Love of liberty then be- 
came the ruling passion of the Greeks, and the very name of king was 
odious. It was this spirit, which gave rise to a state of things, in which 
the Greeks attained an eminence surpassing all other nations. 
Through the mutual assistance rendered each other in acquiring inde- 
pendence, the jealousies and discords, which had previously reigned, 
were in great measure allayed. Amphictyon, third king of Athens, 
had united several of the states in a sort of confederacy (Cf. §105), 
and this compact afterwards became much more close and strong. An 
excess of population in this period of tranquillity and prosperity was 
prevented by sending out various colonies to Italy, Asia, and Africa. 

§ 8. Among the free states, Sparta or Lacedsmon enjoyed first the 
advantages of a rigid and at the same time salutary system of laws, 
which however in some particulars evinced the imperfect culture of 
the age. Lycurgus, B. C. about 820, the author of this code, had 
previously made himself acquainted with the manners and institutions of 
the Cretans and Egyptians. Without introducing any violent changes, 
or even abolishing in form the existing twofold regal office, he placed 
the relations of rulers, magistrates and people, in a new and improved 
attitude. His morals and precepts, which were in part very severe, 
tended, as did his whole political system, to form a brave, constant and 
warlike people, and thus cause them to be feared and respected. His 
design was accomplished, and Sparta acquired in these respects a high 
pre-eminence over the other states. 

See J. K. F. 31anso, Sparta, ein Versuch zur Erklaerung d. Geschicliteund Vcr- 
fassung dieses Staats. Leipz. 1800—1805. 3 Th. 8. 

§ 9. Next to Sparta, Athens became distinguished. Being ad- 
vanced in culture by the legislation of Solon, B. C. about 594, and 
subsequently acquiring glory and power from the defeat of the 
Persians at Marathon, she became more and more jealous of the su- 
periority of Sparta. This jealously led to mutual animosities and 
finally to the well known Peloponnesian war, which was carried on 
for eight and twenty years (from 431 to 4Q4 B. C.) between Athens and 



392 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Sparta, and in which almost all the other states of Greece took part 
on one side or the other. Sparta finally was triumphant, but her 
glory did not endure long after this. Athens rose far higher in politi- 
cal and literary character, and became the residence of refined man- 
ners, useful knowledge and cultivated taste in the arts. 

Wm. Young's Political History of Athens. — Trans, into Germ. Leipz. 1777. 8. — 
Athenian Letters, or the epistolary correspondence of an agent of the king of 
Persia, residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian war. Lond. 1799, 2 vols. 
8.— Trans, into Germ, by Jacobs, Leipz. 1800. 

§ 10. The progress and decline of culture in Greece has already 
been exhibited in the Archaeology of Literature (P. I. §§ 33ss, 6lss), 
and here it is only necessary to allude to the causes, which conspired 
to render Greece so eminent in this respect. Some of the causes were, 
besides the highly propitious climate of the land, its numerous popula- 
tion, whose very necessities as well as mutual emulation excited and 
fostered a spirit of activity and invention ; its enjoyment of an encour- 
aging and ennobling liberty ; its commercial intercourse, and the 
general prosperity which resulted. These, with other favorable cir- 
cumstances, raised the Greeks to a nation, which is even to the present 
day one of the most remarkable in history, and whose works in litera- 
ture and art are still valued as our best models. 

§11. Hence our diligent attention is properly bestowed on the 
antiquities of the Greeks, by which we become acquainted with their 
religious, civil, military, and domestic institutions and customs. The 
general utility of such knowledge, especially as an aid in the investi- 
gation of history, language, criticism, mythology, and art, commends 
the study of antiquities to every one, who engages at all in classical 
pursuits. It adds to the interest and value of Greek antiquities, that 
among all the various objects of knowledge, the language, literature, 
religion, history and whole genius of the Greeks hold so high a place 
in point of relative importance. Some acquaintance with what is de- 
nominated their antiquities is essential to enable us to enter much into 
these subjects, to comprehend well their spirit and character, or to 
contemplate the various monuments of their literature and art in a 
definite and correct view. 

On the utility of the study of classical antiquities, we would introduce the 
following remarks, abridged from Rollin (as cited P. III. § 5). — ' To a certain ex- 
tent, this study is indispensable for all who make pretentions to education. With- 
out it, there are a multitude of expressions, allusions and comparisons, which they 
cannot understand ; without it, it is scarcely possible to advance a step even in 
reading history, without being arrested by difficulties, which a tolerable knowl- 
edge of antiquity would readily solve. Like all other studies, when carried too 
far, it threatens with its dangers and its breakers. There is sometimes connected 
with it, a sort of learning, abstruse and badly conducted, which is occupied only 



INTRODUCTION. 393 

on questions equally vain and perplexing, which on every subject searches for 
that which is least known and most difficult to be comprehended. Seneca (de 
Brev. Vit. c. 14) more than once complains that this vitiated taste, which origin- 
ated with the Greeks, had passed over to ihe Romans. Juvenal also ridicules the 
corrupt taste of his contemporaries (L. iii. Sat. 7), who required that a preceptor 
should be able to reply without preparation to a thousand absurd and ridiculous 
questions. It is to know very little of the worth of time, and grossly to misap- 
ply one's talents and exertions, to occupy them in the study of things obscure 
and difficult and at the same time, as Cicero says [Off. L. i. n. 19], unnecessary 
and sometimes even vain and frivolous. Good sense will lead the student care- 
fully to shun this danger. He will remember the sentiment of duintilian (L, i. 
c. 8), that it is a foolish and pitiable vanity, which prides itself in knowing upon 
every subject all that inferior writers have said ; that such an occupation con- 
sumes unprofitably the time and strength, which ought to be reserved for better 
things ; and that of all the eminent qualifications of a good teacher, that of know- 
ing how to be ignorant of certain things is by no means the least. 

After these precautions, we cannot too highly recommend the study of anti- 
quities either to students or teachers. High attainments in this extensive and 
various learning ought to be the aim of every youth, who proposes to pursue im- 
portant studies himself, or to direct those of others. The extent or difficulty of 
the work should dishearten no one. By devoting every day a fixed portion of 
time to the reading of ancient authors, intellectual riches will be amassed little 
by little, which will afterwards be a source of astonishment even to the possessors 
themselves. It is only necessary to make the commencement, to employ time 
profitably, and to note down observations in order and with accuracy. 

Most of the topics connected with antiquities might be embraced under seven 
or eight heads, religion; political government; war, navigation; monuments, 
and public edifices; games, combats, shows; arts and sciences; the customs of 
common life, such as pertain to repasts, dress &c. Under each of these divis- 
ions are included many subdivisions. For example, under the head religion are 
comprised the gods, priests, temples, vases, furniture, instruments employed in 
different religious ceremonies, sacrifices, feasts, vows and oblations, oracles and 
omens; and so of the other heads.' 

§ 12. The sources of Greek antiquities are in part the classical 
writers, and especially the historians, more particularly such of them 
as give details of the whole constitution of Grecian society, the man- 
ners, customs, and modes of thinking and feeling. Among the clas- 
sical writers, the poets also must be considered as sources of informa- 
tion on this subject, especially the epic poets, whose narrations, not- 
withstanding their fictitious ornaments, have some truth for a basis, 
and whose representations give much insight into the character and 
views of the people of the times. But another important source is 
found in the remaining monuments of art ; inscriptions, coins, statues, 
bas-reliefs, gems, and vessels of various kinds. These, being sensible 
objects, give us a more distinct and complete conception of many points 
than could possibly be gained from mere verbal descriptions, and are, 
moreover, of great value as illustrations of beauty and taste. 

$ 13. Various modern writers have collected from these sources 
the scattered items of information, and arranged them methodically 
for the benefit of those, who wish to gain a knowledge of antiquities, 
and apply it in the study of Greek literature. Other writers have in- 
vestigated particular topics in a more full and extended manner. 

50 



394 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

For an account of works of both kinds, see J. A. Fabricii Bibliographia anti- 
quaria. (Stud, et op. P. Schaffshausen,) Hamb. 1760. 4. Cap'. II. — Nitsch's Be- 

schreibung des &c. which is cited below. (Th. i.p. 35). Krebs, Handbucb. 

der philol. Bucherkunde (Bd. ii. p. 211).— Cf. Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, Alien. 

The most important collection of particular treatises on Greek antiquities is 
Jac. Gronovii Thesaurus Antiquitatum Graecarum. Lug. Bat. 1697—1702. 
13 vols. fol. Ven. 1732. An account of the contents is given in the work of 
Fabricius, just cited. — A mass of valuable matter relating to various branches of 
Greek Antiquities, with illustrations taken from ancient monuments, is found in 
Montfaucon's Antiq. Expliq. cited P. Ill § 12, 2 [d]. An abridgement of this in 
German, by J. F. Roth, was published Nuernb. 1807. fol. with 150 plates. 

Among the best Manuals and Compends on the subject, are the following. — 
Everh. Feithii Antiquitatum Homericarum Libri iv. (ed. El. Stceber) Argent. 
1743. 8.— Jo. Phil. Pfeiffer, Libri iv. Antiq. Grscaruni. Lpz. 1708. 4.— Lamb. 
Bos, Antiq. Gragearum, prascipue Attiearum, Descriptio brevis, (with obs. of 

Leisner and Zeunius) Lpz. 1787. 8. (Eng. trans, by Stockdale) Lond. 1772. 8. 

Sig. Havercamp, Antiq. Graecarum, prascipue Attiearum, Descriptio brevis. Lug. 

Bat. 1740. 8. P. F. A. Nitsch, Beschreibung des hasuslichen, gottesdienstlich- 

en, sittliehen, politischen, kriegerischen nnd wissenschaftlichen Zustandes d. 
Griechen, &c. (fortgesetz von Hoepfner) Erf. 1791 — 1800. 3 vols. 8. with a 4th 

vol. by Kcepke, Erf. 1806. Nitsch. (same), Entwurf der Griech. Alterthuemer, 

Altehb. 1791. 8. Schaaffs Antiquitseten nnd Archasologie der Griechen und 

Roerner. Magdeb. 1820. 8. /. Robinson's Archasologia Graeca, or the Antiqui- 
ties of Greece, &c. Lond. 1827. 8. — J. Potter, Archseologia Graeca, or the Anti- 
quities of Greece. Oxf. 1699. 2 vols. 8. Same work, ed. G. Dunbar. Edinb. 1820. 
with additions and corrections by Anihon. Isew York, 1825. 8. — Same work in 
German, with additions by I. I. Rambach, Halle 1777 — 78. 3 vols. Cf. P. I. § 32. 
— A compendium of Grecian Antiquities by C. D. Cleveland. Bost. 1831. 12. 
— Abriss der Griech. nnd Rom. Alterthuemer, von Chr. Fried. Haacke. Stendal 
1821. 12 (very brief). 

The following are not designed for manuals, but contain highly interesting 
pictures of Grecian antiquity; J. Jac. Barihelenuj, Voyage du jeune Anacharsis 
en Grece. Ed. Stereot. Par. 1820. 7 vols. 12. Trans, by W. Beaumont. Lond. 1806. 
Cf. P. II. § 153.— In Germ, with notes by J. E. Blester, Berl. 1792. 7 vols. 8.— J. 
D. Hartmann's Versuch einer Kulturgeschichte der vornehmstem Volkerschaft- 
en Griechenlands. Lemgo 1796 and 1800. 2 Bde. 8. 

The following works also may be consulted with advantage on different points ; 
—Hill's Essays on the Institutions of the Greeks.— Boeck's Public Economy of 
of Athens.— Gillies' Discourse on the Manners of the Greeks.— Heeren's Politics 
of Anc. Greece, Tr. by G. Bancroft. Bost. 1824.— C. O. Mueller's History and 
Antiquities of the Doric Race. Tr. by H. Tvfnell and G. C. Lewis, Oxf. 1830. 
2 vols. 8.— We may add here, Win. Bruce, State of society in the age of Homer. 
Lardner's Cabinet Encyclop. No. 47 (On Arts, Manufactures, &c. of Greeks and 
Romans).-- Rougier, L' Agriculture Ancienne des Grecs. Par. 1830. 8.—D. G. 
Wait, Jewish, Oriental, and Classical Antiquities ; containing illustrations of 
the Scriptures and Classical Records, from Oriental sources. Camb. 1823. 8 (Cf. 
Home, Int. to stud. S. S. ii. p. 72*i).—Rollin's Anc. Hist. B. X. Best edition, N. 
York, 1835. 2 vols, large 8. 

§ 14. The subject of antiquities cannot be treated in so strict ac- 
cordance with chronological order, as the events of history, because 
the sources of information are not sufficiently minute. But still in 
describing the antiquities of a people, one should not lose sight of the 
influence, which political revolutions, the progress and decline of re- 
finement, and other circumstances, have exerted at successive times 
upon the constitution, manners, and whole national character and so- 
cial state. Most writers have been not sufficiently mindful of this, 
and have also confined themselves chiefly to the most flourishing of 
the Grecian states, viz. Athens, and so have described Attic, rather 
than Grecian antiquities. In order to avoid this double fault in the 



METHOD OF TREATING THE SUBJECT. 395 



present sketch, the antiquities of the earlier and less cultivated times 
will be distinguished from those of a later and more enlightened pe- 
riod ; and in speaking of the latter, although Athens was then the 
most important and most eminent, we shall also notice the constitution 
and peculiarities of the other principal states. 



I. — Of the earlier and less cultivated Ages. 

§ 15. It has been already suggested (§ 5, 10), that Greece advanced 
with very rapid step from a state of extreme rudeness in manners and 
morals to the highest degree of refinement. The history of this pro- 
gress may be divided into three distinct periods. The first extends 
from the original state of barbarism to the time of the Trojan war ; 
this was the period of the peopling of Greece : the second extends 
from the capture of Troy to the time of Solon, the period of the rise 
and formation of the Grecian constitutions and customs ; the third 
extends from the age of Solon to the time, when the Greeks lost their 
liberty by subjection to the Macedonians (Cf. P. II. § 9), the period of 
their greatest perfection and glory. 

Under the present head it is proposed to notice what pertains more 
particularly to the first and second of the above mentioned periods ; 
and the subject will be considered in four general branches, viz. reli- 
gious, civil, military, and domestic affairs. 

(1) Religious Affairs. 

§ 16. During the rude and unsettled state of society among the 
Greeks, their religion had no fixed or steady form ; yet a great part of 
the popular belief originated in these times, which on this account have 
been called the mythical ages or fabulous period. The formation of 
this early popular faith was aided by the general ignorance, the pre- 
dominance of sensual ideas, and the natural tendencies of the mind in 
an uncultivated state of society (P. III. § 5). With the progress of 
social and moral culture, the traditions and fables grew into a sort of 
system, which was retained as a religion of the people, and augmented 
and modified by additions from Egyptian and Phoenician mythology. 

According to common accounts, Greece received new and better 
religious notions from Thrace, by Orpheus, B. C. about 1250 (Cf. P- 
II. $ 12). They were however chiefly of Egyptian origin. The 
worship of animals the Greeks never adopted; but they embraced, 



396 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

in common with most of the ancient nations, the worship of the stars, 
that early form of idolatry. They also practiced the custom of deify- 
ing and worshiping men (P.I II. § 118), who were styled heroes, 
having distinguished themselves by making new discoveries, establish- 
ing useful laws, or performing renowned exploits. 

On the religious affairs of Greece, we may refer to J. G. Lakemacher, Antiqui- 
tates Grsecomrn saerss, Helmst. 1744. 8.— Chr. Brueningii, Compendium An- 
tiq. Grsee. e profanis sacrarurn. — Francof. 1759. 8. — Mitford, Hist. Greece, Ch. ii. 
Sect. 1. 

§ 17. Religious study and instruction among the early Greeks 
%vas the business of their wise men, lawgivers and poets, who were 
mostly at the same time priests. The matter of these was confined 
chiefly to the dogmas and narratives of the Theogony and Cosmogo- 
ny, which were of a mixed character, fabulous and allegorical, but 
based upon some real appearances in nature and man. The various 
operations of the powers of nature and the movements of human pas- 
sions were the principal foundation of the tales and doctrines of the 
mythology. The origin of things, their vicissitudes and transforma- 
tions, their nature, tendency and effects, Avere the subjects ; and these 
were by a lively fancy changed into supposed or imaginary persons, to 
whom words, actions, and appropriate attributes were ascribed. The 
regular combination or assemblage of these in order was called the 
Theogony, or account of the origin and descent of the gods. This 
constituted the whole theory of religion, which one of the most an- 
cient of the Greek poets, Hesiod, reduced to a sort of regular form in 
his poem styled the Theogony, and all the principal elements of 
which Homer interwove in his two epic poems, the Iliad and Odys- 
sey (Cf. P. §§50,51). 

§18. In the first ages the wise men, and especially the poets, 
made great exertions to imbue the minds of the people with reverence 
for the gods, and respect for their worship. On public solemnities 
and in great assemblies of the people, they were accustomed to adapt 
their songs to this object. Even when the subject of these songs was 
not the history of the gods, nor any point of direct religious instruc- 
tion, they were opened by a prayer to Jupiter, Apollo, or some inspir- 
ing deity. In this way they fixed and strengthened a prevailing faith 
in the power and providence of the gods, and formed the first ideas of 
right, virtue and morality, and of future rewards and punishments. 
The songs of these poets constituted at first the chief means and sub- 
ject of the instruction of the young. Hence arose on the one hand 
the great influence of their poetry on the moral culture of the Greeks, 
and on the other hand the great admiration in which the early poets 
were generally held. 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 397 

§ 19. For an account of the principal Grecian deities, their names, 
rank, history, attributes and mode of worship, we must refer to the 
portion of this work which treats of Mythology (P. III). Here we 
only remark, that the number of the Grecian gods constantly increased 
with the progress of time ; yet the highest and most distinguished of 
them were introduced and honored in the early ages, and it was chiefly 
in the class of heroes or demigods that this augmentation took place, 
after the lapse of the heroic ages, and by means of oral traditions. 
The more extensive the services of these heroes were while living, 
the more general was the reverence for them after death ; while those, 
whose beneficial influence had been confined chiefly to a particular city 
or tribe, were deified chiefly by the same, and received a less general 
homage and worship. 

§ 20. The sacred places, which were specially dedicated to the 
gods in these early ages, were in part, fields and grounds, whose pro- 
duce was devoted to uses connected with religious worship ; partly 
groves and particular trees, the former being commonly planted in a 
circular form ; and partly, at length, temples, which were viewed as the 
seats and habitations of their respective gods. The temples were usu- 
ally in the cities near the market or place of public business, although 
they were sometimes erected in the country, and in the consecrated 
groves. The ground, on which they stood, was usually elevated 
either by nature or art, and their entrance or front was commonly to- 
wards the east. Some of them were dedicated to a single deity, others 
to several. It was not uncommon to place the name of the god, to 
whom the temple was sacred, in a brief inscription over the entrance. 

§ 21. Originally the interior of the temple was entirely vacant, 
after the Egyptian manner, even without the image or statue of its god. 
And in the earliest times the image of a god, as has been already ob- 
served (P. I. § 157), was nothing but a mere stone, which served to rep- 
resent the deity, and to which offerings were brought. This was the 
primary origin of altars. By degrees, these stones came to be formed 
into a human shape, after which it was more common to place statues 
(dydlfiara) of the gods in their temples. The posture was sometimes 
standing, sometimes sitting. The material, at first employed, was of 
no great value, being stone, wood or clay. There were however, in 
the heroic ages, images of the gods of a more costly substance, such 
as ivory, brass, silver or gold, although Homer never exactly describes 
the material. 

$ 22. The care of the temples and holy things was entrusted to 
the priests and priestes-scs. The number of these varied in different 



398 6RBCIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

cases, and depended generally upon the rank of the deity, on whose 
temple and worship they attended. The marriage state was not for- 
bidden them, although it became afterwards customary to take priest- 
esses mostly from persons unmarried, who either were obliged to 
perpetual celibacy, or remained priestesses only until marriage. In 
some instances the priesthood was hereditary ; but in others it was 
adopted in free choice, or by lot. The residence of the priests was 
usually near the temple, or the consecrated grove, often within the lim- 
its of the latter. They derived their subsistence from what was offered 
to the gods, and were often in easy circumstances. Generally the office 
was highly honored in the early ages of Greece, and was held, in 
part at least, by the noblest and most distinguished personages, some- 
times even by kings. 

§ 23. Some of the principal rites and solemnities pertaining to the 
religious worship must here be mentioned. Among these were lustra- 
tions {y.ttduQfj,ol,dyvi(Tiioi), which consisted in the ablution of the body, 
and a certain purification of the clothes, and of sacred utensils. 
For this purpose salt water was used, which was taken from the sea, or 
prepared by a solution of salt in common water. Sulphur and fire 
were also used'on these occasions. These purifications were consider- 
ed as especially necessary for those, who were defiled by murder and 
blood, and even for the places where such crimes had happened. They 
were often ordered for the propitiation of offended deities. 

§ 24. But prayers and sacrifices were the most essential parts of 
Grecian worship. The former were put up especially, when some 
important enterprise or undertaking was commenced ; the object of 
the prayer being to secure a happy issue, in case of which very rich 
gifts were promised to the gods by the supplicant. Both prayers and 
vows were termed ev%di. In making them, the eyes and hands (often 
holding branches dallol, xlddot, ixtijqioi) were raised towards the heav- 
ens, or in the temples directed towards the images. The posture was 
sometimes standing, sometimes kneeling (yowdteodcu, y owners t>) ; 
the latter was used especially in case of earnest desire or peculiar dis- 
tress, and often by the whole assembly in common. 

With the prayers were usually joined the libations, or drink-offer- 
ings, anovddt, called also lorfdi, X odi. These consisted generally of 
wine, part of which was poured out in honor of the gods, and part of 
it drunk by the worshiper. The wine must be pure (axqazov), and 
offered m a full cup. Sometimes they were libations of water (vSgoa- 
novda), of honey (fielianovSa), of milk {yalamoanovSa), and of oil 
(slaioanovda). 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 399 

§ 25. The sacrifices, Svalat,, originally consisted merely of in- 
cense, -d-vog, or some sort of fragrant fumigation, by cedar, citron- 
wood, or the like. In very early times, the fruits of the earth, in a 
crude, unprepared state, were offered; and subsequently, cakes, ovlal, 
baked of coarse barley, or meal, mixed with salt. It was not until 
a somewhat later period, that the slaughter of living victims was in- 
troduced. These victims were selected with great care. At first, bul- 
locks, sheep, goats and swine, were chiefly taken for the purpose. Af- 
terwards certain animals became specially sacred as victims appropri- 
ate to particular gods. Sometimes a single victim was sacrificed, some- 
times several at once, which were often of the same kind of animal, 
and often also of different kinds. The hecatomb {ixajonGr}) properly 
consisted of a hundred bullocks, or oxen ; yet neither the numher nor 
kind of animals was very precisely regarded. 

§ 26. The altars (ftco/xoi), on which the sacrifices were presented, 
were erected not only in the temples, but often in open places, as on the 
banks of rivers, on mountains, in groves, and the like. 

' Throughout the whole of the Iliad no mention occurs of a temple in Greece, 
except in the second book, evidentl)' incidental, and the interpolation of some 
vainly patriotic Athenian rhapsodist. The passage indeed might be condemned, 
on the grounds of philological discussion, but it contradicts both the history of 
art and of religion in that country. In Troy, the temple of Minerva appears 
to have been a mere shrine, in which a statue was enclosed, and probably, in 
Tenedos, a temple of Apollo is merely alluded to. During the age of Homer, 
then, the primeval altar, common both to Europe and Asia, was the only sacred 
edifice known. This differed little from a common hearth ; the sacrifice being in 
fact a social rite, the victim, at once an offering to heaven, and the food of man, 
was prepared by roasting; the first improvement on their simple construction 
appears to have been the addition of a pavement, an obvious means of cleanliness 
and comfort. Yet even this appears to have constituted a distinction not common, 
since, in particular instances, the pavement is mentioned as a peculiar ornament. 
Subsequently, in order to mark in a more conspicuous manner, and with more 
dignity, the sacred spot, while the rites should be equally exposed to the spec- 
tators, an open colonnade was added, enclosing the altar and pavement. Thus 
the roofless temple might be said to be finished ; but whether this primeval struc- 
ture existed in his native country during the age of Homer, does not appear. 
We remark here a very striking resemblance between the ancient places of de- 
votion in Greece, and the Druidical temple of the more norther regions. In fact, 
the astonishing remains at Stonehenge present the best known, and perhaps one 
of the most stupendous examples ever erected of the open temple. This species 
of religious erection appears to have been co-extensive with the spread of the 
human race, and not, as generally supposed, limited to the northern portion of 
the globe.' — Memcs, Hist, of Sculpture, &c. p. 255. 

§ 27. Among the ceremonies connected with offering a sacrifice, 
was the previous washing of the hands (§ 67) and the sprinkling, by 
the priests, of those who were present, with sacred water (xeQviy). 
Then was placed upon the back and head of the victim, in early times, 
unground barley, in later times a number of small cakes (noTravu, ov- 
16% via), often meal mixed with honey, wine or oil ; a little hair torn 
from the forehead of the victim, was then thrown upon the fire; next 



400 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

followed the prayer and libation ($ 24) ; then the priest, or the *j}pv£, 
smote the animal on the head with an ax or club, and cut its throat 
with a sacrificial knife (acpayis). The blood was received in an ap- 
propriate vessel (oyayeZov). The victim was then flayed and cut in 
pieces. The next thing was to cover the haunches or thighs {firjgoi) 
with caul or fat {xvluori), and to take small pieces from other parts of 
the animal and place upon them (afiodsTsip). Upon the portions 
thus prepared, wine was commonly poured, and they were then pla- 
ced on the altar and burned. The rest of the victim was usually 
roasted on spits, and eaten at the sacrificial banquet. Banquets of this 
kind were made especially on the sacred festivals. 

§ 28. Besides the sacrifices properly called, it was common to 
bring to the gods other gifts and offerings (dtoga, dvad-q/iara). Among 
these were crowns or garlands (orecpavoq, ojecpog), with which the 
temples, altars and statues were often adorned, and which were form- 
ed of the leaf sacred to the particular god to whom it was offered, 
e. g. of ivy for Bacchus, of oak for Jupiter. Curtains and vestments 
^7t8Qi7isTaafittra, TTEQovrjfiaTci) wrought with rich embroidery were 
brought, and placed upon the statues or hung in the temples. Vessels 
of gold, silver and brass were also offered, and tripods (rgirrodeg) es- 
pecially to Apollo. The spoils of war were often thus consecrated, 
axgodivKx, with shields and arms. Frequently the articles dedicated 
to the gods were marked by inscriptions stating the occasion and cir- 
cumstances of their dedication. From the custom here described, 
arose the great riches of some of the Grecian temples. 

The temple of Apollo at Delphi, particularly, became in the course of years 
possessed of immense wealth. See Mil ford's Hist. Greece, Ch. 37. Sect. 1. Ch. 
38. Sect. 1. Ch. 39. Sect. 5.— Bancroft's Heeren. p. 201. 

§ 29. In addition to the worship rendered the gods, there was a 
worship of the heroes as demi-gods (§ 16), which however was nei- 
ther so general, nor attended with so much ceremony. These had no 
festivals, properly speaking, but an annual funeral solemnity {ivdyur- 
(ia), and were viewed as tutelary guardians of their country, tribe, or 
family. On these solemnities, the drink offerings {y.oai) were in com- 
mon practice ; not only wine was used for the purpose, but often milk 
and even blood. Sometimes victims were slain, and various offerings 
presented, and from these a trophy (rgonatov). or a funeral pile, was- 
constructed. In some cases, the first fruits of the season were offer- 
ed. The usual place of such solemnities was the tomb of the hero, 
in whose memory they were held, near which it was customary to 
erect an altar ; often also to make a pit, or hole {Sodgoc, Mxxo:), 
which had reference to their dwelling in the under-world. 



K1.LIGI0US AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 401 

$ 30. Funeral solemnities were generally a part of the religious 
usages of the more ancient Greeks. These commenced immediately 
on the death^of an individual, in the formal closing of his eyes (vvy- 
xXeieiv tov g 6g>dai.fiovg), a ceremony usually performed by the near- 
est kinsman. The corpse was then washed and anointed, clothed in 
a white linen pall and placed on a sort of bier [i-ixigov, cpeQergor). 
Around this the kindred and friends of the deceased raised the funeral 
lament, which was often expressed in song by persons employed for 
the occasion, and accompanied by mournful notes of the flute. The 
mourners also testified their sorrow by plucking off their hair, and 
casting it upon the corpse. These ceremonies were continued, not 
always the same length of time, sometimes three, sometimes seven 
days, and often a greater number. 

$ 31. The burning of the corpse was a custom peculiar to the 
Greeks, as the Egyptians and the Persians used to inter their dead. 
In the earliest times interring was practised by the Greeks, although 
Homer speaks only of burning. After the completion of the be- 
wailings just described, the corpse war borne on a bed or bier to the 
appointed place, where a funeral pile (nvgd) was erected. Near this, 
funeral sacrifices were slain. Upon the pile were placed various ob- 
jects, which had been particularly valued by the deceased, even ani- 
mals, and sometimes human beings previously put to death. During 
the burning, the attendants uttered their wailings and funeial chants. 
The flame was finally extinguished by pouring on some liquid, and 
the ashes or remaining bones were collected by the nearest relative, 
and deposited in an urn, which was buried in the earth. The place 
of interment was marked by stones and a mound (^w^a), on which 
was commonly raised a pillar (ottjXt]), or other monument, with an in- 
scription. The ceremonies were ended with a funeral repast (vexgo- 
dsinvov, neQidei7zvot>y Sometimes games were celebrated in honor of 
the deceased. 

§ 32. In speaking of the religious customs of the Greeks, we 
should notice their regard to oracles, and to divinations. The most 
ancient of the oracles was that of Dodona ; that of Delphi was still 
more celebrated, and also of early origin. The practice of divination 
and the interpreting of signs was a business of the priests in partic- 
ular. It was done, partly by observing accidental occurrences, as the 
flight of birds, "or the breaking of thunder, in both of which the right 
side indicated good fortune, the observer having his face directed to 
the north ; and partly by consulting the entrails of victims. Sneezing 
was regarded as a favorable prognostic. We may mention also the 

51 



402 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

prophetic interpretation of dreams, and the belief of the multitude in 
magic, and in bodily metamorphoses, which they supposed to afford 
various means of aid and protection. 

The religious festivals were numerous and attended with various 
ceremonies. — But on each of the topics mentioned in this section, we 
shall speak more particularly again (§§ 70 — 77). 

(2) Civil Affairs. 

$ 33. It has been already remarked ($ 5.), that the first inhabit- 
ants of Greece lived in a dispersed state, without civil culture or any 
social compact. The family relations, the authority of the parent over 
the child, of the husband over the wife, exhibited the only traces of 
government. Phoroneus, a son of Inachus, is mentioned as the first 
author of association for civil purposes. Gradually the Greek tribes 
began to select leaders, who were called kings (fiacrdeig), however 
limited might be the extent of their dominion or authority. The 
choice most generally fell upon such as had rendered to their tribe or 
country some 'distinguished and meritorious service ; and then the 
dignity became hereditary, a thing rather rare, however, in the ear- 
lier ages. Sometimes the choice was determined by consulting an 
oracle, and in such case the authority was viewed as the more right- 
ful, and as sanctioned by the gods. 

On the subject of the civil affairs of the early Greeks, we may refer to F. W. 
TiWmawi'sDarstellungdergriechisch. Staatsverfassungen. Leipz. 1822, 8. — Mil- 
ford,, Ch. ii. Sect. 2. Ch. iv. Sect. 4. 

§ 34. The kingly power, in the first ages, was far from being 
despotic, or unlimited; the leaders and princes being bound by cer- 
tain laws and usages. The principal duties of these chiefs were, 
to command in war, to settle disputes between the people, and tQ 
take care of the worship of the gods. Valor, love of justice and 
zeal for religion were therefore reckoned among their most important 
excellencies. For their honor and support, a portion of the lands 
was assigned, the cultivation of which they superintended themselves. 
Certain taxes or imposts were also paid to them, which were in- 
creased in time of war. The signs of their office were the sceptre 
and diadem. The former {(jui'iTnqov') was usually of wood, and in 
length not unlike the lance ; the latter (diddrjpa) was a sort of ban- 
deau or head-band, rather than a proper crown. The general cos- 
tume of these kings was distinguished by its richness, and was com- 
monly of a purple color. 

§ 35. The court and retinue of the first kings was very simple 



CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 403 

and unimposing. In war, they usually had hy their side a friend, 
who served as a kind of armor-bearer. Both in war and peace, 
they employed heralds (xj}Qvxsg) in the publication and execution of 
their orders. The heralds also imposed silence, when the chiefs 
wished to come forward and speak in an assembly. The same offi- 
cers assisted in religious ceremonies, and were present in the form- 
ing of treaties. — The kings also selected councillors, of the most 
distinguished, experienced and brave of the people ; and in cases of 
doubt or difficulty, held with them consultations and formal assem- 
blies, in which the speaker was accustomed to stand and the rest to 
sit. . Both public and private affairs were discussed in these assemblies. 

§ 36. The courts of justice were in public places ; and the whole 
assembly usually presented the form of a circle. The judges sat upon 
seats or benches of stone; the men selected for the office were such 
as were much respected on account of age and experience. They 
bore in their hand a sceptre or staff The cause was stated orally by 
the contending parties themselves, and by them the witnesses were 
brought forward. The kings or chiefs presided in these judicial as- 
semblies, sitting on an elevated seat or throne. For a period, equity 
and precedent or usage formed the basis of all decisions ; but after- 
wards the courts had for their guide particular laws and statutes, 
which were first introduced by Phoroneus, and more extensively by 
Cecrops. 

§ 37. As the laws in the more ancient times were few and simple, 
so were the punishments. But few crimes were made capital. 
Murder was commonly punished by banishment, either voluntarily 
sought by the murderer, or expressly decreed by public sentence ; its 
duration, however, was but a year, and even this could sometimes be 
commuted for a fine. The privileges of asylum belonged only to 
the author of accidental, unintentional homicide. Adultery was pun- 
ished severely, commonly with death. Robbery and theft were very 
frequent in the early times of Greece, and originally were not consid- 
ered as criminal, while the right of the stronger was admitted, espe- 
cially if shrewdness and cunning were united with the theft. Nothing 
therefore was aimed at but to recover what had been taken, or to in- 
flict vengeance by a corresponding injury. Afterwards, however, par- 
ticular punishments were imposed for these offences. 

§ 38. In as much as the inhabitants of Crete were connected with 
the Greeks by their having a common language, it is important to 
mention the Cretan laws, which were introduced by Minos. They 
are said to have been the most ancient written code, and were after- 



404 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

wards taken by Lycurgus as models. Military valor and union among 
the people seem to have been their great aim ; every ordinance of Mi- 
nos was directed to promote strength of body, and to cultivate social 
attachment between the members of the state. In order to impart 
greater dignity and authority to his laws, he brought them forward as 
having been revealed to him by Jupiter. But the moral culture was 
not greatly advanced by institutions having their primary and chief 
reference to a state of war. 

§ 39. In the progress of time, the form of government among the 
Greeks underwent many changes, and at length became wholly demo- 
cratic. The most celebrated of the states were Athens and Sparta. 
Of these in particular a few important circumstances respecting their 
government in the more early ages are here to be mentioned. 

Athens was originally governed by kings. The power of these 
kings was more unrestrained in war than in peace. After the death 
of Codrus (1068 B. C.),it became a free state. The chief authority 
was given to officers styled Archons, who ruled for life. Thirteen 
Archons of this description succeeded each other, all descended from 
the family of Codrus. After the time of these (752 B. C), the office 
of A rcn() n ceased to be for life, and was limited to ten years, and was 
held by a single person at a time. After a succession of seven Ar- 
chons of this kind, the office was made annual (684 B. C), and nine 
Archons were appointed to rule jointly, not all, however, of the same 
rank — The civil government experienced changes under Draco, 
and others still greater under the distinguished legislator Solon, and in 
after times. 

§ 40. Sparta was also originally governed by kings. Eurysthenes 
and Procles, the two sons of Aristodemus (one of the Heraclidae that 
invaded Peloponnesus) reigned jointly, but not harmoniously. Under 
their descendants the kingly office lost much of its authority. Lycur- 
gus, the famous Spartan lawgiver, changed greatly the form of gov- 
ernment ; it did not become democratical, neither was it, properly 
speaking, aristocratical. Two kings remained at the head, and a sen- 
ate was established consisting of 28 men, who were above 60 years of 
age. There was also the body of 5 Ephori, appointed annually. 
The people themselves likewise had some share in the administration 
of the state. Notwithstanding many internal divisions and disturb- 
ances, this state enjoyed a long period of comparative Test and liberty. 
This it owed very much to the wise regulations of Lycurgus, the salu- 
tary influence of which was aided by the limited territory and moder- 
ate population of Lacedeemon. 



MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 405 

§ 41. One of the most effectual means of advancing the Greeks 
was their commerce and the navigation connected with it. In the ear- 
liest times, commerce consisted chiefly in barter and reciprocal exchan- 
ges of native products, the use of gold not being introduced. After- 
wards pieces of metal of different values were employed. Navigation 
became more common after the Trojan war, and iEgina first turned 
it to the advantage of commerce. Corinth and Rhodes became most 
distinguished in this respect. The commerce of Athens finally be- 
came something considerable; that of Lacedasmon on the other hand 
always remained comparatively unimportant. — On the whole, it is 
worthy of remark, that the extension of commerce and maritime inter- 
course had an important influence upon the civil and moral culture of 
the Grecian states. Cf. P. L § 40. 

' Commerce, in the Homeric age, appears to have been principally in the hands 
of the Phenicians. The carrying trade of the Mediterranean was early theirs, 
and Sidon was the great seat of manufacture. The Greeks were not without 
traffic carried on by sea among themselves; but the profession of merchant had 
evidently not in Homer's time that honorable estimation which yet, according to 
Plutarch, it acquired at an early period in Greece. While it was thought not un- 
becoming a prince to be a carpenter to supply his own wants or luxuries, to be a 
merchant for gain was held but as a mean employment : a pirate was a more re- 
spected character. 

Navigation had been much practised, long before Homer, in small open ves- 
sels, nearly such as are still common in the Mediterranean ; and the poet gives no 
hint of any late advancement of the art. The seas, indeed, which nearly sur- 
round Greece, are singularly adverse to improvements upon that vast scale which 
oceans require, and which modern times have produced. Broken by innumera- 
ble headlands and islands, with coasts mostly mountainous, and in some parts of 
extraordinary height, the Grecian seas are beyond others subject to sudden and 
violent storms. These united circumstances, which have made the Greeks of 
all ages excellent boatmen, have contributed much to prevent them from becom- 
ing seamen. The skill and experience of the pilot, in the modem sense of the 
term, are constantly wanted; the science of the navigator is of little avail ; even 
the compass is comparatively useless in the iEgean. The Mediterranean vessels 
now, not excepting the French, which are mostly navigated by Mediterranean 
sailors, never keep the sea there but with a fair wind. The English alone accus- 
customedin all their surrounding waters, to a bolder navigation, commonly ven- 
ture in the Archipelago to work to windward. Sails were used in fair winds in 
Homer's time ; but the art of sailing was extremely imperfect. The mariner's 
dependence was his oars, which no vessel was without. For in seas so landlock- 
ed, yet so tempestuous, the greatest danger was to the stoutest ship. Light ves- 
sels, which with their oars could creep along the coast, watch the weather, make 
way in calms, and, on any threatning appearance, find shelter in shoal water, or 
upon an open beach, were what Grecian navigation peculiarly required. The 
Pheiucians, for their commerce, used deeper ships, accomodated to their more 
open seas and longer voyages.' Mitford. 



(3) Military Affairs. 

§ 42. Military prowess was esteemed by the early Greeks as of 
the greatest merit, and was therefore an object of universal ambition. 
The first inhabitants were distinguished for their warlike inclinations 
and habits of life, although their wars were conducted without much 



406 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

method or discipline. They were constantly in arms, not only to de- 
fend themselves and their property, hut to attack and plunder others. 
Thus they perpetrated violence, murder and devastation in the ex- 
treme. It needed hut a trifling occasion to excite a general, long, and 
Woody war ; the siege of Troy furnishes a striking example. In such 
cases, several chiefs and people, sometimes of very distant provinces, 
united as in a common cause. 

On Grecian military aflairs, see I. T. H. Nast's Einleitung in die griechischen 
Kriegsalterthuemer. Stuttg. 1780. 8. a valuable work on the general subject. — 
Also G. G. S. Kapke, ueber das Kriegsweisen der Griechen im heroischen Zeital- 
ter &c. Berl. 1807. 8.—Mitford's Hist. Ch. ii. Sect. 3. 4. 

§ 43. The Grecian armies consisted, partly of footsoldiers and in 
later times of horsemen, partly of such as were home in chariots. The 
footsoldiers were distinguished as light armed (yddi) and heavy armed 
(onUrai). The Thessalians were early and especially celebrated for 
their cavalry (mnetg). Still more ancient was the use of war ehari- 
ots, which were employed by the heroes of Homer. Two horses, | 
sometimes three, were attached to these chariots ; each contained two 
warriors, one of whom guided the horses (tfvioxog), while the other 
pointed out the direction (7tagai6dTi]g), discharged arrows, hurled 
missiles from a sling, or fought with short arms, and when the action 
was close sprang from the chariot (dicpgog). Notwithstanding the 
inconvenience of the vehicles in battle, they were in use for a long 
time, before cavalry came to be generally substituted in their place. 

§ 44- The weapons of the Greek warriors were of two kinds, 
defensive and offensive. Among the former [dle^rrigta, ngofilri/uaja), 
was the helmet (xwq, xgdvog, TiegixeyaXaia, xogvg) made of hide or 
leather and adorned with a crest of hair or tufts of feathers (qidlog, 
Xoyog), and attached to the neck by a strap (d^eu;) ; — the breast-plate, 
(duga$) commonly made of brass, sometimes of leather or linen; — 
the girdle (toW/), mostly of brass and encirling the lower part of the 
body ; — the greaves (y.vr] t uideg) of brass or some more precious metal ; 
— and the shield (danig) usually round, made of bullock's hide, and 
used for the protection of the whole body (Cf. § 139). The shield 
was often adorned with figures, but not as much so as Hesiod repre- 
sents the shield of Hercules to have been, and Homer that of Achilles. 

Homer's description of the shield of Achilles (II. xviii. 478) is considered as 
one of the finest passages in the Iliad. A delineation and model of the shield 
was formed by the celebrated artist, Flaxman, and several casts were made in 
silver gilt, bronze and plaster. Cf. Felton's Iliad, Notes. 

$ 45. The offensive weapons were, the spear (86gv) commonly 
made of the ash-tree (/jsliij), and of different lengths and forms ac- 



MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 407 

cording as it was designed for combat more or less close ; — the sword 
(Zicpog), the belt of which hung from the shoulders ; — the bow (xo£ov) 
usually of wood, with a string (vevqov) of twisted horse-hair or of 
hide ; — the arrows (pely diaxd) of light-wood, pointed with iron, and 
winged {meqoEig iog) with feathers; — the javelin (dxovxiov) of vari- 
ous lengths and forms ; — and the sling {ocpEvdovrf) of an oval shape, 
with two leathern strings attached to its ends, by means of which ar- 
rows, stones and leaden balls (fiolvfidwai) were hurled against the foe. 

The spear used for close combat was called 56qv oqixt'ov ; that for a distance 
7ra).Tl)v; the point, termed aixfilj, was always of metal. JovQoSoxtj was the 
name given to the box or case, in which the spears were deposited when not in use. 

§ 46. Most of the weapons of the ancient Greeks were made of 
brass or copper, which seems to have been used earlier than iron, (P. I. 
§ 10) and was often used after the introduction of iron. For defensive 
armor iron was afterwards generally preferred. For the cuirass or 
breast-plate, the greaves and the shield, tin or lead was sometimes 
used. To adorn the weapons with gold was considered as too extrava- 
gant and ostentatious. Yet they endeavored to give their armor the 
highest degree of brightness, not only for the sake of beauty, but to 
inspire fear in the enemy. On the shield they had a sort of field-badge, 
or military emblem, usually in bas-relief, the image of some god, or 
animal, especially the lion. The horses also were ornamented with 
much care. 

Respecting the military apparel little is ascertained. Lycurgus directed the 
Lacedaemonians to clothe their soldiers in scarlet. — The Greek soldiers usually 
carried their own provisions, consisting chiefly of salt meat, cheese, olives, on- 
ions &c. For this purpose each one had a vessel made of wicker with a long 
neck, called yv/.iov. Robinson, p. 3-19. 

& 47. In connection with the affairs of war, it is proper to notice 
the use of ships or vessels, which the Greeks in early times employed 
partly in piracy, partly in transporting armies, and partly in actual 
combat. In later times the naval battles of the Greeks were frequent 
and celebrated. Their first ships were long (/jaxgdi,), and moved by 
oars. The number of rowers was various, often very considerable. 
Originally there was but a single rank on each side ; afterwards, as 
the ship was built higher, another rank of rowers was added ; vessels 
of the latter kind were called dlxqoxa, those of the former fiovoxgoxa, 
also (iot>r[Qeig, xiXyxsg. At a later period they were built with three 
tiers or ranks, xgir^Big, which continued to be the most common form, 
although there were vessels with four, five and six tiers, and sometimes 
even more. 

It was early customary to place upon ships certain images and 
signs, from which they were named. The ship commonly bore the 



408 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

image or statue of some god, to whose protection it was especially- 
entrusted. In the capture of a vessel, the first object of a victor was 
to plunder this image, and place it as a trophy in his own ship. 

§ 48. The Greeks early practiced in war the forming of regular 
camps. Their compass and extent were such as not only to include 
the whole army, but also the ships, which after the landing of the 
troops were drawn upon the dry land. It was customary to surround 
the camp with a wall or ramparts with towers and breast-works. Be- 
fore the wall was a fosse or ditch, guarded with pointed stakes. For 
the principal officers separate tents were erected, of wooden frames, 
covered with skins. During the night, sentinels were stationed on 
guard, and beacon fires were kindled. Spies and scouts were sent out 
from both parties, when hostile camps were placed against each other. 

' Tents like those now in use seem to have been a late invention. The ancients, 
on desultory expeditions and in marching through a country, slept with no shel- 
ter but their cloaks, as our light troops often carry none but a blanket ; when 
they remained long on a spot they hutted. Achilles' tent or hut was built of fir, 
and thatched with reeds ; and it seems to have had several apartments. (II. xxiv. 
488. ix. 659).' Mitford. 

§ 49. The order of battle was either to place the war chariots in 
front, and the infantry in the rear, or to give the latter the front, and 
support them by the chariots from behind. The whole army was 
drawn into close aray, although arranged in distinct divisions. On 
the commencement of battle they implored the aid of the gods, and 
made vows of grateful returns. Then the generals exhorted the sol- 
diers to valor, and proceeded to set an example. The onset was usu- 
ally accompanied with loud shouting and clamor to inspirit each other 
and intimidate the foe. The wounded were healed with care, having 
nursing and medicine ; but the slain of the enemy were left unburied, 
or their corpses even exposed to insult, unless their burial was agreed 
upon in some express stipulation. 

$ 50. The spoils taken in battle consisted partly of arms, which 
the captor either appropriated to his own use, or dedicated to the gods, 
and partly in other utensils and precious articles, which, together with 
their owners, became the property of the victor. By means of a 
ransom however, the spoils, as well as the prisoners, could be redeem- 
ed. After battle, the remaining booty was often divided among the 
soldiers by lot ; the general, however, always received his portion 
first and without lot. Those, who had distinguished themselves by 
valor, also received prizes and rewards, by the promises of which, 
the generals often stimulated their troops before the action. 

' We find that, so early as Homer's time, the Greeks had improved considera- 
bly upon that tumultuary warfare alone known to many barbarous nations, who 



MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 409 

yet have prided themselves in the practice of war for successive centuries. 
Several terms used by the poet, together with his description of marches, indicate 
that orders of battle were in his time regularly formed in ranks and files. Stea- 
diness in the soldier, that foundation of all those powers which distinguish an 
army from a mob, and which to this day forms the highest praise of the best 
troops, we find in great perfection in the Iliad. " The Grecian phalanges," says 
the poet (iv. 427), " marched in close order, the leaders directing each his own 
band. The rest were mute : insomuch that you would say in so great a multi- 
tude there was no voice. Such was the silence with which they respectively 
watched for the word of command from their officers." 

' Considering the deficiency of iron, the Grecian troops appear to have been 
very well armed, both for offence and defence. Their defensive armor consisted 
of a helmet, a breastplate, and greaves, all of brass, and a shield, commonly of 
bull's hide, but often strengthened with brass. The breastplate appears to have 
met the belt , which was a considerable defence to the belly and groin : and with 
an appendant skirt guarded also the thighs. All together covered the forepart of 
the soldier from the throat to the ancle ; and the shield was a superadded protec- 
tion for every part. The bulk of the Grecian troops were infantry thus heavily 
armed, and formed in close order, many ranks deep. Anybody, formed in ranks 
and files, close and deep, without regard to a specific number of either ranks or 
files, was generally termed a phalanx (II. iv. 332. vi. 83). But the Locrians, 
under (Mean Ajax, were all light-armed ; bows were their principal weapons, 
and they never engaged in close fight (dyxh ia X 01 )- 

' Riding on horseback was yet little practised, though it appears to have been 
not unknown (II. xiii. 722). Some centuries, however, passed before it was gener- 
ally applied in Greece to military purposes ; the mountainous ruggedness of the 
country prevented any extensive use of cavalry, except among the Thessalians, 
whose territory was a large plain. But in the Homeric armies no chief was 
without his chariot, drawn generally by two, sometimes by three horses; and 
these chariots of war make a principal figure in Homer's battles. Nestor, form- 
ing the army for action, composes the first line of chariots only. In the second 
he places that part of the infantry, in which he has least confidence ; and then 
forms a third line, or reserve, of the most approved troops. 

'The combat of the chiefs, so repeatedly described by Homer, advancing 
to engage singly in front of their line of battle, is apt to strike a modern 
reader with an appearnce of absurdity perhaps much beyond the reality. Be- 
fore the use of fire-arms that practice was not uncommon, when the art of war 
was at the greatest perfection. Ccesar himself gives (De Bell. Gall. v. 43.), with 
evident satisfaction, a very particular account of a remarkable advanced combat, 
in which, not generals indeed, but two centurions of his army engaged. The 
Grecian chiefs of the heroic age, like the knights of the times of chivalry, had 
armor probably superior to that of the common soldiers; and this, with the 
additional advantage of superior skill, acquired by assiduous practice amid un- 
bounded leisure, would make this skirmishing much less dangerous than on first 
consideration it may appear.' —Mitford, Ch. ii. Sect. 3. 

' Another practice common in Homer's time is by no means equally defensible, 
but on the contrary marks great barbarism; that of stopping in the heat of action 
to strip the slain. Often this paltry passion for possessing the spoil of the enemy 
superseded all other, even the most important and most deeply interesting objects 
of battle. The poet himself (II. v. 48. vi. 67.) was not unaware of the danger 
and inconvenience of the practice, and seems even to have aimed at a reforma- 
tion of il. We find, indeed, in Homer's warfare, a remarkable mixture ol bar- 
barism with regularity. Though the art of forming an army in phalanx was 
known and commonly practiced, yet the business of a general, in directing its 
operations, was lost in the passion, or we may call it fashion, of the great men to 
signalize themselves by acts of personal courage and skill in arms. Achilles 
ami Hector, the first heroes of the Iliad (xviii. 106. 252.), excel only in the char- 
acter of fighting soldiers : as generals and directors of the war, they are interior 
to many. Indeed, while the fate of the battles depended so much on the skir- 
mishing of the chiefs, we cannot wonder that the prejudice should obtain which 
set the able arm, in vulgar estimation, above the able head. But the poet obvi- 
ouslv means to expose the absurdity and mischievous consequences ot that prej- 
udice, where he makes Hector (II. xxii. 99.), in a late repentance, acknowledge 
the superior abilities of Polydamas. Yet Homer's own idea of the duties oi an 

52 



410 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

officer, though he possessed very extensive and very accurate knowledge both 
of the theory and practice of war of his own age, was still very imperfect.' — lb. 

§ 51. At the end of war the conquered party either submitted 
wholly to the dominion and laws of the conqueror, or a peace was 
made upon certain conditions. This was effected through legates, 
fully commissioned for the purpose. In forming a treaty of peace, 
various ceremonies were observed, partly of a religious character. A 
victim was slain, of which however no meal was made, but its flesh 
was cast aside ; libations were poured out ; the parties joined hands 
in pledge of good faith and called upon the gods as witnesses of their 
covenant, and as avengers of its violation, especially upon Jupiter, 
whose thunderbolts were an object of terror to the perjured. The 
restoration of plunder was generally a preliminary requisition ; and 
the conquered party was often compelled to pay a sum of money as a 
fine or indemnification. — Sometimes the whole war was terminated 
by a single combat, the parties agreeing to abide by its issue. 



(4) Domestic Affairs. 

§ 52. Since social life was but gradually introduced in Greece, it 
is not to be expected, that the earliest ages should exhibit much refine- 
ment in what pertains to domestic affairs. During the heroic ages 
their mode of living was nearly as rude as their morals. Their 
principal meat was the flesh of cattle, sheep, swine, goats, and deer, 
which they were accustomed to roast. The flesh of birds and fish 
was more seldom used. The most common food was milk, fruit and 
vegetables. The first and most common drink was water ; wine, 
however, was in frequent use ; but, generally, mingled with water. 
Large drinking-vessels were employed at their repasts. Ordinarily 
they had two meals a day, at mid-day and evening, and in the earlier 
times it was the Greek custom to sit at table, not to recline. The 
number of persons at one table was seldom greater than ten. It was 
a proverb, ascribed to Theognis (P. II. § 31), that the persons at aso- 
cial repast should not be less in number than the Graces, nor more 
than the Muses. 

' Homer mentions three different sorts of seats; (1) dtyoo?, which contained 
two persons, commonly placed for those of mean rank; (2) Soovog, on which 
they sat upright having under their feet a footstool termed %;»■«? ; (3) xlia/tog, 
on which they sat leaning a little backwards.' Robinson.— The Roman Varro is 
said to have enjoined the rule above noticed, respecting the proper number at a 
repast (Gell.ziii. 11). Adam. 

§ 53. Social repasts or banquets were often held, being occasioned 
by public solemnities, festivals, religious celebrations, marriages and 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 411 

the like. Sometimes they were made at the common expense of the 
guests {eqavog, cf. Odyss.i. 226); such entertainments were, however, 
viewed as of inferior rank. The feasts upon victims offered in sacri- 
fice have been mentioned (§ 27). 

At table the guests sat according to a definite order. The begin- 
ning was made by washing the hands. In early times a separate 
board was placed for each guest, and his portion of food thus divided 
to him. Wine was brought by youthful attendants, and the guests 
often drank to each other, and reciprocally exchanged cups. They 
endeavored to heighten the joys of the banquet by conversation and 
wit, and also by songs and instrumental music. 

§ 54. The dress of the early Greeks was longer, and more ample, 
and more completely covered the body, than that of later times. Next 
to the body they wore a long robe or frock (^noiv), which was kept in 
place by a girdle, and over this a cloak (ylaiva) of thicker materials, 
to protect against the cold. Instead of the latter they sometimes had 
a mantle (cpagog). The women wore also long cloaks or over-gar- 
ments, called nenlov, often richly embroidered and ornamented. They 
likewise covered their heads, while the men seem not to have done it 
in the earlier ages, except that they wore helmets in war. Shoes or 
socks were not used constantly, but only in going out. In war the 
men wore a sort of boot or greaves (§ 44). 

§ 55. For the sake of cleanliness and of bodily strength, the early 
Greeks practiced frequent bathing, and with it united the custom of 
anointing. In bathing they made much use of the sea-water, on ac- 
count of its purifying and strengthening properties. They also had 
warm baths in their houses. After taking the bath they anointed the 
body with oil ; costly ointments expressly prepared for the purpose 
were of later invention. They cultivated in every way the growth of 
the hair, long hair being considered as essential to personal beauty 
and dignity. The color most esteemed Avas yellowish or light brown. 
They were also pleased with frizzled or curled locks, and employed 
artificial means to secure such forms to their hair. 

§ 56. Of the real architecture and arrangement of Greek houses 
in the earlier periods, we do not get an accurate view from the descrip- 
tions of Homer, which aside from their poetical character, relate only 
to the palaces or dwellings of distinguished personages. (Cf. P. I. § 
232.) Respecting these we may remark, that they were ordinarily 
surrounded by some kind of a wall, not very high ; between the 
wall and the house itself was the fore court, in which an altar usu- 



412 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

ally stood. Then followed a colonnade, a vestibule, and the main build- 
ding or house, often highly ornamented without and within ; although 
the art of building at this time had not reached by far the perfection, 
which Greek architecture afterwards attained. In the upper part of 
the house was the dining-hall, the sleeping-room, and the women's 
apartment. The roofs were fiat, as in oriental countries, and often 
served as places of resort both by day and by night. 

§ 57. The Greeks cheerfully received to their houses the stranger, 
and the needy, and the rights of hospitality were held sacred among 
them. Jupiter himself was considered as the god and rewarder of 
hospitality, and the avenger of all violations of its laws, and on that 
account was styled Ssviog (P. III. § 25). They had no public inns, 
but travelers found reception with those, who stood related to them 
by ties of hospitality. This relation existed not only between partic- 
ular persons, but also between whole cities and communities. Kings 
and distinguished persons exercised hospitality towards each other by 
a sort of common understanding. The external tokens of a welcome 
reception of guests were joining hands and embracing with a kiss. 
Sometimes this was accompanied with offering the bath and unction. 
On separating, it was common to unite in a friendly repast, and renew 
their pledge of mutual friendship over the wine. Valued gifts were 
sometimes bestowed on the departing guest. 

§ 58. In speaking of the occupations of the Greeks, agriculture 
may be first mentioned. This was their most common pursuit and 
means of living. The boundaries of the fields were marked by stones, 
which served to guard the cultivators against mutual encroachments. 
The culture of the vine and of trees was also an object of attention. 
The raising of cattle was a common employment, and a principal 
source of wealth. These employments were not considered in any 
way degrading or ignoble, but were exercised by persons of eminence 
and even by princes. The hunting of wild beasts should also be men- 
tioned here, as practiced in order to secure the flocks and the fields 
from depredation. In the chase they made use of various weapons, as 
the bow and arrow, and the spear, with the help of the dog. Fowling 
and fishing were likewise a frequent employment. 

§ 59. The employments of women consisted partly in care of the 
household, partly in spinning, weaving and needle-work, not only for 
their own clothing, but for that of the men also. Grinding, baking, 
cooking and washing were performed by the women. In general the 
female sex among the Greeks was in a state of great, although not 
slavish subjection to the male. There was comparatively little inter- 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 313 

course between the sexes. The women lived chiefly by themselves 
in the apartment assigned to them, the rvvaucuv or rwaixeiov, which 
was in the interior or upper part of the house. Seldom were they al- 
lowed to go abroad. In later times this close discipline and confine- 
ment remained in force, and women shared even less than previously 
in the business andpleasures of men. 

R. G. Lenz, Geschichte der Weiber im heroischen Zeitalter. Hanov. 1790. S. 

§ 60. Among the most common amusements of the Greeks were 
music and dancing. The former consisted of vocal and instrumental 
which were always united, and it was designed for instruction as well 
as gratification. Hence music, although in a more extended sense of 
the term (P. I. § 64), was an essential object in education. The lyre 
was the stringed instrument the most in use, and of wind instruments 
the flute was the most common. The former enjoyed the preference, 
because it was more easily accommodated to song, and also left the 
performer at liberty to use his voice. 

The subjects of song were chiefly mythical or historical. Music 
was most generally used at banquets and religious festivals, which 
were also the most common occasions of dancing. With dancing it 
was customary to join various sports and exercises of the body, as leap- 
ing, running, riding, wrestling, and the like. 

§ 61. Marriage and nuptial ceremonies are to be noticed in con- 
nection with the domestic affairs of the Greeks. The dowry of the 
daughter was usually given by the father. It consisted of female or- 
naments, a portion of the flocks and herds, and the like. There were 
no degrees of consanguinity forbidden in marriage, exceptthat between 
parents and children ; yet it was considered as highly censurable for 
brother and sister to unite. Previous to marriage the consent of the 
parents was to be asked. At the nuptials or wedding, the bride was 
with pomp conducted home by the bridegroom, who had previously, 
according to the common practice, built and made ready a new house. 
In this procession to the house, nuptial torches were borne before the 
newly married, and bridal hymns were sung by a retinue of youths 
and virgins. Dancing usually accompanied the music ; and the whole 
was followed by the nuptial feast. A widow seldom contracted a 
second marriage, although it was not expressly forbidden. At least, 
it did not take place until five years or more after her widowhood. 

§ 62. Parents of the better class took special care of the ed- 
ucation of their children, both physical and moral. The mother was 
accustomed to nurse her own children, and considered herself freed 



414 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

from this duty by no rank or condition. The aid of others in this re- 
spect was sought only in cases of absolute necessity. In subsequent 
years the children had particular teachers and overseers, who instruct- 
ed them in bodily exercises, in useful sciences, and in the art of war. 
Cf. P.I. §64, 71. 

On the other hand, also, children considered it a duty to love, rever- 
ence, and obey their parents. They rejoiced in a father's benedic- 
tion, and considered his curse as the greatest of evils. They endeav- 
ored to repay to parents in old age the care experienced by themselves 
in childhood, a thing, indeed, expressly required by law. They look- 
ed upon it as their highest honor, to inflict vengeance on such as had 
injured their fathers. 

§ 63. The slaves (dovXoi) of the Greeks, male and female, were 
persons that had been taken prisoners in war (ot tjfjuoc Autos, dv8ga7io- 
dov), or were purchased of others. Slaves of the latter class were 
not common in early times. The introduction of commerce or trade 
in slaves is ascribed to the inhabitants of the island of Chios, at a 
later period. The master had an almost unlimited power over his 
slave, extending even to the right of life and death. Sometimes the 
gift of liberty was bestowed. 

Besides the actual slaves, there was a class of day laborers, who 
were accustomed to let their services for hire (drJTeg,neldTat,), especial- 
ly in the agricultural and pastoral employments, which were original- 
ly so common in Greece. A retinue of servants for mere display or 
luxury was not indulged in during the period, of which we have thus 
far been speaking. Cf. § 99. 



77 — Of the later and more flourishing Ages. 
(1) Religious Affairs. 

§ 64. The number of the Grecian divinities increased with the 
advancement of civilization ; although the mythology of the Greeks, 
in its elements, was chiefly of early origin, engendered and fostered 
by the ignorance, superstition and sensuality of the first ages. The 
mythical fictions were enlarged, the modes of representing the gods 
were varied, the temples, festivals and sacrifices, and all the solemni- 
ties and rites of worship were greatly multiplied. The pomp and 
splendor of their religion became very imposing especially at the 






RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. TEMPLES. 415 

period distinguished for the flourishing state of all their affairs. At 
that time, the plastic arts were in a great measure devoted to the rep- 
resentation and illustration of religious story, and the ornamenting 
of religious edifices. This circumstance gives additional interest 
and importance to the study of this branch of antiquities. Cf. P. I. §§ 
174, 178, 197, 191. 

§ 65. The temples (vaol, iegd) were still built in a simple taste, 
yet in greater number and splendor. The interior had commonly 
two parts, of which the innermost was the sanctuaiy (adviov), into 
which the priest only entered. The place, where stood the statue 
or image of the god to whom the temple belonged, was in the middle 
of the temple, called re/ievog, commonly surrounded by a guard of 
lattice work or the like, and therefore also termed (xrjxdg. — The altars 
((?w,udt) were placed towards the east, and had various forms, round, 
square, or oblong. They were ornamented with horns, partly that 
the sacrificial victims might be bound to them, and partly that suppli- 
ants might lay hold of them, when they fled to the altars for refuge. 
Perhaps also they were considered as a symbol of dignity and power. 
The names of the deities, to whom the altars were sacred, were usu- 
ally inscribed upon them. Altars, as well as temples, were consecrated 
to their proper use with solemn ceremonies, particularly by anointing. 

Originally the Greeks, like the oriental nations, worshiped on the top of moun- 
tains or hills, where they afterwards first erected their temples. When in the 
common creed the gods were multiplied and assigned to vallies, rivers &c. as 
their appropriate provinces, temples were built in such spots as were supposed 
agreeable to the several gods. More than one deity, however, were sometimes wor- 
shiped in the same temple ; they were then called ovvraot or owoixtrui ■ and when 
they had a common altar, orftpcuoi. Different styles of architecture were used 
for different deities ; Doric pillars, e. g. for Jupiter, or Mars ; Ionic, for Bacchus, 
Apollo, Diana ; Corinthian, for Vesta the virgin. 

In the temple, some say at the door, others near the aSvrov, was placed a ves- 
sel of stone or brass [yrtmouai-n/QioH filled with holy water for the purpose of 
sprinkling those admitted^tcTthe sacrifices. The part of the temple before, the 
oi]xbe was called nqudofio;, that behind it umaduSofiog. The outer porch was 
termed nqoirvi.a or nQonvXaia. — There also belonged to the temple a treasury [aq- 
Xttor] for preserving its own property, or that of others entrusted toit.-For other 
particulars respecting the structure of the temples, see P. I. § 234. 

Different gods had altars also of different dimensions ; the altar of Jupiter 
Olympus is said to have been 22 feet high. The altars of the terrestrial gods 
were lower than those of the celestial. To the infernal, sacrifices were made 
in pits or trenches (§ 29) used instead of altars. The nymphs were worshiped 
in caves (avTQa).— Altars were formed of various materials ; often of earth, or 
of ashes, as that at Thebes to Apollo Znidwg ; sometimes of horn as that at De- 
los ; sometimes of brick ; often of stone ; some were overlaid with gold (Cf. § 26). 

The statues and offerings to the gods found in the temples have been spoken of 
(§§ 21, 28). Statues called Jiomrfj, fallen from Jupiter, were kept in the most 
sacred part of the temple and concealed from the sight of all but the priests. 

§ 66. The practice of appropriating sacred groves for the honor 
and service of the gods was also retained in later times. Their 
agreeable shade, as well as the stillnes reigning in them, was favor- 






41G GRECIAN ANTI0.TJ1TIES. LATER AdES. 

able to pious meditation. Although this use of groves was diminished 
by the multiplication of cities and villages, yet a grove once dedicated 
to the gods remained forever sacred and inviolable. As well as tem- 
ples and altars, they were safe asylums for offenders, although this 
privilege was conferred upon them only by a special consecration for 
the purpose, and did not belong to all the places of religious worship, 
as a matter of course. The privilege of being such asylums or 
places of refuge was sometimes awarded to the statues and tombs of 
heroes. — Certain portions of land and cultivated ground were also 
assigned to the gods, which were likewise called ■tefievrj, the fruit of 
which was employed in offerings, or fell to the share of the priests. 

The privileges of the sacred temples, as asyla, continued until the reign of 
Tiberius Cassar, by whom they were chiefly abolished, or greatly abridged ( Tac. 
Ann. iii. CO — 63), on account of the abuse of them by worthless villains. 

A particular tract of land, situated between Athens and Megara, was conse- 
crated to Ceres and Proserpine and called 'Ogyag, — Trees were also set apart 
and with ceremony consecrated to some god ( Theoc. Id. xviii. 43). 

§ 67. The three principal duties of the priests (legstg, called also 
isgovgyol, deovgyol, Oitat) were sacrifice, prayer, and instruction. 
With these were united sometimes the declaration and interpretation 
of oracles. The requisite qualifications for the priesthood were a body 
free from all defects and blemishes [oloxlrjgoAxal dyeing), lawful 
birth (yv-qaiog), and an irreproachable course of life. Upon the rank 
of the god depended the number of the priests, who were employed 
to attend upon him, and who shared each his part of the various func- 
tions of the service. In every place there was one superior priest, if 
not more (dg%i,egsig t tegodiSdcrxaloc; iegocpdvrat,), charged with the 
oversight of the religious worship in general (agxiegcoovvrj). — The 
office of the parasites (nagdaitoi) was to collect the grain and fruits 
designed for sacrifices {ngoaoSia fjieyaXa) into the storehouse appro- 
priated therefor (nagaaixiov). — The heralds (x-ijgvxeg) were ranked 
among the sacred orders, and also the superintendents (veeoxogoi), 
whose business was to cleanse and adorn the temples. 

The clothing of the priests was usually a long white or purple robe, 
and their head was ornamented, especially at sacrifices, with a fillet 
and a crown of the leaf sacred to their particular god. 

1. Priests holding their office by inheritance [§ 22J were called oilx yivovg; 
those who received it by lot, xX^idtoI- those by election, uiqerol or iiptjcpLOfihoi. 
Some of the Athenian families, in which the priesthood descended by inheri- 
tance, were the 'EvpoXnlSai, entrusted with the oversight of the Eleusinian mys- 
teries; xfevxt?, descendants of Ceryx; the 0avi.u>vidai, descendants of Thaulon. 
There was a sacred family at Argosalso, called ' ' Axtaxa^Hai. — Priestesses (fi$* 
««*<, aQ^rsiQai, oqx" ?«"»'i leQoipavrlSeg) were taken from noble families. Those 
of Ceres were termed MD.iaaai • of Bacchus, Bux/ou, 0vu8tg, Maivudeg. — ! 
Sometimes services connected with the worship of the gods were performed by 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PRIESTS. SACRIFICES. 417 

persons not properly belonging to the priesthood (xe/uig^moi rfjg ItQoavvijg), 
as e. g. sacrificers (UqottoioI), keepers of the temple and utensils {yaoyiiXaxsg), 
stewards or treasurers (rauiai zSv ttQior /ji/uarwr). — Priests, who were constant- 
ly in attendance on the gods to offer the prayers of the people at sacrifices, were 
called HQonoXoi fiewr. — All who served the gods were maintained out of the sa- 
crifices and offerings. — At Athens, those entrusted with the care of religion were 
required to render an account of their doings to certain civil officers appointed 
for the purpose. — On the priesthood of the Greeks, see J. Kreuser, Der Hellenen 
Priesterstaat mit vorzuechlich Ruecksicht auf die Hierodulen [' Itq6iav>.oi}, 
Mainz. — Class. Journ. xxxix. 350. 

2. Purification has already been mentioned (§ 23) as a rite of great impor- 
tance among the Greeks. At some of their solemnities, the priests and priest- 
esses were obliged to take an oath, that they were duly purified. Every person 
attending the solemn sacrifices was purified usually by being washed or sprink- 
led with the water in the rreQifjQavTilQiov (§ 65). This water was consecrated by 
putting into it a burning torch from the altar, or a branch of laurel (Sayvii) or 
olive. Purification was also sometimes made by drawing round the person a 
sea-onion or squill (oxilXa), or a young dog {axv).a%) ; sometimes eggs were used 
for the purpose ; sometimes the blood of a pig. Some of the terms employ*! to 
designate purifying are ntqi^qttlvtiv, ntQiuuTTioQai, xadalQeiv, uyritttv, iXaofi'ug, 
uyviofibg, TiXtrl^ &c'— Sometimes in purifications not only the hands, but the feet 
and other parts of the body were washed. 

§ 68. The sacrifices had different names according to the occa- 
sions of them. The thank-offering {-/aqiairiqia) was in recognition 
of some favor received, often in fulfilment of some vow made ; the siw- 
offering (ttaotixd) was in order to propitiate an offended deity; the 
invocation- offering (dmjrtaa) was presented in case of seeking some 
particular favor. There were other particular sacrifices, which were 
offered in consequence of the specific command of some god (ano 
fiavxelag). 

The beginning of the sacrifice in later times was made by the liba- 
tion (ortovdrj § 24) ; then followed the incense, the burning of some- 
thing fragrant (dvfilufjta) ; and at length the sacrifice itself, properly 
speaking, or the slaying of the victim (legeiov). The principal cere- 
monies have already been mentioned (fy 27). — Persons who had the 
right of being present at a sacrifice were termed dfiefiijioi, and those 
who had not, ^e'^Aot. The latter were called upon by the heralds to 
retire, before the ceremonies commenced. 

Different animals were offered in sacrifice to different gods, as has been men- 
tioned in treating of the ancient mythology. One of the principal victims, how- 
ever, was the ox {(love); hence the term povAvruv, to sacrifice oxen: those assis- 
tants who slew the victims were called povdvrai. Bulls [ravQoi], sheep (ott?) and 
goats [a tye g) were often offered. The bringing of the victims to the altar was 

expressed by such phrases as nQOOayeivro) pu</.«o, or nctQaozijoai Bvolav rotg /So>- 

^oig ; they were often brought adorned with garlands (0T£>,«crra), and were al- 
ways required to be free from blemishes (t-Usioi). After the victim was slain 
and cut in pieces, an inspection of the entrails (anl.ayxvoaxonta) was made by 
the soothsayer {onlay yvuoxonog), to ascertain the presages of the future. 

Animals were not demanded as sacrifices from the poor, who were allowed to 
offer cakes of coarse flour (nonaia). 

§ 69. It is pertinent to notice here the solemn oaths of the Greeks, 
in which they called upon the gods to witness the truth or avenge 
53 



41S GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

falsehood or injury. They distinguished between the solemn or great 
oath (o> (Ue'yot g ogxog), and affirmations in ordinary cases. Jupiter was 
considered as especially the god and guardian of oaths, and avenger 
of perjury, although oaths were taken in the name of other gods also. 
It was common, e. g., to swear by the twelve great superior gods {fid 
duSsxa deovg). Sometimes they swore by the gods, indefinitely and 
generally ; and sometimes by inanimate objects, vases, weapons, or 
any article of which they made use. Not unfrequently the oath was 
in. the name of living or deceased men, such, especially, as had been 
highly esteemed and loved. The oath was usually joined with a dis- 
tinct imprecation of vengeance on the swearer himself in case of 
falsehood ; and was sometimes confirmed by a sacrifice, the flesh of 
which, however, could not be eaten. Severe punishments were de- 
creed against perjury (imogxia). Yet the Greeks, especially the 
Thessalians, were reproached for this crime by the ancients. At least, 
mutual distrust was a characteristic of the corrupt Greeks of later 
times, and among the Romans the phrase Grceca fides was synony- 
mous with perfidy. 

Leagues and covenants were confirmed by making oaths and slaying sacrifi- 
ces; hence Sqy.ia rifcvciv signifies to enter into covenant. Notwithstanding the 
great perfidiousness of the Greeks, they considered one who kept his oath (evog- 
xog) as of course a pious person (eijoej?^). 'AttixIj nlo-iig signifies honest faith. 

§ 70. The Greek oracles ($ 32) probably took their origin from 
the opinion very early entertained, that the gods honored certain men, 
especially the priests, with a particular intimacy. There were sup- 
posed to be two modes of revelation, one immediate, by direct inspira- 
tion, and the other mediate, or artificial, which was considered as the 
fruit of great knowledge, experience and observation. Oracles (xQyv- 
tr[Qia } fiavTEiu) were of the first kind. From these the Greeks were 
accustomed to seek, in important circumstances and undertakings, pre- 
dictions of the result (%Qi](T[ioi, loyia, fiavTsv/iaia). It is obvious that 
they could be turned greatly to the advantage of the priests, to whose 
artifice, their existence and support is in great measure to be ascribed. 
The oracular answers were not given in any one uniform manner, but 
sometimes immediately, as was pretended, from the gods (xgyofiol dv- 
rocpavoi), sometimes through an interpreter (xgrjafiol vnocpTjTixot), or 
by a pretended dream, or by lot. 

Persons who consulted the oracles were termed btonqonoi, (teoiQol, xQyouotpoqoi ; 
the interpreters. xQW 10 ^ 01 - Presents and sacrifices were always requisite be- 
fore consulting an oracle, which could be done only on appointed days. 

Dr. Clarke (Travels, P. II. Sect. 2. ch. 16) describes a contrivance, which he 
supposes was designed by the artifice of the priests to sustain the system of ora- 
cles. ' We found at the'foot of the hill of the Acropolis, one of the most curious 
telltale remains yet discovered among the vestiges of pagan priest-craft ; it was 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. ORACLES. 419 

nothing less than one of the oraculcr shrines of Argos alluded to by Pausanias, 
laid open to inspection, like the toy a child has broken in order that he may see 
the contrivance, whereby it was made to speak. A more interesting sight for 
modern curiosity can hardly be conceived to exist among the ruins of any Gre- 
cian city. In its original state, it had been a temple ; the farther part from the 
entrance, where the altar was, being an excavation of the rock, and the front 
and roof constructed with baked tiles. The altar yet remains, and part of the 
fictile superstructure ; but the most remarkable part of the whole is a secret sub- 
terraneous passage, terminating behind the altar ; its entrance being at a consid- 
erable distance toward the right of a person facing the altar; and so cunningly 
contrived as to have a small aperture, easily concealed, and level with the sur- 
face of the rock. This was barely large enough to admit the entrance of a single 
person ; who, having descended into the narrow passage, might creep along un- 
til he arrived immediately behind the centre of the altar; where being hid by 
some colossal statue or other screen, the sound of his voice would produce a most 
imposing effect among the humble votaries, prostrate beneath, who were listen- 
ing in silence upon the floor of the sanctuary. "We amused ourselves for a few 
minutes by endeavoring to mimic the sort of solemn farce acted upon these oc- 
casions; and as we delivered a mock oracle, ore rotunda, from the cavernous 
throne of the altar, a reverberation, caused by the sides of the rock, afforded a 
tolerable specimen of the 'will of the gods,' as it was formerly made known to 
the credulous votaries of this now-forgotten shrine. There were not fewer than 
Lweniy-five of these juggling places in Peloponnesus, and as many in the single 
province of Baotia ; and surely it will never again become a question among 
learned men, whether the answers in them were given by the inspiration of evil 
spirits, or whether they proceeded from the imposture of priests; neither can it 
be urged that they ceased at the birth of Christ ; because Pausanias bears testimo- 
ny to their existence at Argos in the second century, — Pausan. in Corinth, c. 24. 
p. 165. ei.' L Kuknii.' 

§ 71. It may be proper to mention some of the most distinguished 
of the ancient oracles. The most ancient was that of Jupiter at Do- 
dona, a city of the Molossi, said to have been built by Deucalion. 
Before his time, however, this oracle, of Pelasgic Origin (Cf. P. I. § 
41), seems to have existed in that place. There was a grove of oaks, 
sacred to Jupiter, and superstition ascribed the actual exercise of the gift 
of speech and prophecy to the trees themselves, which were thence call- 
ed /ictvuxal dgveg. The priests, called aTKxprjTai. and Zellol, concealed 
themselves upon and in the trees, when they announced the pretended 
declarations of the gods. The sound of a brazen vase, placed near 
the temple, was also imagined to be supernatural. A fountain in the 
place was likewise celebrated as possessing the wonderful power, not 
only of extinguishing a torch, but of kindling it again. — Less cele- 
brated was the oracle of Jupiter in Crete, in a cave of Mt. Ida ; and 
that of Jupiter Ammon in a desert and almost inaccessible region of 
Africa, chiefly known by the visit to it made by Alexander the Great. 

The oracles in the grove of Dodonawere also said to be delivered by doves, 
which arose from the circumstance that the priestesses, who sometimes announc- 
ed them, were called in the Thessalian language neUiai, and neleiuSe;. — From 
the use of the brazen vessel arose the phrase JmSuivatov x^-y-^ov applied to talka- 
tive persons. 

The site of the temple and oracle of Jupiter Ammon was discovered by the 
English traveler Browne in 1792, in the Oasis of Siwa. (Cf. RenneWs Geogr. 
Syst. of Herod. Sect. 21.) Near it was the famous fountoAn of the sun. The 
spot was visited by Belzoni in 1816. The ruins of the temple indicate an Egyp- 



420 GRECIAN A.NTiaUITIES. LATER aces. 

nan origin.— Harodotus speaks of four oracles of Jupiter ; at Egyptian Thebes; 
at Libyan Amnion ; at Dodona ; and at Meroe in Ethiopia; and says that the one 
at Thebes was the original. 

§ 72. Apollo, the god to whom inspiration and prophecy were con- 
. sidered to belong properly, had numerous oracles. The most renown- 
ed was that at Delphi, a city of Phocis, where he had also a temple il- 
lustrious beyond all others on account of its treasures, the abundance 
and costliness of the gifts bestowed there. The spot, where the an- 
swer was given, was called Pythium (nidiov), and the priestess, who 
uttered it, Pythia (lludiu), from the surname which Apollo received in 
consequence of killing the serpent Python (Ilvdwv). This spot,, or 
the site of Delphi, was regarded as the centre of the inhabited earth 
(6fi(pu\6g yrjg). According to common tradition this oracle was first 
disclosed by a flock of goats, which, on approaching an orifice on Mt. 
Parnassus, were seized with singular paroxysms of shivering and 
jumping. The same happened to men, who approached this opening. 
This oracle was very ancient, being celebrated more than a hundred 
years before the Trojan war. 

On the origin of the oracle of Delphi, cf. Mitford's Hist. Ch. iii. Sect. 2. — Some 
derive the names applied to this oracle and the priestess from the word nv6ia6ai, 
to inquire or learn ; but Hvdui appears to have been originally the name of the 
city of Delphi. The immense wealth of this temple has already been alluded to 
(§28). It was adorned with statues and other splendid works of art. Its walls 
were inscribed with salutary moral precepts; among them the celebrated one, 
rvc66i osavTov (P. II. § 169). — Costly tripods were among the gifts consecrated 
to Apollo here. One of the most famous was the golden one presented by the 
Greeks after the defeat of Xerxes. This was removed by Constantine and placed 
in the Hippodrome of Constantinople upon the 'triple heads' of three brazen 
serpents twisted into one pillar. The pillar still remains. ( Gibbon, Ch. 17. p. 80. 
vol.ii.N.Y. 1622.1 

§ 73. The tripod (rqinovg xQijaTijqiog), upon which the priestess sat 
in uttering the answers, must be mentioned among the remarkable 
things pertaining to the oracle. It was dedicated to Apollo by the 
seven wise men of Greece, and has been viewed as having a three- 
fold reference, to the past, the present and the future. The JJvdia 
herself was esteemed as a priestess of peculiar dignity, and was 
obliged to prepare for the functions of her office by many ceremonies. 
In delivering the oracles she appeared to be in the most violent ecstacy 
and convulsion. In the early times, the oracle was commonly cloth- 
ed in the form of hexameter verse ; often by a poet employed for the 
purpose. Originally the oracle was consulted but on a single day in 
the year, in a month of the spring, called Bvcnog or IIv(nog ; after- 
wards inquiry could be made on a certain day of every month. Who- 
ever wished to consult the oracle was required to make large presents 
and offerings, to put on a wreath or crown, to propose his questions 
mostly in writing, and allow himself to be qualified for receiving the 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. ART OF DIVINATION. 421 

answer by many mystic rites. The answer was commonly so enig- 
matical and ambiguous {lo$6g, hence Ao^iag), that it would apply to 
any result that might happen ; and whenever it was clear and definite, 
the priests had informed themselves of all the preliminary circum- 
stances and the probabilities respecting the issue. 

The Delphic oracle was suspended at various times, and became 
finally silent soon after the death of the emperor Julian. 

Originally there was but one Pythia at Delphi, but after it became more fre- 
quented the number was increased to three, chosen from among the uneducated 
inhabitants of Delphi, and bound to the strictest temperance and chastity. They 
officiated by turns, and sometimes lost their lives in the paroxisms of the inspira- 
tion. Those, who pretended to form into sentences their incoherent exclamations, 
three in number, were called nqoif^rai, who always took care to ascertain pre- 
viously much about the history and characters of those consulting the oracle. 
The prophets were aided in the sacrifices aDd ceremonies, which preceded the 
placing of the Pythia on the tripod, by five priests, called oatoi, who were under 
a chief called 6oiu>t,,q. — The ntQn]yn?a<. were guides to those who visited the 
temple, employed particularly in pointing out to them its curiosities. A great 
number of persons were required for the various services of the temple and 
oracle. 

§ 74. There were in Greece various other oracles less celebrated. 
The more important of them were the following ; the oracle of Apol- 
lo at Didyma, which was called also the oracle of the Branchidse ; 
those of Delos, Abse, Claros, Larissa, Tegyree and other minor cities, 
where answers were also given from Apollo ; the oracle of Tropho- 
nius at Lebadea in Bceotia, in a subterranean cave, said to have been the 
residence of Trophonius, into which inquirers descended, after perform- 
ing solemn ceremonies, in order to receive a revelation of the future 
by dreams or oracles ; and the oracle of Amphiaraus in the vicinity 
' Oropus in Attica, where the answers were imparted to the initiated by 
dreams. The number of the ancient oracles amounted to two hund- 
red and sixty. 

On the subject of oracles, see Van Dale de Oraculis Vet. Ethnic. Dissertat. — 
Fontenelle's Histoire des Oracles. — Cf. Rollin, B. x. Ch. 3. (p. 391. vol. 1. ed. cited 
§ 13) • 

§ 75. The pretended revelation of the future mediately, or by 

means of some system or art of divination {{JtavTixi)), was effected in 

various ways. The most important was by theomancy [d-eoftavreia), 

an art possessed by a class of persons, who were called S-eo/udviBig, 

and claimed to be under divine inspiration. This class comprised 

three varieties ; some were considered as interpreters of the daemons 

by whom they were possessed, and called Suifiovolrjnrov or nvdbiveg • 

others were called ivQovcriaoTai or evdsaarixol, and enjoyed only the 

intimations of some particular divinity ; and others still were termed 

ixaiurixol, and boasted of high discoveries obtained during a wholly 

supernatural state of mind, which they sought to render credible by 

the pretext of a long trance, -insensibility, or sleep. 



422 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

Besides what was termed in general theomancy, there were several methods of 
divination, of which the following were the principal.--(l) By dreams. The 
Greeks ascribed very much to dreams us supernatural, and viewed them either 
as revelations and warnings from the gods or, from daemons, or as pictures and 
images of future events. The expounders of dreams were called dviiqaxqlrai,, 
oraQoaxirroi or oveiQonit/.ot. Three varieties of the dream are named ; xQVf iaTt0 ' 
iuoc, when a god or spirit conversed with one in his sleep ; oQapa, when one saw 
a vision of future occurrences ; ovuqoq, in which the future was set forth by types 
and figures (aMrjyoQixog). Dreams were supposed to be sent from the god of 
sleep (P. III. § 113;. A goddess called Brizo (|Sgii:<m<, to sleep) was thought to 
preside over the interpretation of dreams and was worshiped particularly in 
Delos. Dreams which occurred in the morning were most regarded in divina- 
tion. (2) By sacrifices. This was called Hieromancy itegofiaiTila) or Hie- 

roscopy (leQoaxonla). It comprehended the observations of many particulars 
connected with the offering of a victim, as portending good or ill. One of the prin- 
cipal things was the inspection of the entrails, especially the liver (Jinarooxonla) t 
and the heart. The fire of the sacrifice was also noticed (jrvQOftavTi la) ; likewise 
the smoke (xanvoftam la), the wine (oivoftavrtla) and the water [vSgouavrela, tctj- 
yoiiavTela). There were, in short, various kinds or forms of this divination accord- 
ing to the different victims or materials of the sacrifices and the different rites; e. g. 
there was af.evQOfiavrela, by the flour or meal used, ix^vofiavTeia, by the entrails- 
of fishes, uoaxonla, by eggs. (3) By birds. Those, who observed and inter- 
preted omens by birds, were called dQveooxonoi, oQvi&ofiuvTetg. Some birds were 
observed in respect to their flight (ravvnTiQvysg); others in respect to their 
singing (wdixai). Unlucky birds, or those of ill omen, were called t$to2.aifioi T 
pernicious, xoiXvrixal, hindering from designed undertakings, and by similar epi- 
thets ; among this class were the hawk, the buzzard, and, except at Athens, the 
owl ; the dove and swan, on the other hand, were considered as lucky birds ; and 
the crowing of the cock was auspicious. When the observer of the flight of 
birds was watching for omens he looked towards the north, and appearances in 
the east, which was on his right, were considered as favorable; hence the use of 
<Js£tos, right, to signify fortunate. — Omens were also drawn from insects and rep- 
tiles, and various animals. Toads, serpents and boars were of ill omen. Bees- 

and ants were often thought to foretoken good. (4) By signs in the heavens 

and other physical phenomena. Comets, eclipses and earthquakes were all unlucky 
signs. Thunder and lightning were lucky if observed on the right hand ; but 
unluckly if on the left. To be struck with thunder (pqovri'irbg) was unlucky; 
in places thus struck altars were erected and oblations made to appease the gods, 

after which none dared to approach them. (5) By lots. The two principal 

modes were those termed OTixouavrela and xXrjgofiavTtla; in the former little 
pieces of paper, having fatidical lines (orlxog) written upon them, were drawn 
from an urn, and were supposed to indicate the prospects of the person, by or for 
whom they were drawn out ; in the other, various small articles, as beans black 
and white, pebbles, dice and the like, which were all called xXijQot, and were 
considered as being of different significancy, were drawn from an urn or other 
vessel. — Other modes were QafiSo^avrda, by rods, and prf.opavTila, by arrows, iu 
which the lot was decided by the manner in which they fell from an erect pos- 
ture or from the quiver. Another was by the use of the nlva.% ayvgiixog, on 
which certain prophetic verses were inscribed, and the fate was indicated by the 

verse on which the dice fell. (6) By magical arts. These were said to have 

originated in Persia among the Magi, uayot. A few only of the various modes 
need be named; vexgouamla, axio^iavnla and xfjvxoftavrcla, in which the dead 
were supposed to appear or speak; yaorgo/iavTi-la, in which dsemons were imag- 
gined to speak from the bellies of men, or omens were drawn from the appear- 
ances of water in the middle part (yaargrj) of certain glass vessels surrounded 
with lighted torches ; xrjgofiamia, in which the performers observed the forms 
assumed by drops of melted wax ; there were numerous other modes. — It is pro- 
per to mention here some of the magical arts, by which mysterious effects were 
supposed to be wrought ; as, e.g. tpaqixaxela, in which medicated herbs, minerals 
and the like (tpaquaxa) were used ; and {laoxarla, which was a sort of fascination 
or malign influence which certain persons were supposed to exert. (7) Final- 
ly divination was also made from various things included under thegeneral name 
of omens (avpfola). One class of these consisted of such as were drawn from 
the person himself, as naXuoi, palpitations of some part of the system, (iouflog, 
a ringing of the ears, maofiol, sneezings &c. Another class consisted of those 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. 423 

drawn from objects external to the person; as the meeting of certain objects or 
animals on the road (hiSia ovupola), or certain occurrences at home (to iixoaxo- 
mxbr). Certain words were also ominous; such were called orrat, zZiySpves, <P'r 
j«ot. The Greeks, especially the Athenians, sought to avoid words of ill omen, 
carefully substituting others, as, e, g.'Ev^uviSeg instead of 'Eqivvvcg, and yO.urifi 
instead of v.Xkmi\q, 

§ 76. The festivals formed an important part of the religious wor- 
ship of the Greeks. Their estahlishment and support was partly for 
the sake of honoring and supplicating the gods, and commemorating 
persons of merit, and partly for the sake of rest, recreation, union 
and harmony of social feeling. Their number greatly increased 
with the multiplication of the gods and the progress of luxury and 
wealth ; the variety and splendor of the accompanying ceremonies in- 
creased in the same proportion. Especially was this the case at 
Athens. They were mostly held at the public expense, the means 
being drawn from various sources. 

See M. G. Hermann); Die Festevon Hellas historisch— philosophisch bearbei- 
tetund zum erstenmal nach ihremSinnund Zweck erloeutert Berlin, 1803. 2 
Th. 8. 

$ 77/ Some of the most important festivals have been mentioned 
(P. Ill), in the history of particular gods, under the head of Mytholo- 
gy. A slight notice of them here must suffice. The principal, 
out of an almost countless multitude, will be named in alphabetical 
order, and then some particulars added respecting a few of these. 

l u . 'Ay q i <6v ia, a nocturnal festival instituted in honor of Bacchus. 

'JSuSvia, dedicated to Venus and the memory of Adonis. 'A ). <5 a, to 

Bacchus and Ceres. : A v & e o t >j q i a, observed at Athens three days,'also in 

honor of Bacchus. 'A narovqia, at Athens, in commemoration of a vic- 
tory obtained by Melanthus, through stratagem, over the Boeotian king Xanthus, 

likewise in honor of Bacchus, and other gods. 'A </> q o <J J a i a, a festival of 

Aphrodite or Venus, particularly on the island of Cyprus. B o a v q di v t «, 

sacred to Diana, in Attica, celebrated only every fifth year. J a ip v i\ tp o q i a, 

to Apollo in Bceotia, only every ninth year. J i ; ' X i a, also to Apollo, on 

the island of Delos, every fifth year. J y]fi>'ir g i a, sacred to Demeter oi: 

Ceres. J t'inoXtia, an Athenian festival, instituted in honor of Jupiter,, 

as tutelary god of the city. J i o v v a i a, to Dionysas or Bacchus ; a greater 

and more solemn festival in the cities ; and a lesser one in the country ; the 
same that was called by the Romans Bacchanalia. There were innumerable 
forms of this festival. — 'E y. a r o ft § o i a, dedicated by the Argives to Juno, to 

whom they sacrificed a hecatomb on the first day of this festival. 'E levari a, 

the most celebrated festival of Ceres, a greater and smaller, connected with the 

well known mysteries. "E o fia i a, a festival of Mercury, in Elis, Arcadia 

and Crete. 'E <p i a i a. a festival of Diana at Ephesus. "Hq a t o, a festi- 
val of Juno at Argos. r H <p a I a r e i a, sacred to Vulcan at Athens, and con- 
nected with races with torches. e a fio <p 6 q ia, the festival of legislation, 

in honor of Ceres, at Athens and other Greek cities. K aqvsia. sacred to Ju- 
piter and Apollo, almost throughout all Greece, for nine days. A v x a i a, an 

Arcadian festival in honor of Jupiter, instituted by Lycaon. 'Oo/o cpoQta, 

a festival of the Athenians instituted by Theseus, and so called from the custom 

of carrying branches about on the occasion. Ila-v adijvaia, one of the most 

solemn festivals at Athens, dedicated to Minerva. The lesser was celebrated an- 
nually ; the greater every fifth year. Both were connected with various contests 
and games. UsXaQta, a Thessalian festival dedicated to Jupiter, having 



424 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

some resemblance to the Saturnalia of the Romans. ' Si q a i a, a general name 

applied to solemn sacrifices, which were brought to the gods in the different sea- 
sons, with a view to secure good weather. 

2. ' The festival called'^ itdv ia was celebrated in most of the cities of Greece. 
The solemnity continued two days. On the first, certain images or pictures of 
Adonis and Venus were brought forth, with all the pomp and ceremonies used 
at funerals ; the women tore their hair, beat their breasts, and counterfeited other 
actions usual in lamenting the dead. This lamentation was called adwviaoftbq, 
or aScovia ; and hence itSaviav ayuv signifies the same as 5 ' ASioviv xXaleiv, to weep 
for Adonis ; and the songs on this occasion were denominated adoviSia. "With 
the images were also carried shells filled with earth, in which grew several sorts 
of herbs, particularly lettuces; in memory that Adonis was laid out on abed of 
lettuces. These were called xijnoi, gardens ; and hence ' ASoiviSog xijnoi were 
proverbially applied to things unfruitful and fading, because those herbs were 
sown only so long before the festival as to be green at that time, and were pres- 
ently cast out into the water. The flutes used on this day were called yiyyqlai, 
from yiyyQns, the Phoenician name of Adonis; the music, yiyyqaaubg ; and the 
songs were called ytyyqavra. The sacrifice was denominated xadiSqa, because the 
days of mourning were called by that name. The second day was spent in all 
possible demonstrations of joy and merriment ; in memory that, by the favor of 
Proserpine, Venus obtained that Adonis should return to life, and dwell with her 
one half of every year. This fable is applied to the sun which produced the 
vicissitudes of summer and winter.' Cf. P. III. § 47. 

' The J i ovv a ia were sometimes called by the general name of ",Oqyia. which, 
though sometimes applied to the mysteries of other gods, more particularly be- 
longed to those of Bacchus. They were also sometimes denominated Bax/tia. 
They were observed at Athens with greater splendor, and with more ceremoni- 
ous superstition, than in any other part of Greece ; the years were numbered by 
them; the chief archon had a share in their management ; and the priests who 
officiated were honored with the first seats at public shows. At first, however, 
they were celebrated without splendor, being days set apart for public mirth, and 
observed only with the following ceremonies : — a vessel of wine adorned with a 
vine branch, was brought forth ; next followed a goat ; then was carried a basket 
of figs ; and after all, the phalli. 

At some of them, the worshipers in their garments and actions imitated the 
poetical fictions concerning Bacchus : they put on fawns' skins, fine linen, and 
mitres; carried thyrsi, drums, pipes, flutes and rattles ; crowned themselves with 
garlands of ivy, vine, fir and. other trees sacred to Bacchus. Some imitated Si- 
lenus, Pan and the Satyrs, and exhibited themselves in comic dresses and antic 
motions ; some rode upon asses ; and others drove goats to the slaughter. In 
this manner persons of both sexes ran about the hills and deserts, dancing ridicu- 
lously, personating men deranged in their intellects, and crying aloud, Evoi 2a- 
(Joi, ~Evai Bitx/i, a,* Ia«x E > ' lopcix/a, or 'lib Bax/s. 

The great festival, Jiovvoia fieyaXa, was sometimes called aonxa, or ta xar' 
aorv, because celebrated within the city of Athens, in the begining of spring, in 
the month ' EXaiptjfSoXubv. It was sometimes byway of eminence called Ji- 
ovva i a, because it was the most celebrated of all the festivals, of Bacchus at 
Athens, and was probably the same as Jiovvoia aqxaibreqa. 

The less, Jiovvoia fiixqa, was sometimes called t« xar' ayqoiig, because it was 
observed in the country. It was a sort of preparation to the former and greater 
festival, and was celebrated in autumn, in the month JlobsiSewv or ra^Xiwr. 
Some are of opinion that it was the same as Jiovvoia Aijvaia, which received its 
name from Xyvbg, a wine-press.' — Cf. Schcell. ii. p. 5. — P. III. § 59. 

'The' EX iv o ivta was a solemnity observed by theCeleansandPhliasiansevery 
fourth year ; by the Pheneate, the Lacedaemonians, Parrhasians, and Cretans, 
t>ut more especially by the Athenians, every fifth year, at Eleusis, a borough-town 
of Attica. It was the most celebrated solemnity in Greece, and was therefore, 
t>y way of eminence, called Tti pvoTi[qia, the mysteries, and t£?.etij. It is said by 
some to have been instituted by Ceres herself, when she had supplied the Athe- 
nians with corn in a time of famine. Some say that it was instituted by king 
Erectheus ; and others, by Eumolpus. 

It was divided into the fuxq'a and utyuXa /ivoTi'qta, lesser and greater myste- 
ries ; and the latter were in honor of Ceres, the former in that of her daughter 
Proserpine. Mixqa /nvon'iqia, the lesser mysteries, were observed in the month 
'AvQtOTtiqiiiv at Agra, a place near the river Ilissus; and the ueyiXa pvorilqia, 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. 425 

greater mysteries, were celebrated in the month Boi)3(>ofiia>v, at Eleusis, a bo- 
rough-town of Attica, from which Ceres was called Eleusinia. In latter ages 
the lesser festival was used as a preparation to the greater, in which they could 
not be initiated till they had been purified at the former. 

About a year after purification at the lesser, they sacrificed a sow to Ceres, 
and were admitted to the greater mysteries, the secret rites of which (with the 
exception of a few known only to the priests) were openly revealed to them ; and 
hence they were called ttpoooi and 'monrai, inspectors. Persons of both sexes 
and of all ages were initiated at this solemnity. To neglect the initiation into 
these mysteries was considered a crime of a very heinous nature, and formed a 
part of the accusation for which Socrates was condemned to death. — All the 
Greeks might claim initiation into the mysteries; but the people of every other 
nation were excluded by an ancient law ; and persons convicted of sorcery or of 
any atrocious crime, and especially if they had committed homicide, even though 
involuntarily, were debarred from these mysteries. 

The manner of initiation was as follows: — the candidates, being crowned with 
myrtle, were admitted by night into a place called ftvarixb? oqx-bg, the mystical 
temple, or ftvaroSuxog Sofia;, which was an edifice very capacious (P. III. § 62). 
At their entrance they washed their hands in holy water, and at the same time 
were admonished to present themselves with minds pure and undefiled, without 
which the external cleanness of the body w-ould not be accepted. After this the 
the holy mysteries were read to them out of a book called Tr&TQtufia, from nlrQa, 
a stone, because the book was only two stones cemented together. Then the 
the priest who initiated them, and who was called U^otpavrtjs, proposed to them 
certain questions, to which they returned answers. Soon after they beheld 
strange and frightful objects : sometimes the place, in which they were, appeared 
bright and resplendent with light and radiant fire, and instantly was covered with 
pitchy darkness ; sometimes a hollow sound was heard, and the earth seemed to 
groan beneath their feet. The being present at these sights was called uvroyla, 
intuition. They were then dismissed in these words, Kbyi, "OfinaZ. The 
garments in which they were initiated were deemed sacred, and efficacious in 
averting evils and incantations. 

The hierophantes had three assistants : the first was called SaSovjroc, torch- 
bearer, to whom it was permitted to marry ; the second, xr^vl, the crier ; and 
the third, 6 inl |V<<V> from his ministering at the altar. ' Itqo(fuvtr,g is said to 
have been a type of the Grea& Creator of all things ; 3a3ov/og, of the sun ; xf t - 
<i»S, of Mercury ; and b Inl /Soyw, of the moon. 

There were also certain public officers, whose business consisted in seeing that 
all things were performed according to custom. Of these was (Suat/.t vg t the king, 
who was one of the archons, and who was obliged to offer prayers and sacrifices 
at this solemnity, and to observe that no indecency or irregularity was committed 
during the festival; four "mifiiXtftal, curators, who were elected by the people; 
and ten persons who assisted at this and some other solemnities, and who were 
called ityoTioioc, from their offering sacrifices. 

This festival continued nine days, from the fifteenth to the twenty-third day of 
the month BaijSQOfuajr. During this time it was unlawful. to arrest any man, 
or to present any petition; and they who were found guilty of such practices 
were fined one thousand drachms, or as others say, put to death. 

On the fourth day of the festival they made a solemn procession, in which the 
xaZuQiov, holy basket of Ceres, was carried in a consecrated cart, crowds of per- 
sons shouting as they went, XatQe, Jtjfi^rtQ, Hail, Ceres. After these followed 
certain women called xiarotpunoi, who carried baskets, in which were contained 
carded wool, grains of salt, a serpent, pomegranates, reeds, ivy-boughs, a sort of 
cakes called tpSotg, poppies, &c. — The fifth was called 'H rav J.aunaSmv i,(iiqtt, the 
torch-day; because the night following the men and women ran about with 
torches in their hands. It was also customary to dedicate torches to Ceres, and 
to contend who could present the largest; and this was done in memory of the 
journey of Ceres, who sought Proserpine with a torch lighted at the flames of 
jEtna. — The sixth day was called "lax^oc, from Iacchus, the son of Jupiter and 
Ceres, who with a torch in his hand accompanied the goddess in her seach after 
Proserpine. His statue, crowned with myrtle, and bearing a torch, was car- 
ried from the Ceramicus to Eleusis, in a solemn procession called* Jaz/os. — On 
the sevenjh day were sports, in which the victors were rewarded with a measure 
of barley, which was the first grain sown in Eleusis. Cf. P. III. § 62. 

54 



426 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

' The Ila va& >\ >• a t a was an Athenian festival in honor of Minerva, the protec- 
tress of Alliens, li was first instituted by Erichlhonius, who called it l J.hi\vaia , 
ami n was afterwards revived by Theseus, when he had united into one city all 
the Athenian people, and by him was denominated llava&>\raia. Some are of 
opinion that it was the same as the Roman Quinquatria. At first it continued 
only one day; but it was afterwards prolonged several days, and celebrated with 
great magnificence. 

There were two solemnities of this name, one of which was called Mtyai.a 
navadi'iraia, the Great Panthcnasa, and was celebrated once in five years, begin- 
ning on the twenty-second of Hecatombcepn : the other was denominated Mixtid 
IJara6i'iraia, the Less Panathencea, and was observed every third year, or, as 
some think, every year, beginning on the twentieth or twenty-first of Thargelion. 
In the latter were three games, managed by ten presidents, who were elected 
from the ten tribes of Athens, and who continued in office four years. On the 
first day was a race with torches, in which first footmen, and afterwards horse- 
men, contended, and which was also observed in the greater festival. The sec- 
ond contention was vdavSijlcte ayior, a gymnastic exercise in which the combat- 
ants gave proof of their strength or manhood. The place of these games was 
near the river, and was called from the festival Hava6i' l vai}t6v. The third was a 
musical contention instituted by Pericles ; the subject proposed was the eulogi- 
um of Harmodius and Aristogiton, and also of Thrasybulus, who had rescued 
the republic from the yoke of the tyrants by which it was oppressed. The poets 
also contended in four plays, which from their number were called rtrqaloyia. 
Besides these there was a contention at Sunium, in imitation of a sea-fight. 
The victor in either of these games was rewarded with a vessel of oil and with 
a crown of the olives which grew in the Academy, and which were called ftoQlai, 
from fiuQoc, death, or from ficqog, a part. There was likewise a dance called 
Pyrrhichia, performed by boys in armor, who represented to the sound of the 
Aute the battle of Minerva with the Titans. No man was permitted to be present 
at these games in dyed garments, under a penalty to be imposed by the uywvoBt- 
njs, president of the games. Lastly, a sumptuous sacrifice was offered to which 
every Athenian borough contributed an ox ; of the flesh that remained, a public 
entertainment was made for the whole assembly j and at this entertainment cups 
of an unusual size were employed. 

In the greater festival most of the same rites and ceremonies were observed, 
but wiih greater splendor and magnificence, and the addition of some other mat- 
ters. In particular, at this solemnity was a procession, in which was carried 
the sacred nen7.og, garment of Minerva. This nenlog was woven by a select 
number of virgins, who were called y^yaanxal, from igyov, a work, and who- 
were superintended by two of the h^rnpoQoi, and commenced their employment 
at the festival Xaly.ua, which was on the thirtieth of Pyanepsion. The garment 
was white, without sleeves, and embroidered with gold : upon it were described 
the achievements of Minerva against the giants, of Jupiter, of the heroes and 
of men renowned for valor and great exploits; and hence men of courage and 
bravery were said to be akioi nin'/.ov, worthy of being portrayed on the garment 
of Minerva. The ceremonies attending the procession with the ninlog were 
as follows : — in the Ceramicus without the city, was an engine built for the pur- 
pose in the form of a ship, upon which the rcinlog was hung in the manner of a 
sail, and which was put in motion by concealed machinery. The ninXog was 
thus conveyed to the temple of Ceres Eleusinia, and thence to the citadel, where 
it was placed upon Minerva's statue, which was layed on a bed strewed with flow- 
ers, and called nl.ay.lg. This procession was composed of a great number of per- 
sons of both sexes, and of all ages and conditions. It was led up by old men, 
and, as some say, by old women, carrying olive branches in their hands ; and 
hence they were called -d-aUotpuQoi bearers of green boughs. After these came 
middle-aged men, who, armed with lances and bucklers, seemed only to respire 
war, and who were accompanied by the psroixoi, sojourners, carrying little boats 
as emblems of their being foreigners, and therefore called oxatptiipiiQot, boat-bear- 
ers. Then followed the women, attended by the sojourner's wives, who were 
called vSQtayoQoi, from carrying water-pots in token of servitude. These were 
followed by young men. who sang hymns in honor of the goddess, and who were 
crowned with millet. Next proceeded select virgins of high rank, whose fea- 
tures, shape, and deportment, attracted every eye, and who were called y.avmpii- 
qoi, from their carrying baskets, which contained sacred utensils, cakes, and all 
things necessary for the sacrifices. These utensils were in the custody of one, 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PUBLIC GAMES. 427 

who, because he was chief manager of the public processions, was called u$x l ~ 
diwQog. The virgins were attended by the sojourners' daughters, who carried 
umbrellas and folding-chairs, and who were thence denominated axiaSmpltqoi, um- 
brella-carriers, and SttpnijipiQot, seat-carriers. It is probable that the rear was 
brought up by boys, who walked in coats used at processions, and called TcavSafu- 
xoi. The necessaries for this and other processions were prepared in a public 
hall erected for that purpose between the Pirsean gate and the temple of Ceres ; 
and the management of the whole business belonged to the rofioyvZaxig, who 
were appointed to see that the ancient customs were observed.' — Robinson. 

§ 78. The great public games of the Greeks were also a part of 
their religious customs. They were looked upon as sacred, and were 
originally established in honor of the gods. They were always begun 
and ended with sacrifices. It also entered into their design, and was 
their effect, to render religion more attractive by association with sen- 
sible objects, to bring into nearer contact the several portions of Greece, 
and to stimulate and publicly reward superior talents. — The exercises 
of these games were of five sorts, and had therefore the common 
name nivxadlov. They were running, leaping, wrestling, throwing 
the discus, and hurling the javelin, or boxing which some put in the 
place of the contest with the javelin. 

§ 79. The race (Sgofiog) was between fixed boundaries, the start- 
ing place (aq>eaig, fiulfilg), and the goal or end (oxonog, vegfia), on a 
piece of ground measured off for the purpose {dvlog, arddcop), 125 
paces in extent. The racers were sometimes clad in full armor (dnlt- 
Todgofiot,). — There were also chariot-races and horse-races. 

Those, who only ran once over the stadium, were called OTaSioSQofioi; 
those who ran over the space doubled (dluvZog), that is both to the goal and back, 
were called SkxvXoSqohoi ■ those who ran over the space 12 times in going and re- 
turning, i. e. 24 stadia or according to others only 7 stadia (SiZt/og), were termed 
tioZixodQofioi. — The prize {a&lov, (iQafltiov) was commonly merely a crown of 
olive, pine or parsley. 

The term xiAyrtg was applied to horses which performed in the horse-race sin- 
gle. Two horses were also used, upon one of which the performer (avafSar-ng) 
rode to the goal, and then leaped upon the other.— In the chariot-race, two, three, 
four, or more horses were employed to draw the chariot (<%<«); hence the terms 
Svwqoi, ridqinnoi, mqauiQoi, &c. The chariots were sometimes driven over the 
course 12 times {SvmSixaiqu^oi). It was an object of emulation among the 
wealthy to send chariots for the race to the public games of Greece. 

§ 80. For the leap (a Ifia) also boundaries were marked, the place 
from which ((?aT7)'^), and the place to which (o-xa'^a), it was made. 
This exercise was performed sometimes with the hands empty, but 
oftener with metallic weights in them, usually of an oval shape (oU-nj- 
£ sg), sometimes with weights attached to the head or the shoulders. 

The distance leaped over was called xavwv. The point to which the perform- 
ers were to leap was marked by digging the earth ; hence its name from axantta. 
The phrase nt]SSv vnio ra eexafiftira, applied to signify excess or extravagance^ 
was taken from this exercise. 

$ 81. Wrestling (ndhj, xuza^hjux^) was commonly performed 



438 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 



in a covered portico (fuaitof) the combatants being naked, and making 
the most violent exertions to throw each other to the ground. When 
one had done this with his adversary three times (o' rqidSas) he re* 
ceived the prize. There were two modes of this exercise, one in the 
erect posture (d^tfojiuT.)?), the other in the lying posture in which the 
parties contended rolling on the ground {dvaxlivondlrj) .-When wrest- 
ling was united with boxing, it was called IIuyxQdti,ov or nupfiuxvov. 

After the names of the candidates had been announced by a herald, they were 
matched by lot. For this purpose a silver urn was used containing as many balls 
as there were candidates. The same letter was inscribed on two balls, and those 
who drew the same letter were antagonists in the contest. In case of an odd 
number, he who drew the odd lot was called tiptSyos, and required to contend 
with those who conquered. A competitor confessed his defeat by his voice, or 
by holding up his finger; hence cciqc duy.rvi.ov became proverbial to signify con- 
fess that you are conquered. 

In the strict wrestling, blows were not allowed, nor in boxing was it proper for 
the competitor to throw his antagonist ; but in the Pancratium, both modes were 
practiced. 

§ 82. The quoit or discus (Siaxog, aolog) was made of stone, brass 
or iron, of a roundish form, and about 3 inches thick. It was thrown 
by means of a thong (xaldSiov) passing through a hole in the centre. 
He who threw the farthest took the prize. 

The hurling of the javelin (glipig, aaoWo-t?) was practiced either 
with the hand alone, or by means of a thong attached to the shaft. 

Some state that the Slaxog was of stone, and the aUog of iron ; others that the 
former was carefully made and polished, the latter a rough mass of iron ; the 
difference may have been wholly in their form or shape.— The exercise is said 
to have originated with the Lacedsemonians. 

$ 83. Boxing (nvy^) was performed with clenched fists, around 
which they sometimes bound the cestus (if^oig), i. e. a thong or piece 
of hide loaded with iron or lead. The chief art in this game was to 
parry the blows of the antagonist, which were usually aimed at the face. 

The combatant was called ' ZTJztj;?, from nxi%, a. fist. The cestus, originally 
reaching no higher than the wrist, was afterwards extended to the elbow and 
sometimes to the shoulder, and at last came to be used both for defence and at- 
tack. The exercise was violent and dangerous. The combatants often lost their 
lives, and victory was always dear bought. Bruises on the face by blows were 
callfid hntonia. 

Besides these exercises of bodily strength and agility, there were at the public 
games of the Greeks contests in music, poetry and rhetoric, of which mention 
has already been made (P. I. §§ 65, 66;. 

\ 84. The four most grand and solemn games of the Greeks were 
the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian and Nemean, which were called by 
way of eminence Sacred games {dyau'eg leqoi). , 

The first and most distinguished were the Olympic, named from 
the place Olympia in Elis, and dedicated to the Olympian Jupiter. 
By some, Jupiter was considered as their founder ; by others, an ear- 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FOUR SACRED GAMES. 429 

Her Hercules belonging to the Idsean Dactyli ; by others Pelops ; by 
most Hercules the hero, who was the first victor in all the exercises, 
except in wrestling. They were renewed by Iphitns, a contemporary 
of Lycurgus, about B. C. 888, and afterwards by Chorcebus, B. C. 
776. Afterwards they were an object of special care to the people of 
Elis. Several inspectors (dXvica, qa^dovxoi) had charge of the ex- 
ternal arrangements, under the direction of a chief inspector (a Ivwq- 

Those, who wished to appear as combatants, were obliged to spend 
ten months at the Gymnasium in Elis, practicing the games and 
various preparatory exercises under the instruction of the judges, 
who were in the Olympic games especially termed 'Ellavodixat.. 
The order, in which they successively engaged in the contests, was 
decided by lot. The prize was a crown or wreath of olive (xotivos). 

Among the Olympic victors, Alcibiades was one of the most cele- 
brated ; the names of thirteen others Pindar has preserved to posteri- 
ty by his Olympic odes. Statues were often erected to the conquer- 
ors in the grove of Jupiter. Their fame was spread the more wide- 
ly on account of the vast multitudes of spectators, that flocked to the 
games from every part of Greeee, and from Asia, Africa and Sicily. 
Originally, females were not allowed to attend. 

The games were repeated every fifth year, in the month 'ExaTOft- 
Sttiuv answering partly to July, and continued five days. They gave 
rise to the custom of reckoning time and dating events by Olympiads. 
Each Olympiad consisted of 4 years. The first Olympiad is gener- 
ally considered in Chronology as corresponding with the year 776 B. C. 

One judge at first presided over the games; afterwards two; subsequently 
there were 12; then 8, one from each tribe of the Eleans. The place, where these 
assembled and superintended the preparatory exercises (nqoyvftvaofiaTa) of the 
combatants, was called c EUipodizaCov. They took the most solemn oaths to ad- 
judge the prizes impartially. Although women were strictly excluded from wit- 
nessing these games at first, they were afterwards allowed not only to be present, 
but even to contend in them. — Much has been said respecting the various favor- 
able influences, which these games exerted in Greece. Theyaresaidtohavepro- 
moted peace and harmony between the different sections and states, as they drew 
together spectators from every quarter, who thus constituted the great assembly 
(nan'tfVQts) of Greece. Olympia was in fact called nuyxoivog /«o?«, the common 
country of all. Hardihood and valor among the soldiery are also mentioned as nat- 
ural effects of the various athletic exercises performed at them. They could not- 
fail to stimulate to literary exertion, as they furnished poets,historians and orators, 
with the best opportunities to rehearse their productions. — SeeBuncroft's'Heeren, 
p. 129.— G. West's Diss, on the Olympic games, in his Trans, of Pindar, cited P. 
II. § 60 (4), — Cf. Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, close of article Pindar. 

§ 85. The Pythian games were celebrated upon the Crissaean 
plains, in the vicinity of Delphi, which was once called Pytho from 
the surname of Apollo. The games were sacred to this god, and 
were a commemoration of his victory over the Pythian serpent. They 



430 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

were instituted either by himself, or by Amphictyon or Diomedes; 
Originally they were held at the beginning of every ninth year (eVj's- 
aijjyii), afterwards like the Olympic, at the beginning of every fifth 
year ^nevTaeTrigic;). The Pythiadwas sometimes used as an- era ire 
chronology, but not commonly ; it appears to have been reckoned from 
the 3d year of the 49th Olympiad, B. C. 582. As a reward or prize 
the victors received certain apples sacred to Apollo, often also a crown 
of laurel. 

The contests appear to have been at first only in music, and to have 
been rewarded with silver, gold, or something of value. The song 
called IJvdvxog vofiog, which was performed in these contests, celebra- 
ted the victory of Apollo over the serpent ; it consisted of five or six 
distinct portions, which represented so many separate parts and steps 
in the undertaking and achievement. Of the same import was the 
customary solemn dance, composed of five parts. 

All the exercises in use at the Olympic games were gradually in- 
troduced into the Pythian. The Amphictyons had the oversight of 
them ; to these the candidates were required to present themselves. 
Nine conquerors are specially celebrated in the Pythian odes of Pin- 
dar. The spot, where these games were held, was a plain between 
Delphi and Cirrha, sacred to Apollo. 

$ 86. The Nemean games derived their name from Nemea ; a 
city in Argolis between Cleonas and Phlius, in the vicinity of which 
they were celebrated. They were held every third year, so as to fall 
on every second and fourth Olympic year. It was never common to 
compute time by Nemeads. The superintendents and judges Were 
selected from the neighboring cities, Argos, Corinth and Cleonas, and 
were persons distinguished particularly for their love of justice. Their 
dress was black, because the games were first instituted as a funeral 
solemnity (dyw* enncicpiog) in honor of Opheltes, or Anchemorus; 
although others state, that they were instituted and dedicated to Jupi- 
ter by Hercules, after slaying the Nemean lion. The prize of the 
victor was a crown of parsley. Ten conquerors in the Nemean games 
are celebrated by Pindar. 

§ 87. The Isthmian games were so called from the place of their 
celebration, the Corinthian isthmus, or the neck of land joining Pelo- 
ponnesus with the continent. They were instituted in honor of Meli- 
certes, a son of Ino and Athamas, who under the name of Palamon 
was received by Neptune into the number of sea gods. Others rep- 
resent Theseus as the founder of the games, and Neptune as the god 
to whom they were consecrated. With the Corinthians, all the other 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. ATHLETICS. 431 

states of Greece (except the Eleans, who were excluded by some dread- 
ful execration) united in celebrated these games. They were held at 
.he beginning of every third year (TQisrygixoi), and were attended 
with the musical contests as well as those in all the athletic exercises. 
The prize was originally, and also in later times again, a crown of 
pine j for a period between, it was a crown of dry parsley. The 
judges were at first selected from the Corinthians, afterwards from the 
Sicyonians. Pindar, in his Isthmian odes yet extant, has sung the 
praise of eight victors, mostly Pancratiasts, who gained the prize in 
wrestling and boxing at the same time. 

§ 88. On account of the great estimation in which Athletics were 
held among the Greeks, and their intimate connection with religion 
and the interests of the state, they deserve a few additional remarks. 
In the most general sense, this term included intellectual as well as 
bodily exercises, pursued with earnestness and zeal ; but it was com- 
monly used to signify those more frequent and violent bodily exercises, 
which were so much practiced in Greece, especially at the games al- 
ready described, and which were viewed as an essential part of educa- 
tion, and constituted a great object of the Gymnastic system. Many of 
those, who* had enjoyed full instruction therein, made these exercises 
the main business of their life. Such were called a ^za't and dyav- 
lordt. The teacher of the system or art was called yvfivacn^g and 
^vaTaQxvS: superintendent of a £vozdg. which was a covered gallery 
where the exercises were performed in winter, and was so called from 
the floor being made smooth and level. Although the Athlete were 
not strictly in the service of the state, yet they received great honor. 
Their whole mode of life was conducted with reference to augmenting 
their bodily strength, and they submitted to many rigid precepts. In 
most of the exercises ihey were naked ; in casting the quoit, and the 
javelin they wore a light covering. By frequent anointing, rubbing, 
and bathing, they rendered their bodies more strong and supple. In 
preparation for a combat, they covered themselves with dust or sand, 
in order that they might take better hold of each other, and avoid too 
great perspiration and exhaustion. Generally the ground, or surface 
of the area, on which they exercised, was wet and slippery. Before 
being permitted to enter this, they were subjected to an examination 
and a rigid preparation. For this purpose judges {ddlodexou, dyuvo- 
Oirat, 'EllavoSixai,) were appointed, whose number was not always 
the same, who decided concerning the prize, and excited the combat- 
ants by animating exhortations. The rewards of the conquerors were 
the applause and admiration of the people, the public proclamation of 



432 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

their names, the laudatory song of the poet, the crown of victory, 
statues, solemn processions, banquets, and other privileges and advan- 
tages. 

See C. F. A. Hockheimer's Versuch eines Systems der Erziehung der Gricchen 
&c. Dessau 1785. 2 Bde 8. a work very instructive on this topic and on Grecian 
education generally. Also, Jahn's Treatise on Gymnastics. Northarapt. 1828. 8. 
— Amer. Quart. Jieo. vol. iii. p. 125.— Cf. P. I. §G4. 

§ 89. It has been already stated (P. I. § G6), that dramatic repiesentations or 
theatrical perfonnances, among the Greeks, belonged appropriately to religious 
festivals; and had their origin, in fact, in religious ceremonies (P. II. § 3G, 37], 
particularly in the rites connected with the worship of Bacchus at Athens. 
Some account of the Greek theatres has also been given ( P. I. § 235). Besides 
what has been said in the sections referred to, a few remarks may be added prop- 
erly in this place. 

The number of actors (vnoxQirai) in the whole of a play was of course vari- 
ous; but no more than three at once appeared on the stage (oy.ijvl) in the part ap- 
propriated to speakers (Zoytior). Although the author of the piece represented 
was sometimes obliged to be one of the actors, yet those who were actors by pro- 
fession were, as a class, of low character and loose morals. In order that the 
voices of the speakers might be aided and the sound spread over the whole of the 
theatre, artificial helps were employed ; among these were the brazen vessels 
(t'iXeia) resembling bells, which were placed in different parts of the structure. 
In the rude state of the art the features of the actor were concealed or altered by 
smearing the face with wine-lees, or by some rude disguise. iEschylus (P. II. 
§ 39, 61) introduced the regular mask (nqoownuov, persona) ; which, ultimately, 
was formed of brass or some sonorous metal, or had at least a mouth so prepared, 
as to increase the sound of the voice. There was a vast variety in the form, co- 
lor and appendages of the masks, so as to represent every age, sex, character and 
condition; no less than 26 classes of tragic masks are enumerated by Julius 
Pollux. The tragic mask often had a great elevation of the head and hair (call- 
ed oyxog) to heighten the stature of the actor. For the same purpose, the tragic 
actor wore a very thick-soled boot (z66oqvos or !,«(?«;).— See Pompeii (cited P. I. 
§ 226) p. 211. — Schlegel, on the Drama. Sect. iii. 

§ 90. The Choir (x°Q°s) was composed of performers wholly distinct from 
the actors ; yet, by its leader, it often took part in the dialogue. We have before 
alluded to the vast expense of maintaining the Chorus; one great source of this 
expense was the dresses and decorations, which were of the most splendid kind. 
See P. II. § 37, and the references there given. 

As the theatre was opened at sunrise, or even as soon as day-break, the specta- 
tors assembled very early in order to secure good seats, which, as the edifices 
were built at the public expense, were at first free for every person. In conse- 
quence of the contest for places, which this occasioned, a law was passed at Ath- 
ens, under which a fee for admission was demanded. This was fixed, for a time 
at least, at two oboli. But under the influence of Pericles, another law was also 
enacted requiring the proper magistrate to furnish from the public treasury the 
amount of this fee to every one, who applied for it that he might attend a dra- 
matic performance. The money thus used was termed 6euiQixa xQi'ifcra, and the 
magistrate, Taulag rwv demQiy.eiv. The number of spectators was often very 
great (P. I. §235). Barthelemy has given a vivid description of their crowding 
to the theatre {Anacharsis, Ch. xi.— Cf. also Ch. lxx). 



(2) Civil Affairs. 

§91. After what has been already said (§ 33,ss) of the original 
circumstances and constitution of the Greek states, we may confine 
ourselves now to their characteristics and peculiarities in later times. 
The account of the various changes of their constitution and the con- 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. ATTIC TRIBES. 433 

sequences thereof belongs to history rather than antiquities. The 
latter, properly considered, will treat chiefly of the civil regulations 
of the most flourishing republic, Athens, without overlooking those 
of the other considerable states, especially the Spartans, who were 
distinguished by many peculiarities from the Athenians, although they 
had also many points of resemblance. 

§ 92. The early political changes at Athens have been mentioned 
(§ 39). After the kings, whose power was greatly circumscribed by 
the chiefs of noble families, and of whom Codrus was the seventeenth 
and last (1068 B. C), the chief magistrates were the Archons. 
When these became despotic, Draco (624 B. C.) introduced a code of 
laws, which soon occasioned new troubles by their severity. Re- 
course was then had to Solon (594 B. C), who abolished all the laws 
of Draco, except the one respecting murder. Solon changed the form 
of government in many points, diminished very much the authority 
and power of the Archons, gave the people a share and voice in judi- 
cial inquiries, and thus transformed the aristocracy previously existing 
into a mixed and moderate democracy. 

§ 93. Originally the people had been divided into 4 tribes (cpvlai), 
and also divided, according to their places of residence, into a number 
of boroughs or wards (d^ot). Each tribe likewise was subdivided 
into three curia ((pgar^iav, edvrj) according to their consanguinity, 
and each of the curias into families (yevj], TQiaxdSsg). But Solon di- 
vided the citizens according to their wealth into 4 classes; 1. IJev- 
Tctxoaiofiedtfivoi,, those who gathered from their fields, in moist 
and dry crops, at least 500 fiedvfivoi^ 2. 'iTwelg, those whose grounds 
yielded 300 fieSifivoi, and who were able to maintain a war horse (In- 
nog noleftiovriQiog) ; 3. Zevylxav, those whose lands produced 200 
(or 150) (isdiixvoi, and who owned the space of one acre or t,s$yog ; 
4. Qrj reg, those who had any less income. All the citizens were ad- 
mitted to the assembly of the people (§ 106), but only the first three 
of the above classes shared in the burdens and expenses of the state, 
and therefore they alone could receive offices, and from them alone 
the Senate {^ovl-f\ $ 107) was chosen, which at that time consisted of 
400. Solon also advanced the authority of the Areopagus ($108), 
as he gave it jurisdiction over the most criminal cases. 

§ 94. Athens remained under these regulations only about 34 
years. Then, even before the death of Solon, Pisistratus became sole 
master of the state, and notwithstanding all opposition, continued such 
until his death, 528 B. C. His two sons Hippiasand Hipparchussuc- 

55 

I 



434 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

ceeded him. These were soon stripped of their power, Hipparchus 
being slain by Harmodius offended on account of his sister (Thuc. 
L. vj. 544) and aided by his friend Aristogiton, and Hippias being 
driven into banishment by the people. After this, the constitution re- 
ceived a new form under the influence of Clisthenes. 

The number of the tribes (cpvlal) was now increased to ten. From 
each of these, 50 senators {^ovIevtuI) were yearly elected, so that the 
Senate consisted of 500. After this the power of the people was still 
more increased. Aristides effected the abolition of the law of Solon, 
which excluded from offices the lowest of the 4 classes of citizens. 
Pericles, with the assistance of Ephialtes, deprived the Areopagus of 
a great portion of its power; he also occasioned many important chan- 
ges in the constitution, which were gratifying to the lower classes, and 
by which the democracy became less guarded and restrained and the 
way was opened for the ochlocracy, that soon followed. 

§ 95. After various changes in the government Athens was taken 
by Lysander, B. C. 404. The supreme power was then vested in the 
thirty tyrants, who were, however, deprived of their authority after 
three years, by Thrasybulus, and banished. In their stead decemviri 
[SenadSxoi) were instituted, who likewise abused their power, and were 
exiled, after the former democracy was restored. This form was re- 
tained unto the death of Alexander the great, when it was overturned 
by Antipater, and the government vested in a certain number of no- 
bles or chiefs. After the death of Antipater, Cassander committed 
the republic to a lieutenant, and under Demetrius Poliorcetes it en- 
joyed again freedom and popular power. With some changes, this 
state of things continued until the time of Sulla, who in the Mithri- 
datic war conquered Athens and subjected her to the Romans. The 
final destruction of the city happened towards the end of the 4th cen- 
tury by the hands of Alaric, king of the West-goths. 

§ 96. Athens was the most beautiful and splendid city in Greece. 
Its circuit was about one hundred and seventy-eight stadia. One part 
of it was the citadel, which lay upon a steep rock ; this at first con- 
stituted the whole city under the name of Cecropia, and was after- 
wards termed Acropolis. The most remarkable buildings on the 
Acropolis were the IlQonvlaiu, Propylcea, the Ilagdsvmv, or tem- 
ple of Minerva with the famous statue of this goddess by Phidias, 
and the joint temple of Neptune Erectheus and Minerva Polias. In 
the other portion of the city, the temples . of Vulcan, Venus Urania, 
Theseus, Jupiter Olympus, and the Pantheon sacred to all the gods, 
were among the most remarkable. Of the numerous covered por- 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. INHABITANTS OF ATHENS. 435 

ticos, the Pazcile (P. I. § 74.) was the most renowned, and adorned 
with the most magnificent paintings and ornaments. The Odeum, 
built by Pericles and devoted to musical and literary exercises, has 
been before mentioned (P. I. § 235). The name of Ceramicus was 
given to two extensive spaces, one within and the other without the 
city, the former enriched with beautiful edifices, the latter used as a 
burial ground. There were several market places (ayoqul), with dif- 
ferent names, according to their specific uses. The Gymnasia also, 
and the Baths, the Stadium ascribed to Herodes Atticus, the Academy, 
the Cynosarges, the Hippodrome and the Theatres, belong to the re- 
markable and interesting works, which adorned the city of Athens. 
The three harbors, Piraeus, Munychia, and Phalerum, should likewise 
be mentioned here. 

Some further account of the buildings and monuments of the city of Athens 
will be found in the portion of this work, which gives an Epitome of Classical 
Geography. 

§ 97. The inhabitants of Athens and of the whole of Attica were 
either nolnai, free citizens, fietoixoi, free commoners, resident aliens 
or sojourners, or dovlot, slaves. The first class was the most re- 
spectable, the last the most numerous. The number of resident foreign- 
ers, however, was not insignificant. The right of citizenship was, 
in the flourishing times of the republic, a high privilege, which was 
conferred only upon men of honorable descent and distinguished 
merit, and upon such not without difficulty, since the agreement of 
six thousand citizens was first requisite. Free born Athenians were 
those whose parents were born at Athens, or at least one of whose 
parents was born there ; and those of the latter class held a lower 
rank, and privileges in some respects, less than the former. 

By Cecrops the Athenians were divided into four tribes (§ 93), viz. 
(1) Kexqonlg, from his own name, (2) 'AvtoxQmv, (3) Axtaia, (4) 
JIctQalia. To each of these tribes belonged several districts, boroughs 
or wards (dfj/ioi), of which there were at length 174 in Attica, and 
which differed from each other in various points of manners and cus- 
toms. The names of the tribes were afterwards changed and the 
number increased to ten (§ 94), finally to twelve. The number of 
citizens, noUxui, in the time of Pericles amounted to 14,040, and in 
the time of Demetrius Phalereus, according to a census taken by his 
direction, B. C. 309, the number was 21,000. 

§98. The fieTotxoi were those foreigners, or persons not natives 
of Attica, who became residents in the city or territory. They 
took no part in the government, being admitted neither to the assem- 



436 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 



blies of the people nor to public offices, but were subject to all the laws 
and usages of the land. They were obliged to select from the free 
citizens a patron or guardian (nQoozdTTjt;), in whose name they could 
manage business and maintain actions in the civil courts, and to whom 
they must tender certain services. Certain services to the state were 
also required of them, besides which an annual tribute (iibxoUiov) 
was exacted, ten or twelve drachms for each man, and six for each 
woman without sons, mothers with sons that paid being free from the 
tax. Sometimes exemption from taxation (dieXeia) was conferred 
upon individuals as a reward for meritorious services. Demetrius 
found, by his census, 10,000 of the class of foreign residents. 

The term |»Vot was applied to foreigners remaining in the city or country for 
a short time only ; it was also applied reciprocally to persons who were mutually 
pledged, by former acquaintance, or in any other way, to treat each other with 
hospitality. — If a melic neglected to pay the imposed tax, he was liable to be sold 
for a slave. Diogenes Laertius was actually sold, because he had not the means 
of paying it; but was redeemed by Demetrius. 

§ 99. The slaves (dovXoi) were of different sorts, those belonging 
to the public (dovloi drjfioaioi), and those belonging to private citizens 
(otxerai,). The latter were completely in the power of the master 
and were often treated with very great severity. Yet they sometimes 
purchased freedom by their own earnings, or received it by gift as a 
reward for merit. Public slaves also were often set at liberty, when 
they had rendered the state some valuable service. Freedmen very 
seldom, if ever, obtained the rights of citizens, and were still termed 
dovloi. In general, the condition of the slaves in Attica, abject and 
miserable as it was, appears to have been in some respects less so, 
than in other states of Greece, especially in Lacedasmon. The slaves 
of Attica amounted to 400,000 in the time of Demetrius. 

At Athens slaves were not allowed to imitate freemen in the fashion of their 
dress or the cut of their hair ; their coats must be with one sleeve only (s-n-po^ci- 
o;jfcdoi) and the hair cut in the servile form [6§/| avtyanoSaifoig). They couldnot 
properly bear the names of Athenian citizens, but must be called by some for- 
eign or low name. They were allowed to bear arms only in extreme cases. The 
punishments inflicted were severe ; for common offences they were whipped 
(fiaoTiyicux)) ; for theft or running away they were bound to a wheel and beaten 
(ml tqoxov) ; for some crimes they were sentenced to grind in the mills (fivZwn g) ; 
sometimes they received, upon their forehead or some other part, the brand with 
hot iron (tm'y.ua). In giving testimony in court they were also subject to torture 
(fiuoavog).— Yet at Athens the slaves could bring civil actions against their mas- 
ters and others for violation of chastity and for unlawful severity ({^siu? Slxy 
a.udaty.iag Siy.yj). When greatly oppressed, they could also flee to the temple of 
Theseus,from which it was held as sacrilege to force them. 

Slaves carried on the whole business of the Athenians; even the poorer citi- 
zens depended on them. There was a sale of slaves on the first day of every 
month by merchants (avSQcmodoxuniftoi') ; usually announced by a crier standing 
on what was called the vender's stone (nqar^q ).i'6og). The price varied accor- 
ding to their abilities. Many were skillful in the elegant arts, and versed in let- 
ters ; while others were only qualified to toil in the mines.— See Beitemeier, Ge- 
schichte und Zustand der Sclaverey &c. [History of Slavery and Villanagc in 
Greece] Berl. 1789.— Bibl. Repvs. and Quart. Obsern. No. xvii. p. 138. 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. ATHENIAN MAGISTRATES. 437 

§ 100. The magistrates at Athens were divided, in reference to 
the mode of their appointment to office, into three classes, theXeiQOTo- 
vtjToi, the xXtjqwtoI and ihediQetol. The first named were chosen by 
the whole people by raising the hand ; the second were appointed by 
lot by the Thesmothetse in the temple of Theseus; and the last 
were chosen by particular portions of the people, by the tribes and the 
the districts from among their own number. — The magistrates were 
required, on the expiration of their offices, to render an account of 
their administration to a tribunal, which was constituted by ten ac- 
countants (loyiazai) and ten directors or judges (tvdvvot, called also 
fiSeraoTal). — The most important magistrates were the Archons 
{aqxovjeg). There were usually nine Archons, chosen by lot (xIijqw- 
roi), but subjected to an examination as to their qualifications, before 
they were admitted to take the oath and enter their office. 

The examination of the Archons was two-fold ; one in the senate called 'Avu- 
xgtcrt?,the other in the forum, called ^o*i|Ua<7ia,before the Heliasta (jiUaorai § 110). 
Among the points of examination were, whether their ancestors for three gener- 
ations had been Athenian citizens, whether they had a competent estate, and 
whether they were free from bodily defects (a<pi-Aiig). 

In choosing the Archons and other magistrates by lot, the ordinary method 
was to put the names of the candidates, inscribed on brazen tablets (nivur.ia), 
into an urn with black and white beans (xi/a^oi) ; and those whose tablets were 
drawn out with white beans were elected. 

§ 101. The first of the nine in rank was styled Archonby way of 
eminence, o c *Aq% wv ; sometimes "Aqxwv snawfiog, because the year 
was named from him. He attended to the domestic affairs of citizens, 
decided differences which arose between relatives, had the care of 
widows, appointed guardians, and took the oversight of certain festi- 
vals and solemnities, and also of theatres. — The second was called 
king, or archon king, agx U)V fiaoilevg. To him were assigned cer- 
tain duties pertaining to religious worship, which were originally per- 
formed by kings exclusively ; he was, in general, overseer of religious 
affairs. The third, named Polemarch, TcolsfiaQxog, attended to the 
domestic affairs of strangers and sojourners, performing the same du- 
ties in reference to them, which the first archon did for the citizens. 
In the time of the Persian war, he had an important share in manag- 
ing military affairs. — The six remaining archons were called Thes- 
mothetse (decrfiodsrai), and were chiefly occupied with legislative af- 
fairs ; they also took cognizance of such judicial matters as did not fall 
under other jurisdiction. 

The three principal Archons usually selected each two assistants, called naQ- 
iSqoi, assessors, who sat on the bench with the Archons, having been subjected to 
the same examinations with other magistrates, and being required to render in 
the same way an account (iv&wn) of their office. 



438 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

§ 102. Another magistracy at Athens, was that of the Eleven, d i> 
"Evdsxa, ten of whom were taken one from each of the ten tribes, 
and the other was their secretary (y^a^aTev's). They were 
properly overseers of the prisons, and directed in the execution of 
capital punishments. In later times they were also called vo[io<pvlaxeg. 
— These were different from the Phylarchi (qw'ia^ot), who were 
originally the inspectors of the ten tribes, and afterwards commanders 
in war. The Demarchi (tfjj^a^oi) performed similar duties in re- 
lation to the districts (drjfiot). — The Arj^iugx 01 ' had the care of the 
public register (A.ev'xw^oc), and made scrutiny in the assemblies, and 
collected fines of those not present. They were six in number ; but 
were aided by the To^orai, who were a sort of bailiffs or deputy sher- 
iffs, to the amount of 1000. — The Nofiodezat, were also 1000 in num- 
ber, and were charged with the examination of past laws to see if any 
were injurious or useless, and with some minor matters of police. 

Besides the magistrates above named there were many others connected with 
the treasury, the senate and assembly of the people, and the courts of justice ; 
the most important of them will be noticed in connection with those topics. 
There were also various other public functionaries, who were not strictly speak- 
ing magistrates, but ought perhaps some of them to be named here. 

The 'PijTOQig, orators, were ten in number, appointed by lot to plead public 
causes in the senate and assembly ; they were sometimes called owtjyoqoi, and 
were a diiferent body from the avvSmot, who were appointed by the people. 

The IlQ80§stg, ambassadors, were chosen usually by the people,sometimes by the 
senate, to treat with foreign states. When sent with full power, they were called 
IlQiaStig avToxQuroQtg ; generally their power was limited (§ 143). They were usu- 
ally attended by heralds (x>jqvxe ;) ; this name, however, was sometimes given to 
the persons sent on an embassy. We may also mention the notaries, yQa^aretg ; 
besides the great number employed by the various magistrates, there were three 
publicly chosen; one by the assembly of the people, to recite before them; and 
two by the senate, one to keep the laws, and the other the records in general. The 
office was not at Athens very honorable, and was sometimes held by well educat- 
ed slaves, called Jrjfiiaioi. 

K 103. The ordinary revenues were of four sorts; (1) Tslrj, rents 
from public domains and other public property, and duties paid on ar- 
ticles of commerce and on certain pursuits and persons ; (2) >I>6qoi, 
tributes, or annual payments exacted from allied or subjected cities 
and states ; (3) Tiprlfiata, fines, which all went to the public treasury, 
except the tenth part devoted to the service of Minerva, and one fif- 
teenth appropriated for the other gods and the heroes, that were pat- 
rons of the city; (4) Aenovgyiav eyxvxXwi, periodical liturgies or 
services, in which individuals were required, for a time, to perform 
certain duties or maintain certain public establishments at their own 
expense. — Besides the ordinary, the necessities of the state sometimes 
required an extraordinary revenue; and then special taxes (eiocpogal) 
laid upon citizens and residents formed an important resource. 

On the whole subject of the Athenian revenues and expenditures, see Aug. 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. REVENUE OF ATHENS. 439 

Backh's Slaatshaushaltung der Athener. Mit 21 Inschriften. Berl. 1817. 2 vols. 8. 
Same, Eng. Transl. Public Economy of Athens. — Cf. Bancroft's Heeren, Ch.x. — 
Mitford, Ch. xxi. Sect. 1. 

Under Ti/t» ; 7«aTa or fines, must be included the fees or deposits (nQvtavtiu), 
which were demanded of both parties before beginning a suit in court ; these 
deposits were large in proportion to the sum brought into question by the trial. 
To the same head must be referred also the proceeds of confiscated property (<5ij- 
fnoTTQara). 

Under the Liturgies (XsiTovQylai) were included chiefly three, x°QVY' a , yvftra- 
oiaqxLv, and iarlaaig. Those, who rendered the first named service, (/ogijyoi) 
were required to pay the expenses of the whole chorus employed at the public 
festivals and theatrical exhibitions (§ 90). Those, to whom the second was as- 
signed, were obliged to furnish the oil and various necessaries for the wrestlers 
and other combatants in the public games. In the third service mentioned, cer- 
tain persons (iari&roQtg rav ipvXoir) provided entertainment or banquets, on the 
public festivals, for a whole tribe. 

These services were always assigned to the most wealthy citizens. In the 
time of Demosthenes there was the following system : each of the ten tribes 
pointed out 120 of the wealthiest citizens belonging to it ; the 1200 thus selected 
were divided into two portions according to their wealth, the nurv nXovoioi and 
the ijTTov nXovoioi ; these two parts were each formed in 10 classes or companies 
called avftfioQlai ; from the 10 ovfipoQiai of the more wealthy, 300 of the wealthi- 
est men were selected, who were required to furnish the republic with the neces- 
sary supplies of money and with the rest of the 1200 to perform all extraordinary 
duties in rotation. If any one of the 300 could name a person more wealthy than 
himself, he was excused. The residents (fthoixoi) sometimes performed these 
services. 

Besides the ordinary Xcirovqylai above mentioned, there were some extraordi- 
nary, particularly two in a time of war, TQnjQaox'i-a and daipoQa. The -rQir^aqxoi. 
were obliged to provide necessaries for the fleet and building of ships. The 
ilayiQovrt? were required to contribute money according to their ability for dif- 
ferent purposes. 

The manner, in which they performed such of these services as were assigned 
to them, and the degree of expense and splendor to which they went, became 
sometimes a subject of emulation among the rich and ambitious Athenians. 

§ 104. The legislative control of the financial concerns belonged 
to the people, and their administration and management to the senate. 
But a particular officer was at the head of the treasury, called rafiiag 
trfg xoivijg ngoaodov, because he had charge of the public revenue, 
and also ja/iiag t^? Sioix^aeayg, as having charge likewise of the 
public expenditures. He was chosen by the people (xeioorovia) for 
four years. There were many subordinate officers in the department of 
finance, One class consisted of such as attended to the collecting of 
the revenue, and to the previous arrangements. To this class belonged 
the nwlrjjai, ten in number, one from each tribe, having the care of 
of whatever the state sold or leased ; the nQccxzogeg, who received all 
fines imposed ; the emyqacpElg, who assessed the imposts and tributes ; 
the diuYQuyeig, who enrolled the names of families and individuals, 
and assessed to them their part in raising an extraordinary revenue; 
the exXoyeig, who collected the taxes, duties, rents &c. Telavai, were, 
properly, not officers, but such persons as took leases of public lands 
or other public property, and paid the rent to the officers.— A second 
class consisted of such officers as kept the monies collected, and dis- 
tributed them for public uses. Of this class were the anode xtou, ten 



440 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

in number, chosen by lot; and the tcc/aIcci, twv ibqwv xqrjudTuv, who 
had the care of the treasures in the temples (§ 28). — Such officers as 
were employed in keeping or examining the multifarious accounts of 
the department maybe considered as a third class, including the yqaft- 
fiaxBig, clerks, and vnoyQapficneig, under-clerks, and the dviiyqayeig, 
checking-clerks or auditors. Among the latter may be named partic- 
ularly the dvnyqacpe-og trig dtotxijaeiog, controller of the expenditure. 

Some of the causes of expenditure from the public treasury should be noted here. 
The public edifices and other works were Wilt only at a very great expense, 
and could be preserved in order only at a great annual cost. Pericles expended 
many thousands of talents upon works of architecture in Athens. The festi- 
vals were another source of expense; when we consider their number, and 
think of the cost of the sacrifical victims and offerings, the banquets, the proces- 
sions (nofiTial), the theatrical, musical and gymnastic entertainments, and the 
rich prizes sometimes bestowed, it is obvious that immense sums must have been 
expended in maintaining them. — Much was expended also in distributions or do- 
nations to the populace (Siavoftal.,SiaS6acig); the most important expenditure in 
this way was by the Siui^oUa, or distribution of the oboli to each poor citizen as 
theoric money [QewQixu, § 90). — Means of support for poor and disabled citizens 
(aSvvaroi), and also for children whose fathers had fallen in battle, were likewise 
furnished from the public treasury, and formed another item of expense. — In ad- 
dition to these, we must mention the expenses of the government, including the 
salaries of all the various magistrates and officers of different grades, and the 
wages of the senators (pio6bg povlivrixbg), and of those who attended the assem- 
bly (iuo6bg \xxXrfiiatnixbq. — The support of the army and navy required also 
large sums of money even in time of peace. In time of war, the expenses, not 
only of this class but of many others also, must have been greatly increased. 

It may be impossible to form any satisfactory estimate of the amount of these 
various expenditures. The comparative value of the precious metals in ancient 
and modern times must not be overlooked here, as they were, at least, three 
times as valuable then as now. 

§ 105. Among the public assemblies of the Greeks, which took 
into consideration the affairs of the whole state, the council of the Am- 
phictyons (ovvodog Afupixtvovcov, AiMpwxvovlu) is especially worthy 
of notice. According to common opinion, it was first instituted by 
Amphictyon son of Deucalion ; according to some, by Acrisius, king 
of Argos. The twelve people or states united in this council (id x6>v 
'EU.t]vav awsdgtov) used to meet by their delegates, two from each 
city ordinarily, at Thermopylae ; from this circumstance the delegates 
were called IlvXayogat,, and the council itself Ilvlaia. Sometimes 
they met at Delphi. They assembled only twice a year, in spring 
and autumn, unless on some extraordinary occasion. The design of 
the council was to adjust and settle public national disputes or difficul- 
ties, and the delegates had full power to make salutary changes and 
regulations. Some very important disputes, as e. g. between the Pla- 
taeans and Lacedaemonians, and between the Thebans and Thessalians, 
were terminated by this diet, which was continued to some time in the 
first century after Christ. 

See Fr. With. Tittmann, Ueber den Bund der Amphictyonen. Berl. 1812. 8.— 
Mitford, Ch. iii. Sect. 3. 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. ATHENIAN ASSEMBLIES AND SENATE. 441 

§ 106. Assemblies of the people (exxltjaicti) were very frequent 
at Athens, and had an important influence. In these the acts of the 
senate were canvassed, laws were proposed and approved or rejected, 
magistrates appointed, war declared, and the like. The place where 
they met was either the market-place (dyogd), or a broad space near 
the mountain called the Pnyz (nvv$), or the theatre of Bacchus. 
The ordinary assemblies (sxxljjoricct xvgiai) were held monthly on es- 
tablished days ; the extraordinary [exxlrjaiat, ovyxlTjzoi) were called 
on pressing and important emergencies. 

These meetings were managed and conducted by the Ilgvzdvsig, 
the ngoedgoi, and the ^EmtndTTjg. Before entering upon business a 
sacrifice, usually of a young pig, was offered. Then, the herald 
ordered silence, offered a prayer to the gods, and stated, on the direc- 
tion of the Ilgosdgo^ the subject to be discussed by the assembly, and 
those above fifty years of age were first invited to speak ; after which 
any one above thirty, of fair character, had the liberty. Whatever 
came before the assembly had already been discussed in the senate, 
whose decision upon it (ngofiovlsvfia, ipi\q>i(Jiia Tfjg fiovXfjg) received 
its full legality only by the vote of the assembly, and was then called 
emphatically a decree, ipi}q>io[ia. Often, however, a decision of the 
senate without the confirmation of the assembly was in force for a 
year ; at least it was so in those cases, in which, in order to avoid too 
frequent meetings, the people had granted an independent validity. 

The people voted by stretching forth their hands (x^Qorovla), and sometimes 
by a mode of balloting in which beans (r.vapoi) and stones (yijcpoi) were cast 
into vessels prepared for the purpose (xuSoi). — When the business was completed, 

the HQvTuveig dismissed the assembly. G. F. Schamann, De.Comitiis Athe- 

niensium lib. III. Gryphisw. 1819. 8. 

§ 107. The Senate, or higher council (tf arm (?oi/L|) consisted, ac- 
cording to the arrangements of Clisthenes, of 500 ; and was therefore 
styled the senate or council of the 500 (if §ovl^ twv nsvTaxoaiav). 
In earlier times it consisted of 400, and in later, of 600 members. 
The 500 were chosen annually by lot, 50 from a tribe, which furnished 
a ready division of the senate into ten equal parts. Each of these di- 
visions, containing 50 members, took charge of the public business 
for 35 or 36 days, in an order of rotation decided by lot ; and the mem- 
bers of the division having this charge at any period were called IIgv~ 
zdvsig for the time, and the period itself was called IlgvTaveiu. The 
50 IlQVTdvstg were subdivided into 5 portions of 10 members. These 
portions attended to their business in rotation, each for a period of 7 
days, and the members were called Ilgoedgoi for that time, the name 
being taken from their sitting in the senate as presiding officers, 

56 



44'2 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

From the ITqosSqoi was elected the 1 EmoidiTig, who was at their head, 
and of course at the head of the senate, but held the place only for a 
single day. 

It was the business of the nyvrdveig to assemble the senate, and pro- 
pose the subjects of deliberation. They also conducted the meetings 
of the people, in which, however, they only presided in connection 
with 9 nQoedQot., who were chosen out of the other divisions of the 
senate and had an ^Emardryg at their head. The IJqvidveig had a 
common hall, where they passed most of their time daily, called the 
Prytancum {nqviavelov), near the senate-house (fiovletov). The sen- 
ate assembled every day, excepting festivals. The members expressed 
their opinions standing, after which the votes were taken. They re- 
ceived a drachma (SQa/fn]) per day for every day's attendance. The 
power of the senate was very great. 

The senators were all required to take what was called the senatorial oath 
(tov povXevTixbv o£)xo>') to do nothing contrary to the laws. In voting, they cast 
each a black or white bean into the box or chest for the purpose ; if the number 
of white exceeded that of the black, the decree or resolution was affirmed ; other- 
wise rejected. 

§ 108. No court of justice in Greece was more celebrated than the 
Areopagus at Athens. Its name, 'Aqeionayog, signifies hill of Mars, 
and was derived from the circumstance, that the court was held on a hill 
so called, near the citadel. Others derive the name from the tradition, 
that the god Mars was the first criminal tried before this tribunal. The 
time of its establishment is uncertain, but was very early, before the 
age of Solon, who did not institute it, but enlarged its jurisdiction and 
power. The members of this body ^Aqeionaylrav) were originally 
the most upright and judicious citizens of every condition, but after 
the modifications made by Solon, only such as had been elected Ar- 
chons. Their office was held for life. All high crimes, as theft, rob- 
bery, assassination, poisoning, arson, and offences against religion, 
came before this court, which inflicted in such cases death or fines. 
At first, its sittings were only on the last three days of each month; but 
afterwards they were more frequent and, at last, daily ; they were al- 
ways in the open air, and at night. The sitting was opened with a 
sacrifice, upon which both the accuser and the accused took an oath 
with direful imprecations. Then, either personally or by attorneys, 
they urged their cause; but no ornaments of rhetoric, no attempts to 
move the passions, were ever allowed. After this, the judges gave 
their decision by means of white or black stones. As the court always 
sat in the dark, the white pebbles were distinguished by holes bored in 
them. Two urns were used, one of wood to receive the white stones, 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. ATHENIAN COURTS. 443 

which were votes to acquit the defendant, and one of brass to receive 
the black, which on the other hand were votes for his condemnation. 
The sentence was immediately put into execution. In early times 
the dignity and purity of this tribunal stood very high ; but afterwards 
its character fell in the general corruption of morals. 

In their oath (Sitopooia) the plaintiff and defendant swore by the furies (atpval 
6cal). In the trial they were placed upon what were called the silver stones Qxqyv- 
(joOs ?.i6ovg), the plaintiff on that of Injury (vfioig), and the defendant on that of 
Impudence Qxvaldeia), or of Innocence (hrairia). — The brazen urn stood in front 
of the other, and was called 6 'dfinQooQev ; also 6 xvgiog, because votes cast into it 
declared the accusation valid ; and 6 BavaTov, as it decreed death. The wooden 
was termed 6 6nloo>, 6 axvyog, or 6 ~iMov. — Respecting the pebbles; cf. Anthon's 
Note to Potter, p. 71. / 

On the Areopagus and the other courts of Athens, see A. W. Heffter, Die 
Athenseische Gerichtsverfassung. Cceln 1822. 8. — M. H. E. Meier und G. F. 
Schumann, Der Attische Process. Vier Buecher. Halle, 1824, 8. 

§ 109. The , Eq>erat. were also persons of distinguished merit, who 
constituted the court called 'Enl JJalXaSia, from the statue of Minerva 
(said by some to have been brought from Troy) in the temple, where 
it was held. Its origin is ascribed to Demophoon, a son of Theseus, 
and by others to Draco, who if he did not first institute it, certainly 
modified it anew. The judges were fifty-one, selected from noble 
families, five from each tribe, and one appointed by lot, all over fifty 
years of age. Solon confirmed the powers of this court ; but refer- 
red to the Areopagus all the more important questions, leaving to the 
'Ecphat, jurisdiction only over homicide, injuries followed by death, 
and the like. 

There were three other less important courts belonging to the class 
which had cognizance of actions concerning blood '. [inl x&v tpovix&vY 
— The court 'Enl Jelcpwla was held in the temple of Apollo Delphi- 
nius, and took cognizance of cases where the defendants confessed the 
fact but pleaded some justification. The court 'Ev nyvxaveicp was 
held at the Prytaneum (§ 107) and investigated cases of deaths by 
accidents, unknown agents, or persons that had escaped.— The court 
'Ev tf>oearrot was held upon the sea-shore in the Piraeus, and heard 
the causes of such criminals as had fled out of their own country. — 
In all these courts the 3 Ecphoa, presided and pronounced the sentence. 

§ 110. Besides the courts already described, there was another 
class having jurisdiction only in civil cases (enl r&v drj/xotixav), of 
which there were six. The most important was the 'Hfoala. Its 
name was either from dlLa, multitude, on account of the throng attend- 
ing it, or from rfhog, sun, on account of its being held in the open air. 
The number of its judges (if foaozal dixaaxal) was not always the 
same ; the whole number amounted to 6000, who were chosen for one 



444 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

year by lot ; out of these were taken the number requisite in each par- 
ticular trial or action. The least number that sat was 50 ; sometimes 
the whole G000 were assembled ; the more usual number was 200 or 
500. It was the province of the S-eufiodstai. (^ 101) to introduce the 
action into court (siodyeiv Sixtjv etj to SixuavriQi,ov), and full power 
was given by them to the judges to investigate and decide the case. 
When the accused did not deny the jurisdiction (jr«§aj'oag>?;) or re- 
quest a delay (vnofioaia), both he and the accuser were put under oath. 
Then the parties deposited a sum of money as security (■rtQvravsIa), 
and proceeded to bring forward the cause. In doing this they were 
limited to a definite time, measured by a water-clock (xleipvdQa). The 
decision was given in the same way as in the Areopagus (fy 108) ; 
and the defendant, in case of a sentence of death, was given over to 
the "Evdexa (§ 102), and in case of a fine, to the ngaxxogeg or Exlo- 
yeig (§ 104). If he could not pay the fine, he was cast into prison, 
and if he died in confinement not only the disgrace, but the punish- 
ment also, fell upon his son. 

The bailiff or deputy employed to summon (nqoaxaUtobai) the defendant be- 
fore the Thesmosthetae or witnesses before the court was termed xh'ptaq ; the 
oath of the plaintiff before the opening of the trial was called n^ow^ooia, that of 
the defendant, uvrwfiooia ; a name for both was Siuifioaia, Door-keepers (xiyxM- 
Seg) were appointed by a magistrate to guard the court from a crowd. The 
amount of the security-money was, as has been hinted (§ 103), in proportion to 
the amount at stake in the action. In trivial cases it was a drachm and called 
naQaoTuotg ■ the deposite made by one, who sued for goods confiscated by the 
state, or for inheritances of a certain kind, was termed naqaxarapoXij. If the 
plaintiff (dimxun) failed of proving the indictment (airla) against the defendant 
{(fcvymv), he paid a fine, called ino^Xia. While the action (Jltaiig) was proceed- 
ing or was in suspense, a notice of it, inscribed on a brazen tablet, was nung up 
[sy.xuo&ai) in one of the most public places of the city, The witnesses ipaQrvQi?) 
were all put under a solemn oath, which they took together at the altar erected 
in the court-room. Their testimony was called for by the advocates {owt'iyoooi) 
as they wanted it in proceeding with their pleas.^-gee Sir Writ. Jones' Preface 
to Isseus (Cf. P. II. § 104, 2]. 

The office of the judges, Sixaaral, resembled that of our jurymen ; they were 
usually paid three oboli a day. The number of prosecutions and trials was 
very great. There were many in Athens, who seem to have made it their busi- 
ness to discover grounds of accusation against the wealthy. These men gained 
the name of ovxcxpavTcu, a term which was first applied to such as prosecuted 
persons that exported figs (ioto rov avxa ipairtiv), a law prohibiting such exporta- 
tion having been enacted at a time when there was a great scarcity of the fruit. 
Cf. Mitford, Ch. xxxi. Sect. 1. 

The judicial process was substantially the same in the various courts. — The 
other civil courts besides the Helima, were those called HaQufivOTov, Tgtytuvqv, To 
Kaivbv, To ijil Avxov, and To Mijti^ok. 

§ 111. In addition to the ten public courts, there was also a judi- 
cial body, called 6t TsaaagcixovTa, consisting of 40 persons chosen by 
lot, who held their courts successively in the several districts of Attica, 
having cognizance of cases where the sum or value at stake did not 
exceed 10 drachmas, There was likewise a body of arbitrators, Ji* 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. ATHENIAN PUNisHMENTS. 445 

aiTwral, consisting of 440 aged men, 44 from each tribe, holding of- 
fice for a year, and authorized to settle minor controversies within 
their respective tribes, but subject to appeal. These were called k\t\- 
Qwxoi, being chosen by lot. Disputing parties were allowed to choose 
arbitrators for themselves ; these were called 8t-allaxzi\q(,oi, or xax" 
enngonr[v Jiun-qxal. Minor causes could not be entered in the supe- 
rior courts, until they had been heard before some court of arbitrators. 

On the Jittirtiral, see M. H. HuAswalcker, Ueber der ceffentlichen und Privat- 
Schiedsrichter Diaeteten in Athen, und den Process von demselben. Jena, 1812. — 
The number is stated by some at 40, and 4 from each tribe, by a different reading 
of the passage in Ulpian upon Demosthenes. Class. Jour, xxxix. 350. 

§ 1 12. Actions or suits were divided into two classes, public (Si- 
kcu Synovial, xcnrjyooiac.), such as concerned the whole state, and pri- 
vate (dixcu iSiai, and dixui, simply), which concerned only individuals. 
Of the former class were the following : rgacp-r}, an action for the 
highest crimes, as e. g. murder (qsovog), poison (cpdqfiaxov), arson 
(nvQxaid), sacrilege (ieooovlia), and many others esteemed less hein- 
ous ; ftdcng, an action for. the crime of embezzling or squandering 
in some way public property; *Evdei£ig, an action against per- 
sons usurping prerogatives not belonging to them, or refusing 
trial although confessing guilt; ^Anaywyr), an action against a 
criminal taken in the act ; ' ' Eqi^yijaig, against a criminal found in con- 
cealment and there visited by a magistrate; 'AvSgolrjipia, against 
such as concealed a murderer, which allowed the relatives of the mur- 
dered person to seize three persons connected with the concealing 
party and retain them until further satisfaction ; 'EicrayyeUa, an ac- 
tion for a public, offence against the state, or for a breach of trust, or 
against the Aianrjxal when one was dissatisfied with their decisions. 
— Actions belonging to the class called private were far more numer- 
ous, and were named according to their various occasions. 

Some of the public actions included under the general denomination of 
y q a ip ij and not named above, were the following: TQav/ia ~ix riQoroiag, a wound 
given by design ; fiovlevotc, conspiracy; aoipt-ia, impiety; nQodoaia, treachery; 
desertion, whether from the army, 7.unoarqanov, or the fleet, Umovavnov, or 
from a particular station, U in or ut,iov ; frivolous prosecution, avxotpavria; bribery 
both against the giver, dexaofibg, and against the the receiver, SiogoSoxla. 

Some of the private actions or suits were the following: xaxyyoqiag Sixrj, an 
action of slander ; xQiovg Slxrj, an action for usury ; aixiag dixy, an action of bat- 
tery; |W«!?i) g, of trespass; xXonijg, of theft ; xp sv§o/.iaQrvQiov for perjury. 

§ 113. The kinds of punishment were various according to the 
nature and degree of the offence, for which they were inflicted. Of 
those not capital, the following were the principal : ( 1 ) Ti^fiaxa, 
pecuniary fine, called also Zy/nia ; this was sometimes aggravated by 
corporeal punishment : (2) 'Aripia, disgrace, which was of three 



446 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

kinds ; first, the loss of some privilege but not of possessions, second, 
the loss of the rights of a citizen with confiscation of property, third, 
the loss of all privileges civil and sacred both by the criminal himself 
and his whole posterity forever : (3) JovXsla, slavery ; this however, 
by Solon's laws, could be inflicted only on freedmen, sojourners, and 
such as had been disgraced (d'xt^oi) : (4) Siiyfiara, brand-marks, by 
a hot iron on the forehead or hands, inflicted chiefly on run-away 
slaves or freedmen: (5) 2-vqhj^ in which the name of the offender 
and his crime were inscribed on a pillar exposed to public view ; (6) 
Jeoftdg, bonds ; of which there were several kinds, as the xvqxav (also 
xloidg), a wooden collar, which bent down the head and neck; the 
zoift^, a kind of stocks, in which the feet or legs were made fast ; the 
oavig, a piece of wood to which the offender was bound as to a pillory; 
and the rgo%6g, a sort of wheel, applied to slaves, who were bound to 
it and tortured: (7) <Pvyr}, dsupvyia, banishment, with confiscation of 
goods. 

§ 114. The Ostracism, oCTgaxiafidg, was not, properly speaking, 
a judicial punishment. It was a banishment for ten years, of such 
persons as were thought to be dangerous to the state. The votes were 
given by shells, oazqaxa ; each man marked upon his oarqaxov the 
name of the person he would banish ; if the same name was upon 
the majority of 6000 shells, the person was sentenced to banishment. 
The most upright and most distinguished citizens fell under this sen- 
tence ; and the Athenians finally abolished it, as the Syracusans did a 
similar custom among them. The Syracusan punishment was called 
neralKTiid g, because the names were written on leaves, nixaXa, 

The ostracism is said by some to have been instituted by Hippias, son of Hip- 
parchus; others say by Clisthenes B. C. about 510, who was first banished by it. 
It continued about 100 years ; it was abolished B. C. about 412, and because it 
was then degraded by being employed on a very contemptible person by the name 
of Hyperbolus. Among the illustrious Athenians, who were driven from the 
city by this pernicious custom, were Themistocles, Thucydides, Cimon and Aris- 
tides. 

§ 115. The punishment of death, Qdvaxog, was inflicted in sever- 
al modes ; as by the sword, Zicpog, beheading ; by the rope, Bgoxog, 
strangling or hanging ; by poison, ftdquaxov, drinking hemlock (xca- 
veiov} usually; by the precipice, Kgijfivdg, casting from a rock or 
height; by the KaTartoPTia/io g, drowning. 

Other modes of inflicting death were, by the 2ravQog, crucifying, a mode used 
by the Greeks less frequently than by the Romans ; by the cudgels, Tvfircava, 
beating in which the malefactor was hung on a pole ; by throwing into a pit , B&q- 
a&qov, which was a noisome hole with sharp spikes at the top and bottom (called 
a\so" Oqvyfia) ; by stoning, Ai6o§oi.ia ; and by burning, IIvq. 

§ 116. Public rewards and honors were awarded to meritorious 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. ATHENIAN LAWS. 447 

persons. Among these, were the following; (I) ngoedgia, the front 
or first seat, in the the theatres, at the festivals, and on all puhlic occa- 
sions; (2) 'Etxuv, a statue, erected in a public place; (3) Hreyavoi, 
crowns, conferred by the senate, or the people, or by particular tribes 
and boroughs upon their own members ; these were most frequently a 
reward for valor and military skill ; (4) *Aielew, exemption from tax- 
es, which was of various degrees, but seldom extended to the contribu- 
tions required for war and for the navy ; (5) Shrjaig iv IJ^vxavelco, 
entertainment in the common hall, called Prytaneum ; originally 
limited to a single day, but- afterwards daily and permanent in the 
case of some (deionoi) ; it was an honor bestowed on the most wor- 
thy men, sometimes upon whole families, and was viewed as a high 
distinction. After the death of such as had received special honors, 
their children and descendants enjoyed in some measure the benefit of 
the same. These honors were obtained with difficulty in the better 
times of the republic, but became quite common afterwards, and lost 
their salutary influence in a state of corrupted manners. 

§ 117. No people of antiquity was so much celebrated for the 
wisdom of their laws as the Greeks. The first legislation in Greece 
is ascribed to Ceres and Triptolemus (P. III. § 61). Afterwards, 
Theseus, Draco, Solon, Clisthenes and Demetrius Phalereus, were the 
most distinguished authors of the laws adopted by the Athenians. 
The number of the Attic laws was constantly increased with the 
changing circumstances of the state. It was commonly the province 
of the IlQvxdvEiQ to propose laws. A proposal adopted in the assem- 
bly was called either a decree, <prjq>t,a[itt, when it had only some specific 
application, or a law, vo/iog, when its obligation was universal and un- 
changing. An ordinance of Solon required an annual revision of 
the laws to ascertain what alterations or additions might be necessary. 
His own laws were inscribed on tablets of wood (Cf. P. I. § 53.) 

If one wished to introduce a law, he named it to the HqvTavet?, who brought it 
before the senate; if the senate approved, it was called a Hqo%ovlivj.ia ; it was 
written by the Hqvraveig upon a tablet, which was fixed up publicly at the statues 
of the EjKowfioi, some days before the meeting of the assembly; from this cir- 
cumstance, it was also called nqoyqanua. 

It will not comport with the limits of this sketch to detail particular Athenian 
laws.— These may be found, in Sam. Petiti ad leges Atticas Commentar. (Cf. P. 
II. § 55.3), and in Jurisprudent Romana el Attica. T. iii. — Comp. Jo. Meursii 
Themis Attica. L. B. 1624. 4.— See also Potter's Archeeologia Graeca, B. i. ch. 26. 
—The most remarkable laws of the Greeks generally are exhibited by Raphe in 
NitscKs Beschreibungdes hasuslichen &c. Zustandes der Griechen, Th. 4. 

§ 118. Next to Athens, Lacedfemon was the most flourishing of 
the Grecian states, and its most remarkable antiquities should be 
briefly noticed (§ 40). The province, in which this city lay, bore the 



448 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

same name, but was called also Lelegia, QEbalia, Laconia, or Laconi- 
ca, and was the largest part of the Peloponnesus. The city of Lac- 
edaemon or Sparta was situated in an unbroken plain, on the river Eu- 
rotas, and was in early times, according to the direction of Lycurgus, 
without walls. Its soil was fertile, and its internal plan and its 
edifices such as to be respectable, although they did not give a just 
idea of the power and resources of the state. 

On the civil constitution of this state, we may refer to /. K. F. Manso's Sparta, 
ein Versuch zur Aufkterung der Geschichte und Verfassung dieses Staats. 
Leipz. 1800t1805. 3 vols. 8. — Nitsch's und Hospfner's Beschreibung des Zustandes 
derGriechen. — Mueller's Hist, and Antiquities of the Doric Race. Transl. by 
Tufnell and Lewis. Oxf. 1830. 2 vols. 8, — W. Drummond, Review of the Govern- 
ments of Sparta and Athens. 

§ 1 19. In Lacedsemon the citizens were of two kinds, such as had 
received the rights of citizenship by inheritance from their parents, 
and such as had acquired them personally. They were together divi- 
ded into 6 tribes, of which that of the Heraclidae was the first. Each 
of these was again sub-divided into five classes, called d>6al, making 
30 in all. The presidents or leaders of these were called regdaxTat. 

The first class of citizens, being of free-born parents, and having complied 
with all the Spartan discipline, were called the o/«hoi, or equals ; while the other 
class were termed {mofieioveg, inferiors, including freedmen and sons of freed- 
men, and all such as had not fully conformed to the Spartan discipline. 

The division into 6 tribes, above referred to, was made by Lycurgus. Some 
state 5 as the number, not considering the Heraclidm as a separate tribe. The 
others were the Aifiv&rai, so called from their residing near the marsh or morass 
{Vuivtj) on the north side of the city ; the KwoaovQtig, so called from their vicini- 
ty to a branch of mount Taygetus termed Kwoaovqa {dog's tail) on account of its 
figure; the Utravarai ; the Msaaoarai ; and the AlyuSai, who received this 
name because they resided near the tomb of iEgeus, Alysvq. 

There was another division of the Spartans, into 6 fi&qcu, consisting only of 
such as were of a proper age for military service. — Robinson's Archaeol. Grsec. 
p. 138. 

Mueller states that in every Doric state there were three tribes, Hylleis, Dyma- 
nes, Pamphyli, or Hyllean, Dymanatan and Pamphylian, and says, we cannot sup- 
pose the existence in Sparta of any other than these genuine Doric tribes. He 
represents each of these as divided into 10 &>§ai, and addsthat two and probably 
more, yet hot all, of the d>§al of the Hyllean tribe must have been Her aclidce (Hist, 
and Ant. of Dor. Race, as above cited, vol. ii. p. 76, 79, 80). 

§ 120. It is known, that the Spartans were obliged, on the birth 
of their children, to subject them to a close scrutiny as to their vigor 
and soundness of constitution, and to submit it to the decision of the 
presidents of the d>@al, or clans, whether they were suitable to be pre- 
served and raised ; a regulation designed to prevent a population of 
weak and sickly citizens. The education of the children was treated 
with the greatest care. All the citizens not only had equal rights, but 
also a community of goods and privileges. The lands were, by the 
laws of Lycurgus,' equally apportioned among them. 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. SPARTAN CONSTITUTION. 449 

As soon as a child was born, it was carried to aplace called Lesche (Xia/>i) to 
be examined by the elders of the family or clan. If disapproved as having an 
imperfect frame or a weak constitution, it was cast into a gulf, called ' Ano&irai, 
nearmount Taygetus. If approved, a share of the public lands was assigned to 
it, and it was taken back to the father's house and laid on a shield with a spear 
placed near it. The whole education was entrusted to the parent until the child 
reached the age of seven; then the regular public education (ayuiyl,) commenced. 
The boys at thisage were enrolled in the classes termed Agelce (ayiXcu or (Sovui, 
herds) ; such as refused this lost the rights of citizenship ; none but the immedi- 
ate heir to the throne was excepted ; the other sons of the kings were obliged to 
submit to the correction of the master (naidovopos). The discipline was more 
strict after the age of twelve. At about sixteen they were called oiSevvui. At 
eighteen they entered the classes termed t (pijSot, and about two years after receiv- 
ed the appellation of siQeveg, and were admitted to the public banquets. At thir- 
ty they were ranked as men, tbtfoi, and were allowed to undertake public offices. 
—Mueller, as cited § 118, vol. ii. p. 313. 

§ 121. The slaves among- the Lacedaemonians were treated with 
great cruelty. There appears to have been but one class, viz. the Helots 
('Edujeg), who according to the common account were derived from 
the maritime town Helos ('Elog) captured by the Spartans. Others 
consider the name as derived from the verb elu, and signifying pris- 
oners. The unhappy Messenians taken in the second Messenian war 
were incorporated among the Helots. They were required to culti- 
vate the land, and perform the most laborious and dangerous services in 
war. They were exposed to every sort of abuse, and even to the mur- 
derous attack of the young Spartans, especially in the custom termed 
KovnTeia, which was an annual legalized hunt against these degraded 
subjects. Yet some among them, as a reward of distinguished merit, 
obtained liberty and citizenship, on occasion of receiving which they 
were crowned with garlands and led about the temples. They then 
were called inevvaxrot,, or dcpixou, or veoda/iddeig. The last epithet 
seems to have designated such as enjoyed more of civil rights, than 
the common freedmen, whose rank was far below that of the free-born. 
The number of slaves in this state was very large. 

There was another class of inhabitants in the province of Laceda^mon, who, 
although not slaves, were yet held in a stateof subjection by the Spartans. They 
were the natives of towns reduced by the latter to a tributary and dependent 
state ; they were called Perimcl ( ntqioixoi). — Respecting these and the Helots, 
see Mueller, vol. ii. p. 17, 30. 

§ 122. At the head of government were two kings or leaders 
(aqxayeTai), who must be certainly descended from the Heraclidae, 
and possess an unexceptionable exterior. They did not possess the 
full regal authority (nufiftuodela), but a power limited by the laws, to 
which they were accustomed every month to swear obedience. In 
war their power was greatest. They had also the oversight of the 
worship of the gods, and sometimes performed the office of priests. 

In peace their chief civil prerogative was to preside in the senate and propose 
the subjects for deliberation ; and each could give his vote on any question. In. 
57 



450 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

war the Spartan kings had unlimited command (oiQarriyog tcvToxQurwQ),a\\d could 
even put to death without trial (h x*'Q<>s ro/tw]. Many dissensions grew out of 
the double monarchy (diaQ/i'i). The royal revenue was very great. Cf. Mueller, 
ii. p. 106. 

^ 123. Lycurgus established a senate of 28 men, of blameless 
character, and upwards of 60 years old, which was called ysqovoia, 
or ye go via. The members had an equal right of voting with the 
two kings, and rendered no account of the manner of discharging 
their office. — There were also 5 Ephori (ecpo^ot), who had an over- 
sight of the whole state, and whose duty required them to assert the 
rights of the people against the kings. They were chosen from 
among the people, without reference to condition. — The Beidtaioi 
were a class of officers, who were placed over the eqpi^ot between 
the age of 18 and 20. 

The Ephori enjoyed a power which was called laorvQawog, and were not requir- 
ed to give any account of their discharge of it ; but they were appointed only for 
one year. Their tribunal (ttpoQuov) was in the forum. — The BttSiatoi were five 
in number with a sixth as their nqiofivs. They had the inspection of the ■ gym- 
nastic exercises, called nlaraviota, because performed in a spot surrounded with 
plane trees ; it was their province to decide disputes arising at the gymnasia. 
They had their tribunal or place of council also in the forum. The common 
name for the council-halls of these and other magistrates was aq /sfa. 

§ 124. The Spartans had other magistrates ; as the Nofioyvlaxeg, 
who saw that the laws were maintained and executed ; the 'Aq/ioov- 
voi, to whom was entrusted the oversight of the women, to observe 
their lives and manners and direct their exercises ; the 'EpneXwqoi*, 
who preserved order and decorum in assemblies of the people and at- 
tended in general to the police of the forum or market; the Ilvdioi, 
four in number, appointed by the kings, and employed to consult ora- 
cles ; the IlQo^svot,, who were also appointed by the kings, and had 
charge of the reception of strangers ; the JJgdSixoi, who had the care 
of the young kings as tutors ; the Ilcudovofiot,, whose office was to 
oversee and manage the boys put under their care at the age of 7 
the 'Aquoaxal, who were a sort of sheriffs in the city and the province 
the nolifiaqxoi', who under the kings superintended the affairs of war, 
and also attended to some matters of police in the city ; ' Innaygixui. 
three officers, who commanded each a chosen band of 100 horsemen 

§ 125. The assemblies (exxXijaiai) of the people were similar to 
those at Athens. In some of them only native citizens of Sparta met ; 
in others there were also delegates from the towns and cities belong- 
ing to the province Laconia ; in assemblies of the latter class were dis- 
cussed all affairs of common interest and importance to the whole 
state. Originally the kings and senate had the power of convening 
the assemblies ; it was afterwards vested in the Ephori, who also pre- 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. SPARTAN ASSEMBLIES AND COURTS. 451 

sided in them. The votes were given by utterance of voice (flor] nal 
ov yj7Jcf,a)), and the majority decided by the loudest acclamation, or by 
a subsequent division and counting of the two parties. 

The assembly composed only of the citizens of Sparta was called fuxqa Ix- 
xAijola, and usually met once every month. Every citizen capable of bearing 
arms might attend, and, if above the age of 30, might speak. The meetings 
were originally in the open air, but at a later period were held in an edifice cal- 
led oxiug erected lor the purpose. — The other assembly was called simply, or by 
way of eminence, "sxxhrpla. It consisted of the kings, the senators, the magis- 
trates, and the deputies of Laconia. 

§ 126. The assembly also, which was collected at the public and 
common meals and termed ovaanla, qoettfma, and cpdlzKx, was design- 
ed for the purpose of speaking upon matters of public importance. 

In this assembly, kings, magistrates and certain citizens, met together in certain 
halls, where a number of tables were set, for fifteen persons each. No new mem- 
ber could be admitted to any table but by the unanimous consent of all belonging 
to the same. Every member contributed to the provisions, from his own stores ; 
a specified quantity of barley meal or cakes (jiatdi), wine, cheese and figs, and a 
small sum of money for meat, was expected from each. A close union was 
formed between those of the same table. The regular meal was termed alxXov ; 
after this was a desert called Inair.lov. The men only were admitted; small 
children were allowed to sit on stools near their fathers and receive a half share 
without vegetables (a^aujiaxcvara) ; the youth and boys ate in other companies. 
At table they sat or reclined on couches of hard oak. The chief dish was the 

black bloth QisXag twpbg). — Mueller, ii. 289.' The Spartans had also another 

kind of solemn feast called xonlg, to which foreigners and boys were admitted 
along with the citizens. Robinson, p. 159. 

§ 127. Judicial actions were very summary among the Spartans. 
Eloquence found no place in them ; no advocates were employed ; 
every one was obliged to plead his own cause. There were three 
distinct jurisdictions, that of the kings, the senate, and the ephori, each 
of which formed a tribunal for the decision of a certain class of ques- 
tions. The most important questions and particularly all of a capi- 
tal nature belonged to the senate. In minor disputes, the parties were 
allowed to choose arbitrators for themselves. 

Cf. Robinson, B. ii. Ch. 22. — On the authority of the Ephori. Mueller, B. iii. 
Ch. 7. and B. iii. Ch. 2. § 2 on the Spartan Courts. 

§ 128. The punishments were various and in part similar to those 
at Athens. The most common mode of inflicting death was by 
strangling or suffocation. — Stealing was punished not so much for the 
theft committed, as for the want of shrewdness and dexterity betrayed 
by the offender in allowing himself to be detected. 

There were, on the other hand, various rewards and distinctions be- 
stowed on persons of merit both while living and after death. 

Strangling was effected by means of a rope (fiQoxog, Pqoyx»$) \ it; was always 
done in the night and in a room of the public prison called Jixag. Death was 
also inflicted by casting the malefactor into the pit called Kaiadag ; this was al- 



452 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AOKS. 

ways done likewise by night. Aristomenes the Messenian was cast into this, but 
survived the fall and effected an escape, which was considered as very wonder- 
ful. Cf. Mil ford, Ch. iv. Sect. 4. Besides the punishments Z^ila, 'Arip'ia 

and ICvcpwr or xXoloc,, mentioned among Athenian penalties (§ 113), the Spartans 
had Maoriywais, whipping, which the offender received as he was driven through 
the city, and Ksvrijais, goading, which was a similar punishment. Banishment, 
<t>vyi], seems not to have been a regular punishment inflicted by sentence; but 
was voluntary, and chosen in order to escape death or infamy (uriftia). — Cf. 
Mullet; ii. 235. 

Among the distinctions conferred on the meritorious, the HooeSqa, first seat 
in a public assembly, was highly honorable. Much value was attached lo the ol- 
ive-croion, 'EXauje oriyavos, as a reward for bravery, and to the thongs, BeieXontg, 
with which victors in the contests were bound. But it was one of the highest 
honors of the city to be elected into the number of the three hundred constituting 

the three chosen bands of horsemen (§ 124), termed JoyaSig. Tocommemorate 

the dead, statues, cenotaphs (y.evoruipia) and other monuments were erected. 

§ 129. The legislation of Sparta had Lycurgus chiefly for its au- 
thor, and was marked by some strong peculiarities. The form of 
government was distinguished from that of all the other states by its 
union of monarchial with aristocratical and democratical traits. 
There were in Sparta no written laws ; they were transmitted orally 
from one generation to another ; on this account Lycurgus styled 
them QTJTQai,. They were not numerous, and were chiefly designed 
to promote bravery and hardihood, and hinder all luxury and volup- 
tuousness. Although they underwent many alterations in minor 
points, they retained their authority through a period of above 800 
years. (Cf. Mueller, ii. p. 97. 235.) 

§ 130. Next to the states of Athens and Sparta, the island of Crete 
presents a constitution the most remarkable. It is here, as has been 
stated (§ 38), that we find the origin of the institutions of Lycurgus. 
During the republican government which succeeded the monarchical, 
it was customary to elect 10 officers annually as chief magistrates. 
These were called Cosmi, xoafiot,, and were taken only from particular 
families. Under them was a Senate, which was consulted only on 
important questions ; it consisted of 28 members, who, for the most 
part had previously held the office of Cosmi. There was also an or- 
der of knights, who were required to keep horses at their own expense 
for the public use, and to serve in time of war. The power of popu- 
lar assemblies was not great ; they usually did nothing but confirm 
the decrees of the higher authorities. (Cf. Mueller, ii. 99. 134). 

§ 131. The Cretan laws were in general wise, as appears from 
some traces of them found in different writers. — Like the Spartans, the 
citizens of Crete had public meals, which they called dvdqsta. — Slaves 
were treated with comparative mildness. 

Three different classes of dependents existed in the island ; the public bonds- 
men, called by the Cretans p.voia; the slaves of individual citizens, aiptxfiiStai; 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. CRETAN AND THEBAN STATES. 453 

and the tributaries, vn^y.ooi. Perhaps there was no Grecian state in which the de- 
pendent classes were so little oppressed as in Crete. In general, every employ- 
ment and profession, with the exception of the gymnasia and the military ser- 
vice, was permitted to them. — Mueller, ii. 5. 

The name avSqua is supposed to have been given to the public meals, because, 
as at Sparta, men alone were admitted to the tables. A woman, however, had 
the care of the public tables at Crete. The Cretans were distinguished by their 
great hospitality ; with every two tables for citizens there was one for foreigners. 
—Mueller, ii. 225. 

' Curiosity is excited,' observes Mitford,' by that system of laws, which, in an 
age of savage ignorance, violence, and uncertainty among surrounding nations, 
inforced civil order, and secured civil freedom to the Cretan people ; which was 
not only the particular model of the wonderful polity, so well known to us through 
the fame of Lacedaemon, but appears to have been the general fountain of Gre- 
cian legislation and jurisprudence; and which continued to deserve the eulogies 
of the greatest sages and politicians, in the brightest periods of literature and 
philosophy. — See St. Croix, Des Anciens gouvernements federatifs, et legislation 
de Crete. Par. 1776. 

§ 132. In Thebes, the principal city of Bceotia, a monarchical gov- 
ernment existed until the death of Xanthus, and afterwards a republi- 
can. Yet this state did not rise to any great celebrity, at least not for 
a long time ; the cause was perhaps the whole national character of 
the Thebans. Besides a proper senate, there were in Thebes Boeo- 
tarchs, Boioxo.qx<*<>, and Polemarchs, noXsftagxot ; the former had 
the care of the civil affairs, and the latter of the military. — Boeotia 
was divided into four grand councils, or senates, whose decrees guided 
all the other magistrates. Merchants and mechanics were adopted as 
citizens, but never raised to any magistracy. The exposure of infants 
was not permitted, but if their parents were unable to maintain them, 
it was done by the state. Pausanias has recorded in his description of 
Bosotia many remarkable features of the later condition of the The- 
ban state.— Cf. Mitford, Ch. V. Sect. 1. 

§ 133. Of the internal constitution of Corinth but little is known. 
It was at first governed by kings, of whom the Sisyphidse and Bac- 
chiadae were themost distinguished. Afterwards, when an aristocrati- 
cal form was introduced, one chief magistrate was chosen yearly cal- 
led IJqvTctvlg. He was supported by a senate, rsgovala. The as- 
sembly of the people never had equal authority ; their power was often 
very small. The city was once called Ephyra, and enjoyed a favora- 
ble situation upon the isthmus, which rendered it and its two harbors 
so famous on account of their navigation and commerce. It was de- 
stroyed by the Romans B. C. 146, but was afterwards rebuilt by 
Cassar, and became again very flourishing. — Syracuse and Corcyra 
were colonies of Corinth. The last city is specially remarkable, from 
the fact that a dispute between itself and Corinth was the occasion of 
the Peloponnesian war. Syracuse was for a long time governed by 
600 of the oldest men, called yecofiogot] but afterwards became en- 



454 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

tirely democratical until it was subjected to the Romans. — Cf. Mueller 
as before cited, ii. p. 15G. 

§ 134. Argos, like the other Grecian states, had in early times 
its kings. In later times, it was governed by the people divided into 
four tribes. It had its senate, and another body of magistrates con- 
sisting of 80 members, and a class of public officers called aqxwoi, — 
Cf. Mueller, ii. 144, 147. 

In the history of iEtolia we may mention as chiefly remarkable the 
league or confederacy between the cities of that district. This con- 
federacy was called the Pansetolium. It had at Thermus an annual 
assembly or meeting, in which the magistrates were elected, and also 
a president of the confederacy, who was called aTQonyyds, and was at 
the same time chief military commander. This officer was subject to 
the assembly. The council of the Apocleti (dnoxlrjjoi) was a differ- 
ent body, who decided questions that arose in' pressing emergencies. 

The cities of Achaia also united themselves in a league, and held 
their common assemblies twice a year at yEgium. In these origin- 
ally presided one rgccfifitttevg, with two 2TQotT7iydi,- } and at a later pe- 
riod, one StqaTrj^dg, besides whom there were ten jdrniiovqybi to at- 
tend to the public affairs of the confederacy. 

(3) Military Affairs. 

§ 135. That warlike spirit, which, as has been observed (§ 42), 
was a main trait in the national character of the early Greeks, was 
also conspicuous in their descendants of a later period. This is true 
of the Athenians, and more emphatically so of the Spartans, who were 
inured to hardship by their education, bound by their laws and their 
honor to conquer or die, and inspired by their whole national system 
with a love of war. These republics were accordingly the refuge 
and protection of the smaller states in their difficulties. The The- 
bans likewise, for a certain period, maintained the reputation of dis- 
tinguished valor. Athens and Sparta, however, were always the ri- 
vals in this respect ; and although in the war with Xerxes they agreed, 
that Athens should command the Grecian fleet, and Sparta the land 
forces, yet they soon again fell into dissension, and the Spartans strip- 
ped the Athenians, for a time, of that naval superiority, for which the 
situation of Athens afforded the greatest advantages. 

\ 136. The armies of the Greeks consisted chiefly of free citizens, 
who were early trained to arms, and, after reaching a certain age, at 
Athens the twentieth year, were subject to actual service in war. 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. THREE CLASSES OF SOLDIERS. 455 

From this duty, they were released only by the approaching weak- 
ness of age. At Athens the citizens were exempted from military 
service at the age of 40, except in cases of extreme danger. Some 
were also wholly exempted on account of their office or employment. 
Of those, who were taken into service, a written list or roll was made 
out, from which circumstance the levying was termed xajayqacp-^, or 
xamloyog. The warriors maintained themselves, and every free 
citizen considered it a disgrace to serve for pay ; for which the spoils 
of victory were, in some degree, a substitute. Pericles, however, in- 
troduced the payment of a stipend, which was raised, when necessary, 
by means of a tax on the commonwealth. 

At first footsoldiers received two oboli a day; afterwards four; whence rtrqvi- 
pbiov (Slog signified a soldier's life, and rerQm^oXltev, to serve in war. The pay 
of a soldier in the cavalry, termed, xaraaraaig, was a drachm a day ; a seaman 
received the same, with an allowance for a servant. — On the methods of raising 
money at Athens for extraordinary expenses, see §§ 103, 104. 

§ 137. It has already been remarked (§ 43), that the Grecian sol- 
diers were of three classes; footsoldiers or infantry, to ne fried v ; the 
cavalry, id ego' irtmav • and such as were borne in chariots, to' 
sq>' dxrjfidtav. The infantry comprised three kinds; the onXtiai., 
heavy armed, who carried a complete and full armor, and were dis- 
tinguished particularly by a large shield (onlov) ; the neXraaxdi,, tar- 
geteers, who bore light arms, particularly a small shield (nslj?]) ; and 
the y/dol, light-armed, who had no shield and used only missile weap- 
ons. — The war chariots were not much used after the introduction 
of cavalry. 

The chariots, termed SQcnartjipoQoi were sometimes terribly destructive, being 
armed with scythes, with which whole ranks of soldiers were sometimes cut 
down. 

§ 138. The cavalry of the Greeks was not numerous, and con- 
sisted only of citizens of the more respectable class and such as were 
able to maintain their horses. The innetg, therefore, at Athens as 
well as Sparta, held a high rank. Those, who wished to attain this 
rank, where first examined by the senate and a Hipparch or Phularch 
{[inndqxrjg, cpvld(j%i]g) appointed for the purpose, in respect to their 
bodily strength and other qualifications. They were called by vari- 
ous names according to the weapons or armor they used ; as e. g. 
dxqofiolujTdi, who threw missiles ; 8oqaTo<poqoi, who carried spears 
01' lances ; lnnoTo£,6xai, ^varocpogot, xovjoqioqoi, S-vQsoq>6goi>, etc. 
Their principal armor was, a helmet, broad plated girdle, breast plate, 
a large shield, cuishes, a javelin and sword. 

The horsemen, as well as the infantry, were distinguished into the heavy- 
armed, xaracpQaxroi, and light-armed, ^t\ xaraqiQaxrot. The former not only 



456 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

were defended by armor themselves, but also had their horses protected by plates 
of brass or other'metal, which were named, from the parts of the horse covered 
by them, nQo/,uTumiSta, nQoarsQvtSta, naQaui^iSia, rcaqanXevqldia, TtaQaxvw'tSia 
etc. The trappings of the horses were termed cpaXaqa; various and costly orna- 
ments, including collars, bells and embroidered cloths, were often used. — The 
4tui x °" were a sort of dragoon, instituted by Alexander, designed to serve either 
on horseback or on foot. — The " Auymnoi were such as had two horses ; called 
also iTtnayiaYol, because they led one of their horses.— After the time of Alex- 
ander, elephants were introduced from the east; but they were after a short 
period laid aside as they were found too unmanageable to be relied upon with 
much confidence.' When used, they carried into battle large towers, containing 
from ten to thirty soldiers, who could greatly annoy the enemy with missiles, 
while they were themselves in comparative safety. 

§ 139. The chief articles of armor used hy the Greeks have been 
already described (^ 44, 45), and it is only necessary to remark here, 
that in later times there were many changes, as to the forms of the 
articles, and the manner of using them. 

The breastplate (&<1>qo.%) consisted of two parts, one a defence for the back, the 
other for the breast, united at the sides by a sort of buttons. When made of two 
continued pieces of metal, and so was inflexible, it was called ,?a>§«? aradiog ; 
when made of hide and guarded with hooks or rings, connected as in a chain, 
it was called Vcooak hXvoiSaxbg ; if guarded with plates like the scales of a fish, it 
was called 9uqu% XimSayrbg. The i m i9o>Qaxiov protected only the front part of 
the body ; Alexander allowed only this to his soldiers. 

The shield (honlg) when of wood, was made of the lightest kind, as willow, 
beech poplar &c. When made of hide (hanidtg poaai), there were usually sev- 
eral thicknesses covered with a plate or plates of metal. Its chief parts were the 
outer edge or circumference, arrv%, irvg,»vxXog, nsQitfiqcta ; the boss or pro- 
minent part in the middle, b^aXbg, f uao^Uov; the thong of leather by which 
it was attached to the shoulders, rsXafiuv ; the rings by which it was held in the 
hands, nbgnaxeg, for which the handle, '6 X avov, consisting of two small bars 
placed crosswise, was afterwards substituted. Little bells were sometimes hung 
upon the shield to increase the terror occasioned by shaking them. 2u Y ^a was 
the name of a covering, designed to protect the shield from injury when not in 
actual use. Various epithets are applied to shields; as au<f^Qorog, avdqo^xrig, 
noSt]viix>ig, indicative of size ; svxvxXoi, navrore Iocil, of shape. The JTtQQov was 
in the shape of a rhombus, and first used by the Persians ; the 0vqto ? was ob- 
lon<* and bent inward ; the Jaoi'jiov was composed of hides with the hair on, and 
was very light ; the niXrt, was small and light, and, according to some, shaped 
like a half moon. . , 

Besides the offensive weapons named in § 45, we may mention the poniard, 
called naoaiiiflSiov, i YX ei Q iSiov, and fi&x^Q"; it answered the purpose of a knife. 
In later ages the axivaxi,c, something like a scimitar, was borrowed from the 
Persians The xonlg or falchion (ensis falcatus) was also used in battle ; as was 
likewise the battle-ax, l&ivn and the niXexvg. The Macedonians had a peculiar 
kind of long spear, called a&Qiaaa. The club of wood or iron, xoqw V , was a 
weapon of early times. We may mention among the offensive weapons the nv- 
QoSiXoi Xltoijre balls ; one kind (oxvrtiut) were made of wood and armed with 
spikes of iron, under which were fixed hemp, pitch and other combustibles ; 
these, being set on fire, were hurled into the ranks of the enemy. 

§ 140. The commanders of the armies were in early times the 
kings themselves, although at the same time certain men, eminently 
brave, were appointed to be polemarchs or generals. Subsequently 
each tribe chose its own commander, who was called cngaTTiydg. At 
Athens it became customary to appoint ten, who had equal power, and 
who held the chief command one day each in regular rotation, when 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. OFFICERS. DIVISIONS OF THE ARMY. 457 

they took the field together. Over these was a polemarch, whose 
opinion was decisive in the war-council, when there was an equal 
division among them ; at a later period, however, this officer (nolipag- 
%og) had no share in military affairs (§ 101). — There were also 
ten taxiarchs, xai,'mgxov, suhordinate to the axguirjyol ; their duty 
was to put the army in array for battle, mark out the camp, regulate 
the order of march, and in general attend to the preservation of disci- 
pline. Subordinate also to the Strategi were the two generals of the 
horse, i'nnagxoi,, who had under them ten qpvlagxot, one nominated by 
each tribe. There were also inferior officers, as lox<*yol, xdiagxoi, 
BKttTovTaQxov, 8ey.d8aqxov, nefind dagxot,, the names being derived from 
the number of men commanded by them. 

§ 141. The whole army was called argand ; the front {lETcoTtov, 
or TtQmog %vyde\ the wings xegaxa ; the rear ovgd, or eaxaxog t,vyog. 
The smallest division, consisting of five men, was called a ■nsfindg-^ 
a loxog contained from ten to a hundred men, according to different 
circumstances ; and a xa'|tj, a hundred or hundred and twenty-eight. 

The ri.%1? was also called i xarorr agxia. Each division of this sort had five 
attendants, who (exraxroi) did not serve in the ranks ; viz. the arqarox^gv^, 
who reported the officer's commands to the soldiers ; the arjftcioipuQog, who con- 
veyed the ensigns, signals, or watchwords ; the aaXniy urijs, a trumpeter ; the 
vnriqiriig, who supplied the members of the division with necessaries; and the 
ovQayog, whose business was to see that none of the number were left behind. 

Some of the larger divisions ; avvrayfia, consisting of two ru&tg, or 256 
men ; ntvTaxooiaQxia, two avvTuyftara, or 512 men ; xtXictQxia, two of the last, or 
102-1 men ; MtqaQxia, or TiXog, twice the preceding or 2048 men; 'fruXayyaq- 
X'ta, or 2TQ<xTiiyLa sometimes, twice the TiXog, or 4096 men ; the commander of 

the latter was called aTqartjybg, The term <PuXay% signifies sometimes a body 

of twenty-eight soldiers ; sometimes a body of 4000 as just mentioned ; and 
sometimes any number of troops in general. Yet it is said, that a full or 
complete Phalanx contained four times the number included in the (faXayyaqx^ 
above named, i. e. 16,384 men. 

§ 142. While the term <pdXay% is often used in a general sense for 
any number of soldiers, it is employed also to signify a peculiar order 
of arrangement, in a rectangular form, which gave the body strength 
to resist a great shock ; the Macedonians were especially celebrated for 
using it to advantage. — The s/ifiolov was the same with the Roman 
cuneus, an arrangement in the form of a wedge, in order to force a 
way more easily and further into the midst of the enemy.— Wheeling, 
turning or facing, was called y.Ucng ; to the right, inl Sogv, the spear 
being in the right hand ; to the left, eV aarntSa, the shield being held 
in the left. Turning completely about was termed fieja^olrj. — The 
Greeks possessed great skill and readiness in manoeuvres, and had 
teachers of the art, lamtxol, who instructed the youth in the practice. 

Various formswere given to the ipaXayZ, some of which were not rectangular; 
as the \nixatmijg (faXayg~, which presented the form of a half moon, and was also 
58 



458 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

called xvqt>i and xoU»; ; Qoupoeid},; ipu?.ay$, which was in the figure of a diamond. 
In the phalanx, tvyoi signified the ranks, taken according to its length, n>jxog ; ari- 
Xoi (also Mxoi) the files taken according to its depth, (iaAog.— Another order of ar- 
ray for battle was the nitrdior, brick, a rectangular presenting its length to the en- 
emy. — The nvQyog, tower, was the same form, with its width, or the end of the rect- 
angle, towards the enemy. — The nlalatov seems to have been an exact square or 
nearly so.-The xoiXifipoZov was a figure like the letter V with theopen part towards 
the enemy. — The ihj was in the form of an egg, according to which the Thessa- 
lians usually arranged their cavalry. The term is, however, generally used to 
signify simply a troop of horse ; sometimes a troop of 64.— Two such troops con- 
stituted the 'mdagxia, 128 men, and eight of them the Innaqx'^, 512 men; four 
of the last named formed the TiXog of the cavalry, or 2048 men. 

Of the various terms applied to manoeuvring or evolutions we add only the 
following : i^Xiyftbg, a countermarch, by which every soldier, one marching after 
another, changed the front for the rear, or one flank for another; dinXaaiuofiog, 
an enlarging of the body, either by adding men or by extending the same number 

over a greater space. It may be remarked that among the Lacedaemonians, 

the whole army was divided into fwqai, which contained originally only 400 men 
each, but afterwards a larger number and variable. Each y.6qa consisted of 4 
X6x<><- The m-vTtixooTvg was one half of the Xl>xog ; and one half of the Trerrij- 
roarvg, was termed ivwporia, including 25 men ; the latter body is said by some 
to have contained thirty-two or thirty-six men. 

§ 143. The declaration of war usually began with a demand 
made by the injured or offended party through deputies for reparation 
or satisfaction. Unexpected hostile invasion was viewed as unright- 
eous warfare : it was justified only by great and wanton injuries. 
The most respectable men were selected for the ambassadors and her- 
alds, and their persons were regarded as sacred and inviolable. The 
heralds (xrjgvxeg) carried a staff wound with two serpents (xtjqvxeiov), 
and were usually charged only with messages of peace, while the 
ambassadors or deputies (nQeofieig) were accustomed also to threaten 
and to announce war. The power of ambassadors was limited in 
different degrees at different times. The leagues or agreements en- 
tered into were either (1) anovSr], a treaty of peace or mutual cessa- 
tion from injuries, called also avvdi\y.rj, etQ-qprj ; (2) iittfiax^, a treaty 
of mutual defence ; or (3) avfifiaxla, an alliance both defensive and 
offensive, in which the parties engaged to aid each other not only 
when attacked, but also when they themselves commenced the war. 
Such treaties were confirmed by the most solemn oaths, written upon 
tablets, and placed in public view. Sometimes the parties exchanged 
certain tokens or evidences (av/n^oloc) of the compact. — Before actu- 
ally declaring war, it was customary to consult an oracle. The war 
was commenced with sacrifices and vows. Scrupulous attention was 
also paid by the Greeks to omens, and seasons. 

An eclipse of the moon was a fatal sign ; the Athenians would not march be- 
fore the seventh day, %vrbg s/SW/tijs, nor the Lacedaemonians until full moon. 

§ 144. In addition to what has already been said (§ 48) on the 
construction of camps, it may be here remarked, that the form of 
them was often changed according to circumstances. The Lacedse- 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. CAMPS. STANDARDS. SIEGES. 459 

monians, however, always adhered to the circular form in their camps, 
as well as their cities. The bravest troops were usually placed on 
the extremities or wings, and the weakest in the centre or interior. 
A particular part of the camp was appropriated for the worship of the 
gods and for holding councils of war and military courts. The guards, 
were divided into the day-watches, cpvlaxal ^/isgival, and the night- 
watches, cpvlaxal wxTEQwal. The advanced posts, or outer guards, 
were called nqocpvlaxal. The nightly round of visiting the watch 
was called ecpodela, and those who performed it, neglnolou, and the 
guard-house, nsQinolstov. — Before a battle the soldiers were usually 
refreshed by eating and drinking, immediately after which the com- 
manders ordered them to action. 

§ 145. When very near the point of engaging, the generals ad- 
dressed the army in animating speeches, which often produced great 
effects. Then followed the sacrifice, the vow, and the war-song 
(nauxv e/j^airigtog), a hymn to Mars. — The signs used in the field 
were either at][teta, regular ensigns and standards, or ovfifiola, par- 
ticular signals, commonly understood or specially agreed upon for the 
occasion. The latter, ovfifiola, were either audible (cpwvixd), such 
as watch-words {aw-d-^fiaTtt)^ or visible (o^ara), such as nodding the 
head, waving the hand, shaking the armor, and the like (naqaavv- 
S-ijfiuTa'). The arjfiela or standards were of various kinds, some being 
merely a red or purple coat upon the top of a spear, others having an 
image of a bird, animal or other object. The raising of the standard 
was a signal to commence battle, and the lowering of it, to desist. 
Anciently the signal for battle was given by lighted torches being 
hurled by the persons appointed {nvQcpoqoi). Afterwards it was done 
by blasts of sound, for which shells (xo^loi) were first used, and then 
brazen trumpets [adlmyyeg) of several different kinds. — The Lace- 
daemonians usually advanced to action by the sound of the flute ; yet 
we must not imagine, that the marching of the Greeks was as regu- 
lar and as conformable to music, as the modern. Most of them were 
rather in the habit of rushing to battle with impetuosity and clamor 
(dXalayfidg, oeCx-ij). 

§ 146. The art of besieging arose first in the later times of Greece, 
because the cities were not previously fortified with walls. Nor were 
the later Greeks, especially the Lacedaemonians, very much in the 
habit of laying regular sieges. The two principal points of proceeding, 
in the siege of a city, were the construction of the entrenchment around 
it, and the gathering and use of military engines about it. Connected 
with these were efforts to scale the walls of the city by ladders {enu 
Padgett, xUfiaxsg) and to undermine their foundations. 



460 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

An entrenchment around the city was called neqnsixKTfidg, or dno- 
rei-xKT/itdg, and consisted usually of a double wall of stone or turf. In 
the space between the walls were shelters for the garrison and the 
sentinels. Above the walls were turrets or pinnacles, and after every 
tenth pinnacle a large tower was constructed, extending across from 
one wall to the other. The parapet of the wall was termed •S-wgol 

Or &0)Q6Lxt,OV. 

§ 147. Most of the military engines of the Greeks (iidyavct, (irjxct- 
val) were of a comparatively late invention, and seem to have been 
introduced first about the time of the Peloponnesian war. One of the 
principal was the xelavrj, the testudo or tortoise, so called because the 
soldiers were covered by it as a tortoise by its shell. It was of sev- 
eral kinds. The xslavy otqutmx>tQv was formed by the soldiers, pressed 
close together and holding their shields over their heads in such a 
manner as to form a compact covering. It was also formed of boards, 
united and covered with metals ; this was either of a square form, as 
the xclwv?] xaatqlg, which served to protect the soldiers, while they 
were preparing the ground in order to bring up their military engines, 
or of a triangular form, as the xeldvrj oqv%, for the protection of such 
as were undermining the walls. — Another instrument for similar pur- 
poses was called the ysgqov, made of twigs of willow like the Roman 
vinea, and held by the soldiers over the head. — The ^c5//a was a 
mound composed of various materials and raised very high, often 
above the besieged walls — There were also moveable towers (nvg- 
"/oi), made of wood and usually placed upon the x^f lK ) they were 
rolled on wheels and had often several stories, containing soldiers and 
engines. — The battering-ram (xQidg) was a strong beam with an iron 
head (s/i^oXrl) in front resembling that of a ram, which the soldiers 
thrust against the enemy's walls ; it was often hung by ropes to 
another beam, so that it could be thrust with greater force, and some- 
times was placed on wheels, and covered with a x E ^® vr l- The xara- 
nsXzat were engines for hurling missiles, stones, and the like upon 
the enemy; those which discharged arrows, being termed dZvfieleig, 
and those which cast stones, Xi&o@dloi, or nsrqo^oXot. 

The r EXmoXig was a machine, not unlike the battering-ram, but of greater 
size and force, driven with ropes and wheels. It was invented by Demetrius 
Poliorcetes. —The TQvnava were long irons with sharp ends, and were the in- 
struments chiefly used in earlier periods for demolishing the walls of a city. 

§ 1 48. In the defence of a besieged city the following are the 
things most worthy of remark. Soldiers, armed with various means 
of defending themselves and annoying the enemy, were stationed on 
the walls of the city. The greater military engines were planted 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. ENGINES. CAPTIVES. BOOTY. 461 

within the walls, and hurled arrows, stones, and pieces of timber 
upon the besiegers. The mines of the besiegers were opposed by 
counter-mines, and their entrenchments and mounds were undermined. 
Their various engines were broken, set on fire, or embarrassed in 
operation by different contrivances on the part of the besieged. 

§ 149. On the taking of a city, the captors did not always treat 
the citizens and the property in the same way. Sometimes the build- 
ings were demolished, and all the inhabitants put to death, or at 
least those in arms, while the rest (dt^d^wTeu, doQvdlwzoi') were re- 
duced to slavery. But sometimes favor was shown, and nothing but 
the payment of a tribute exacted. Sometimes new settlers were plant- 
ed in the conquered city. Whenever the city was demolished, it 
was customary to curse the spot on which it stood, and not even cul- 
tivate the soil. 

§ 150. The booty or spoils on such a capture, or after a battle, con- 
sisted partly in the military stores, and partly in other things, which 
were the property of the conquered party. These, when taken from 
the slain, were termed axvla, if from the living, Mcpvga. The whole 
(IVa^ia) was brought to the commander in chief, who first took a large 
portion for himself, then assigned rewards to such as had distinguished 
themselves in the action, and afterwards distributed the remainder 
equally among the soldiers. First of all, however, a portion was set 
apart for the service of the gods, which was called dxqodivta. The 
armor of the conquered was also often dedicated to the gods, and hung up 
in their temples ; this was the case sometimes even with the weapons of 
the victors, when they designed to terminate their military career. 
Thank-offerings were also presented, and trophies (zgonaia) erected, 
which were likewise dedicated to the gods ; statues also and other 
monuments were raised to commemorate victories. 

An inscription (intyQafifia) was often attached to the trophy, or offering pre- 
sented to the god, or other monument, containing the names of the conquerors 
and the conquered, an account of the spoils, and sometimes of the occurrences of 
the war. The trunk of a tree, especially an olive, was often used for the purpose 
of a trophy, the emblems of victory being hung upon it. — Alexander the Great, 
abiding by a law of the Macedonians, never raised a trophy ; yet he erected other 
monuments of his successes ; among them were altars to the gods, very broad 
and lofty. 

§ 151. There was a careful regard to order and discipline in the 
Greek armies, and various rewards and punishments were established. 
Among the rewards were promotion to higher rank, conferring of 
garlands or other distinctions, and also the funeral honors and the en- 
comiums, which were bestowed on the brave warrior. At Athens, 
public provision was made for the widows and children of those slain 



4G2 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

in battle, and also for those who were injured by wounds (ddvvcnoi). 
The children of such as valiantly died were also honored sometimes 
with the first seats (ngoedgicu) at the theatres. 

The severest of the punishments, death, was always inflicted on 
deserters, dvro/noloi. Such as refused to serve, daTqdxsvxoi, such as 
quitted their ranks, leinordxxou, and such as threw away their shields, 
QopuaniSeg, were subjected to civil degradation. At Athens they were 
not permitted to enter the temples or public assemblies, and were also 
fined in the court Heliasa. In Sparta they were exposed to still 
deeper disgrace, which extended even to their whole family ; it was so 
great that their mothers often stabbed them at their first meeting after- 
wards. 

§ 152. The Greeks employed various means for conveying intelligence. 
They had a class of messengers or runners, called ijfuQoSQofioi, who carried news 
and official commands ; they went lightly armed. — A contrivance much cele- 
brated was the Lacedaemonian oxvx aXi\, This was a roll of white parchment 
or leather (diq^ta, Ifiag), wrapped round a black stick, about four cubits in length. 
The general always received a stick of this sort, of the same size with another 
kept by the magistrates or government. When any command or intelligence 
was to be conveyed, a strip of parchment was rolled on the staff, and on this was 
written what the person wished to communicate ; the strip was then sent to the 
general, who applied it to his own stick, and thus could read what otherwise 
would be wholly unintelligible. 

§ 153. Before proceeding now to notice the naval affairs of the 
Greeks, we may allude to their method of passing rivers with their 
armies. It was usually by means of boats or small vessels joined to- 
gether so as to form a sort of bridge, like that which the Persians un- 
der the command of Xerxes threw over the Hellespont. In order to 
hold these vessels fast, large baskets or boxes, filled with stone, were 
sunk in the stream, which thus answered the purpose of anehors- 
Anchors were also sometimes used. It was only in the greatest 
emergencies, that they carried forward with them these boats, having 
taken them in pieces. Sometimes such bridges were made by 
means of large casks and leathern bottles. 

§ 154. The use of ships in the wars of the Greeks has already 
been mentioned (§ 47). Vessels of war differed in their structure from 
the other kinds, especially ships of burden (6lxddeg t cpoQzijyoi), which 
were of an oval form, with broader bottoms. They were usually tri- 
remes, TQi-qgeig, and hence this term is often used to signify merely 
vessels of war. Before a vessel was launched, it was purified and con- 
secrated by the priests. Commonly, individual vessels, sometimes a 
whole fleet, were committed to the protection of some particular god. 
The standard or flag {naqdarj^iov), by which one ship was distinguish- 
ed from another, was placed in the fore part, with figures painted on 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. WAR-GALLIES AND SHIPS. 463 

it. Each vessel had its own name, which was usually taken from its 
ensign or flag, and was also inscribed on the prow. It would require 
too much space to introduce here all the terms, by which the Greeks 
designated the various parts of the ship. 

1. The names of the various parts of a ship may be found, with explanations 
of every thing relating to this subject, in J. Schejferi Diss, de Varietate navium. 
Thes. Gronov. T.xi — See also, by the same, Comment, de militia navaliveterum. 
lips. 1654. 4.— Likewise Potter's Arch. Grsec. B. ii. c. 14. — Robinson's, B. iv. ch. 
14. 

A few of these names ought to be introduced here. The principal parts of a 
ship were three, the prow or front, nqwqa, phamov, I'fifloZov ; the middle or body, 
/.aooxotXog, yaarqa ; and the stem, nqvfira, ovqlx. — Theprow was more or less 
adorned not only by the figures and image placed on it,but by the colors painted on 
it, from which were derived such epithets as ftiXronuQijoi, xvavi^oXoi &c. The 
sides of it were termed 7rT£g« and jra^ttai. The aroXog was along plank at the 
head of the prow, on the extremity of which some of the principal ornaments 
(ay.Qona, axqoorliXia) were fixed. The nrvxi? was a round piece of wood also 
attached to the prow, on which the name of the ship was inscribed ; it was some- 
times called o(p6aX/.ibg. The /rivioxo? was the figure of a goose upon the prow 
near the water. 

To the middle belonged the following parts ; the rqonig, or art'iqy\, keel, at the 
bottom of the ship, narrow and sharp, to cut the waves, with the x s ^ e ^ a h ara > 
wedges or bilgeways, attached to it, for guarding the ship's bottom ; the <paXxig, 
limber, containing the bilgewater, conveyed out by the pump, avrXia ; the xolXij, 
hold (called also xvrog and yaarqa), surrounded by ribs or planks rising from the 
keel, vofutgor "lyxoiXia ; the tviorfjQeg, or vno^bi^ara, rafters extending on the 
sides (nZevQai) of the ship from prow to stem; theror/oi and sdaiXia, seats for 
the rowers situated on the sides one above another; the roi'jfiara or oydaXftol, 
openings through which the oars were put out ; the aaxuifia, a skin or the like, which 
lined the openings ; sometimes there was one continued opening for the oars, 
called TQutpyt;. 

The stem had ornamental images, called axqovla, in common with those on 
the prow, and distinctively, acpXaara. Its bow was termed intatlwv, and the 
planks composing it, ntQnovcia. The middle of the stern was named aouvdiov. 
— The decks, i'xoia, were covered parts at the prow and stern ; the tvya were 
the rowers' seats in the middle and open parts. 

2. Some of the principal instruments in navigating vessels maybe mentioned 
here. The nijSuXiov, rudder, fixed not directly in the stern, but on the side of 
the ship, and near the stern. In the later periods, two rudders were used, one 
being placed, it is supposed, near the prow (hence ri/ss h/LMplnovftvot); sometimes 
there were four, one on each side of prow and stern. The parts of the rudder 
were oia£, tpdstQ, 7TrsQvytov,avx>iV, xuua%. — The'twij, ayxvqa, anchor; first a stone 
bored in the middle, or a basket filled with stones ; afterwards made of iron 
with teeth, ooovreg, fastening it to the earth; the largest of a ship's anchors was 
called liQa, and hence (l&XXsiv Ixyxvoav 'hquv obtained its proverbial sense, to re- 
sort to a last refuge. The cables, attached to the anchors, were mic^ara, or xu- 
ftjjioi; ropes for lowing were termed Qvpara, bXxoi ; those for binding a vessel 
to the shore, nQvpvi]aia. — The x<6nai and iQtrfioi, oars, having abroad part, cov- 
ered with metal (fyXarrj), and hung upon pieces of wood, called oxcdiiol, by leath- 
ern thongs, Tqonoi. — The lorbg, mast, fixed in a hole duEffdfyoj) in the middle of 

theship; capable of being taken down and put in a case (lorodoxi]); having sev- 
eral parts, as nriQra, TQaxijXog, xaQx>'i atov , &wQaxtov, IxQiov, ^XaxuTJ]. The xs- 

Qaiai, or xiqara were the crosspieces or yards, fixed to the mast. The [aria, 
sails (called also b&ovai, aQ/tieva), including particular ones distinctively named, 
as iTridQOfiog, mizen-sail, axuriov, main-sail, hqrifiuiv, top-sail, SoXmv, sprit-sail. 
— The %<a, StfiiXiog, ballast. — The (ioXlg, the lead for sounding. The xovrol, 
poles for pushing the vessel from rocks. The arcopu&qai, bridges or stairs, to 
pass from ship to shore, or from vessel to vessel (called also lm(la&Qui and ara- 
(ii&Qai). The term bnXa was applied to the rigging generally. The xuXoi and 
axovia were ropes, including Inirovoi, nodeg, nqoicodeg, fiioovqiui, nqorovoi, made 
at first of leathern thongs, afterwards of flax, hemp, and the like. 



464 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

§ 155. la vessels of war the front point, and sometimes the whole 
of the front part, was covered with iron. In early times, these points 
or beaks were long and high ; afterwards they were made short and 
low, in order to pierce the vessels of the enemy below the water. 
From each side of the front were planks or pieces of wood, enuriSsg, 
jutting out, to protect the ship from the beaks of the enemy. The 
war-vessels usually had wooden decks or coverings (xaTacpgdy/nurtt), 
on which the soldiers stood, and also coverings or guards of hides or 
the like, which were extended on both sides (negMpgdypaia), to pro- 
tect them from the waves and from the enemy's missiles. — The 
usual sign of a war-vessel was a helmet, sculptured at the top of the 
mast. 

§ 156. Originally the employments of the rowers and the combat- 
ants were not distinct, but the same persons performed the functions 
of both. In later times there was a division into three classes ; (I) 
the rowers or oarsmen, epera*, xurniMtcu, who were also distinguish- 
ed by specific names according to the rank of their bench, and their 
work and pay ; (2) the sailors, vuvtcu, who attended to all the other 
proper duties of the ship ; (3) the marines, emftdrai, who were arm- 
ed like infantry, only their armor was more heavy and durable. 

Rowers in the upper tier of benches (-d-Q&vog) were called dQavircu ; in the mid- 
dle tier, tvYiTcti (from tvya) ; in the lower tier, &ala^trai • those near the prow, 

nQuxwrtot ; near the stern, Inlxumoi. Of the sailors, some (aQfievioral) had 

the care of the sails; others (axoivopurui) went aloft on the ropes to look outj 
others ( t utoovuvTai) were to supply other seamen with whatever was needed. 

§ 157. Among the principal instruments employed for naval battle 
were t be following ; Soquxa vav/iaxa, very long spears; dqenavov, a 
piece of iron, formed like a sickle and fixed to the top of a long pole 
in order to cut the sail-ropes of the hostile ship ; xelg at,dr,qd the grap- 
pling iron ; agamy eg, large iron hooks attached to the mast of a vessel 
in such a manner, that being thrown into the enemy's ships they 
seized and raised them up into the air. An instrument, called from 
its form the dolphin (del.<piv), was often used ; it was made of iron or 
lead, and hung to the mast or sail-yards, and was thrown with great 
violence into an adverse ship, in order to pierce or sink it. — The 
means of defence against these instruments was to guard the ship by 
a strong covering of hides. 

§ 158. Each fleet had commanders of two sorts, such as had care 
of what pertained to the ships alone, and such as had care of the ma- 
rines and all that pertained to warlike action. (1) The chief officer, 
or admiral, was called vmvmgxog, sometimes arolmgxog, or axqmxriyog • 
often there were several in equal command, often there was but a sin- 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. NAVAL OFFICERS AND BATTLES. 465 

gle one. The duration of his authority was decided by the people, 
who abridged it or prolonged it at pleasure. Next to him were the 
commanders of individual ships, T^n^aj/ot; the Lacedaemonians, 
however, had a sort of vice-admiral in their officer called imazole 'g. 
(2) Of those, whose authority was confined to the care of the ships 
and the duties of the rowers or sailors, the principal were the follow- 
ing : the dQ%i}tv(lsQvrfTiig t who had the care of the whole fleet ; the 
xv6eQvrJTijg, who had the care of a single ship, and who himself kept 
the helm, and the itquqevg, or ngcogdir/g, the next in command, hav- 
ing the care of every thing belonging to the forepart of the ship. 

There were also, in the second class, the following; rQit]Qavh;g, the musician, 
whose notes cheered the rowers and regulated the strokes of their oars; xtUvo- 
rl,g, who gave the word of command to them; roi'^ag/o?, who governed the 
rowers on one side ; vavyvXay.zg, employed in guarding the ship from rocks and 
other dangers ; rafiiag, who superintended the food ; ioxaQtvg, who attended to 
the fires; Xoyiar^g, who kept the ship's accounts. 

$ 159. In the beginning of a sea-fight they sought first to lighten 
the ship of all superfluous and unnecessary burdens ; and to render 
sails, mast, and every thing, which was exposed to the violence of 
wind, as fast and safe as possible. Then the most favorable position 
and order of battle was selected, according to time, place, and other 
circumstances. Sacrifices were next offered to the gods, and the com- 
manders passed round in light boats from ship to ship, to animate 
their men. The signal for the onset was now given ; usually done 
by hanging a shield, or flag, from the mast of the vessel bearing the 
vdvuQxog-j while this signal was hanging, the battle went on. The 
manner of fighting was in some degree like that of a siege, the form 
in which the ships were drawn up being usually that of a semicircle, 
or circle, or the letter V. 

§ 160. After a victory, they returned with the booty and the cap- 
tured vessels. All the cities, in alliance with the victorious party, 
honored the successful general with crowns and garlands. With 
these it was also customary to adorn his vessel. Sometimes the 
wrecks of the enemy's ships were used for that purpose. These, as 
well as the better part of the spoils, were afterwards consecrated to the 
gods; the rest being divided among the men engaged in the battle. 
A monument was usually raised to the victors, and was sometimes 
adorned with the wrecks, especially the ornamental parts (dxgovia, 
dxQWTrjQia), of the captured ships. — The most common punishments 
in the naval service were whipping with cords, and submersion, the 
offender being dragged in the water by a rope, even till drowned. 
Such as refused to serve at sea, dvavfid%oi,, were, at Athens, punished 
59 



466 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

with disgrace (unfila), together with their posterity. Deserters, iet- 
7tovaviat, were scourged, or had their hands cut off. 



(4) Affairs of Private Life. 

§ 161. In glancing at the private life of the Greeks, we shall fol- 
low the same order as in speaking of the earlier period (§ 51-60), 
and begin with the subject of food. In later times, when riches more 
abounded, the food was less simple than before ; the Lacedaemonians 
maintained longest their strictness and frugality, no professed cook 
being suffered among them. Among the other nations, and especially 
the inhabitants of Sicily, the art of cooking was much more cultivated 
and practiced. The Athenians however lived to a great extent mode- 
rately, owing pjerhaps to the comparative unfruitfulness of the Attic 
territory. Water was the common drink, with which they were ac- 
customed to mingle wine. The wine sometimes received an ad- 
dition of myrrh (otvog fivygwhyg), or of barley meal (divog dnrilyi- 
xofievog). 

The term employed to designate a drinking cup, y.Qar!jq, is commonly derived 
from zeQaouodai, to mingle, indicating the prevalent custom of mixing water 
■with wine. Potter states, that no certain proportion was observed in forming 
the mixture. A very common division of wines was into the noXvtpoQoi or strong 
wines, bearing a large addition of water, and dXiycupiooi, weak wines. To drink 
unmixed wine, axqaronuiv, was described as synonymous with Zjevd-iarMmetv, to 
■drink like a Scythian. — There were various sorts of wine, made from other sub- 
stances, besides the grape. — Among the Greek wines from the grape, the earliest, 
of which we have any distinct account, is the Maronean, probably produced on 
the coast of Thrace, a black sweet wine {Horn. Od. ix. 249). The Pramnian 
was another of early celebrity, supposed by some to have its name from a hill in 
the island of Icaria, where it was produced. In later times, the Lesbian, Chian, 
and Thasian wines were considered to possess uncommon excellence. The 
wines from Rhodes, Crete, Cnidus and Cyprus, were also much esteemed. The 
Mendean wine, from Mende, is commended for a peculiar softness. The Greeks 
also used wines imported from different places in Asia and Egypt ; an excellent 
kind was brought from Byblos in Phcenicia ; the Alexandrian, from the vicinity 
of Alexandria in Egypt, was highly valued. — See Henderson's History of An- 
cient and Modern Wines. Lond. 1824. 4. 

§ 162. The Greeks had usually two meals a day, viz. a break- 
fast, dxqdnaixa, uqmttov, the time of which was not fixed, and a main 
meal, deiitvov, which was regularly towards evening. But they also 
partook of an evening-meal, deditdv or ecmeQioiia, and an after-dish 
or supper, doqrtog. 

Robinson remarks, that most authors speak of but three meals a day, and do 
not consider the StiXivbv as a separate meal from the Soqtvoc ; while others think 
that the Greeks had but two meals a day, the aQiarov and SoQitog. It seems cer- 
tain, that aqiarov was finally used to denote the dinner, and Sttnvov the supper; 
the latter being the principal meal. 

' There was little variety in the private life of the Athenians. All of them 
rose at daybreak, and spent a short time in the exercise of devotion. Soon after 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FOOD. ENTERTAINMENTS. 467 

six in the morning, the judges (dicasts) took their seats on the tribunal, and those 
employed in agriculture, manufactures, or commerce, engaged in their different 
occupations. At mid-day, the more wealthy citizens, who by that time had com- 
monly finished their serious business, refreshed themselves with a short sleep, 
and afterwards spent a few hours in hunting, or in the exercise of the palaastra, 
or in walking through the delightful groves on the banks of the Ilyssus and Ce- 
phisus ; or still more frequently in discussing with each other, in the forum 
(agora), the interests of the state, the conduct of the magistrates, and the news 
of the day. It was also during the afternoon, that the Athenians sometimes 
played xvjieLa and mtrda; two games, the first of which resembled hazard, and 
the other either backgammon or chess.' 

' During the day, the Athenians either took no food or only a slight repast in 
private. At sun-set they sat down to supper, and considering the business of the 
day as over, devoted the evening to society and amusement, and often continued 
to a late hour in the night.' 

§ 163. In early times, entertainments were given only in honor 
of the gods on festival days; afterwards they became very common. 
They were of two sorts ; the iilanivr}, given by a single person, and 
the eqavog, provided at the expense of the party present. Entertain- 
ments of the latter kind were generally the most frugal, orderly, and 
conducive to friendly feeling ; such as were invited free of expense, 
as poets, singers &c, were called daifx^oloi, ; the contribution of each 
other guest was termed av/Lt^olrj, xarafiolrj. — The marriage feast, yd- 
fiog, is sometimes considered as a third sort.— There were also public 
entertainments for a whole city, tribe, or fraternity, called ovoofria, 
navSalaiai,, Ssinva drjfj.ocrid, cpgoagixd, &c. furnished by contribution, 
by the liberality of rich persons, or by the state. 

§ 164. Before partaking of an entertainment, the Greeks always 
washed and anointed. The hands were also again washed (viifia- 
o&ai) between the successive courses, and at the close of the feast 
(dnoviipaoxtcu). In the early times the guests sat at the table (^ 52) ; 
in later times they reclined, but not always. The couches, prepared 
for the purpose, were more or less splendid, according to each one's 
taste and condition in life. Five usually, sometimes more, occupied 
a single couch. The guests took their places according to their prop- 
er rank, although often no exact order was observed. The Greeks 
attached a certain idea of sanctity to the table and the rights of the 
table. 

Three couches, xXlvai, were usually placed round the table, TQunnta, one on 
each side, leaving the fourth side open to the servants ; hence originated the 
word TQixXlviov, triclinium ; they were covered with tapestry, arQoiuara, and had 
pillows, TCQoaxeipuXuta, for the guests ; they were often very costly, being highly 
ornamented with ivory and precious metals. Several persons usually reclining 
on the same couch, the first lay. on the uppermost part, with his legs extended 
behind the back of the second, whose head was near the bosom of the first. — The 
tables were made of wood, highly polished {zcotIj, fu'ljoos) ; in later periods, ex- 
ceedingly costly, adorned with plates of silver and gold, and curiously carved 
images. 

§ 165. At a regular and principal meal (as the SeZnvov), the first 



468 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

course, nqono/ia, deinvov nqooiftiov, consisted generally of pungent 
herbs with olives, eggs, oysters, a mixture of honey and wine (oivo- 
fieXi), and the like. Then came the chief dish, more substantial and 
costly, xscpalrj dsinpov. Afterwards the dessert, devxeqa xqdnet,a, 
consisting of various sweet meats, furnished with great splendor in 
times of luxury and called iitidentva, (lexadoqma, &c — In all enter- 
tainments it was customary first to offer some of the provisions to the 
gods, especially to make an oblation from the liquor. — On all cheer- 
ful occasions the guests were clothed in white, and crowned with 
garlands. 

At entertainments connected with the festivals of the gods, the garlands 
worn were formed of the leaf or flower sacred to the particular god, honored on 
the occasion. At other entertainments they were composed of various sorts, ac- 
cording to the season of the year, and the taste and circumstances of the parties. 
The rose, being an emblem of silence, was often placed above the table, to signify 
that what was there said or done should be kept private; hence the phrase 
vno qoSov, sub rosa. 

§ 166. The officers and attendants at an entertainment were as 
follows ; the Svfinoaiaqxog, chief manager, who was either the maker 
of the feast (d scrxidxuq), or one appointed to that place, called also 
Tqane^onoiog, dqx^xqixlivog] the Baadsvg, whose business was to 
see, that the laws and rules of such entertainments were preserved, 
and who was sometimes the same as the first mentioned ; the Jai- 
rqog, who divided and distributed the food, of which the best and 
largest portions were given to the most honored guests ; and the ' Oi- 
voxoot,, who distributed the drink, and were heralds (xt\qvxeg), youths 
(xovgoi), often of noble birth, or servants (dovloi). 

In the later ages, it became an object of luxury to have young and beautiful 
slaves, to perform the last mentioned office ; for such ones, extravagant prices 
were paid ; and a distinction was made between the vSqo^oqoi, who served the 
water, and the bivox&oi, who poured the wine, and were younger. When wait- 
ing at table, they were richly adorned in person and dress. 

§ 167.' The drinking vessels or cups (xqaxfjqeg, denaxa) were 
generally very large, often rich and costly ; they were frequently 
crowned with garlands. It was customary for the master of the feast 
to drink to his guests in the order of their rank, drinking himself a 
part of the cup and sending the remainder to the person named, which 
was termed nqoniveiv ; while the act of the person, who received the 
cup and drank the rest of its contents, was termed dvxmqonivBcv. It 
was also customary to drink to the honor of the gods, and to the 
memory of absent friends, calling them by name. Three cups were 
usually drank to the gods, each one to a particular god, as Kqaxiijq 
'Eqfiov, Kqaii)q Jidg S(axf t qog. — Sometimes the guests contended, 
who should drink the most; and prizes were awarded to the con- 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. HOSPITALITY. DRESS. 469 

querors. Some melancholy excesses are recorded ; as, for instance, 
the case of Alexander, who in this way lost his life. 

Singing (^o^ij), instrumental music, and dancing (dgxrjaxvg), were 
accompaniments of almost every feast. The songs were in early 
times chiefly hymns to gods or heroes ; subsequently songs and 
dances of a wanton character were introduced. The most remark- 
able of the various songs used were those termed axoha. 

Athenmus, L. x. c. 9. 10. Cf. JElian, Var. Hist. L. ii. c. 41.— Respecting the 
axiXia, see P. II. § 27. — After the music and dancing, the guests often were in- 
vited to participate in various sports. In earlier times, the athletic games were 
practiced ; but in the later ages, less violent exercises were more frequently 
chosen, among which playing at the y.orra^oq seems to have been a favorite 
amusement. Cf. Robinson, Arch. Gr. p. 524.— Frequently there were entertain- 
ments or repasts, at which conversation and discourses were designed to form 
the principal amusement (ovpnoaioi). Cf. P. II. § 69. — Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. 
xxiv. p. 421. 

§ 168. The hospitality practiced by the early Greeks (§ 57) re- 
mained customary also in later times. The Cretans especially had 
the reputation of being hospitable ; the Athenians were termed cpdo- 
Zevotj but the Spartans were less courteous to strangers. Hospitality 
was viewed as a religious duty, and several gods were supposed to- 
take strangers under special protection, and to avenge all injuries- 
done to them. It was customary, at the hospitable meal, first to 
present salt (&Eiog alg) before the stranger, as a token perhaps of per- 
manent friendship. The alliance contracted by mutual hospitality 
(ngo^eviu, xo 6 iiorgdnet,ov) was as sacred, as that of consanguinity. 
The parties often exchanged tokens of it (avfifiola) in friendly gifts 
(leVta, d&oa, Zevwd), which were carefully preserved, and handed 
down to posterity. Officers were publicly appointed, called ngoZevoi, 
whose duty was to receive all foreigners, coming on any public er- 
rand, to provide entertainment and lodging for them, and conduct them 
to the public spectacles and festivals. 

§ 169. The dress of the Greeks did not undergo any very im- 
portant changes ; at least the names used in the first period were still 
applied to the principal garments in later times. Their clothing was 
more commonly made of uncolored white wool, sometimes of linen 
and cotton. Of the colors, which were given to dress, purple was the 
most esteemed. — Next to the body, both men and women wore a 
tunic, an under-garment of wool, xnav, which extended to the knee, 
and, when worn alone, was trussed up by a rich girdle (Icoj^) ; in 
some cases it was fastened from the shoulders by costly buckles or 
clasps {nsoQvai, nognat). Over this garment the men wore a mantle 
<ar robe, which was long ((pa go;, ittduov) as worn by the more res- 



470 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

pectable, while the lower classes used a shorter kind (**at>a). There 
was also another sort of short mantle, /*«;«»£, worn chiefly by soldiers. 
The women generally wore over the tunic a robe (l/icniov), rather 
short, and over this a broad veil or outer robe, ninXog, with which 
they could cover also the head. 

Coverings for the feet (tinodrjfiaTa, nedda) were used very early, 
but not universally ; they were of various forms. Hats (niloi, ndia, 
inUSia) were first introduced at a later period, designed chiefly as a 
protection against the weather. 

The military covering for the head was the helmet (§ 44). Women always 
wore upon their heads coverings or ornaments ; some of them were the follow- 
ing: mi7tv$, a fillet, with which the hair was tied; xaXyrcrqa a veil; xqijSefirov, a 
covering which came down from the head to the shoulders ; xexQvcpaXog, a net 
inclosing the hair; pfrga, a sort of cap or turban. The term /ilrga is also appli- 
ed to a kind of girdle worn by military men under theflaigaS. A form of the fil- 
let used by women given to luxury was termed ariqiavt] vy>iX>i. The oQfiog was a 
sort of necklace; the women frequently had also ear-rings, eppara, tXixeg, htorta. 
Among the Athenians, some of the men wore in their hair golden ornaments- 
called TfTTt/t?. 

The shoes were tied under the soles of the feet by thongs, tuavreg ; hence the 
terms vnoSttv and vtcoXvuv, for putting on and taking off the shoes. The follow- 
ing were some of the varieties ; agjivXai, large and easy shoes, which came up to 
the ankle ; pXavrai, shoes worn chiefly in the house ; Sia(ia6Qa, shoes common to 
men and women ; Ippurai, shoes used by comedians ; xoSoqvoi, shoes used by 
tragedians, buskins; xaQJiarlvai, coarse shoes worn by peasants ; xqijiciSeg, a kind 
of slipper ; supposed by some to be used by soldiers particularly ; XaxwvtxaLf/anv- 
xXa'iSsg, Spartan shoes, of a red color ; ntQarxal, shoes of a white color, generally 
worn by courtezans ; TCEQiftaQiScg, shoes worn by women of rank; oavSaXa, shoes 
anciently peculiar to heroines, consisting originally of a piece of wood bound to 
the sole of the foot. 

Of coverings for the body, called in general ~cod! t g, 'iodtjfta and slua, there were 
many varieties and forms, besides those named in the section above; as, pairr;, 
Si<p6iQa, a shepherd's garment, of skins ; iyxoufloiia, a cloak used by shepherds 
and servants; imaplg, a short garment for females, which was thrown over the 
shoulders; M-apls, aslave's garment, having only one sleeve (§99); iyeotQig, a 
kind of great coat, made of the skins of goats ; tmoroov, a girdle appropriate for 
women ; denlorQiov, a thin garment for summer; xarmvaxt}, aslave's robe, border- 
ed at the bottom with sheepskin; hjSog, a garment common to both sexes, suita- 
ble for warm weather; oral}/, a long robe reaching to the heels : orqixftov, a kind 
of kerchief worn by women over the bosom (arrj66Scafiog) ; rqifiuiv, tqi(Su>viov, a 
cloak of course stuff, worn by philosophers and poor persons ; raivla, a sort of 
band used by females and passing over the breast, used also to signify an orna- 
ment for the head; (paivoXyg, a cloak without sleeves for cold or rainy weather; 
xXavlg, a fine thin robe ; ipiX.Xiov, an ornament worn by women chiefly, upon the 
arms and hands, a bracelet. Robinson's Arch. Gr. 541 -46. 

The following is an incidental remark of Chateaubriand respecting the materi- 
al of ancient clothing. 'My host laughed at the faces that 1 made at the wine 
and honey of Attica; but, as some compensation for the disappointment, he de- 
sired me to take notice of the dress of the female who waited on us. It was the 
very drapery of the ancient Greeks, especially in the horizontal and undulating 
folds that were formed below the bosom, and joined the perpendicular folds which 
marked the skirt of the tunic. The coarse stuff, of which this woman's dress 
was composed, heightened the resemblance ; for to judge from sculpture,the stuffs 
of the ancients were much thicker than ours. It would be impossible to form the 
large sweeps observable in antique draperies with the muslins and silks of mod- 
ern female attire ; the gauze of Cos, and the other stuffs which the satirists de- 
nominated woven wind, were never imitated by the chisel.' Travels in Greece 
&c.p. 137 (N.Y.ed. 1814).— Respecting the material of the vestments of Cos, 
see §335. — On the question concerning the use of silk among the Greeks, cf. 
Anlhon's Lempriere, under the word Seres. 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. BATHS. PRIVATE HOUSES. 471 

§ 170. The custom of frequent bathing and anointing continued 
to the latest period, and both were practiced for pleasure as well as for 
cleanliness and vigor of body. Public baths became at length very 
common, even in the cities, which had not previously admitted them. 
They were furnished with several distinct rooms for undressing, for 
bathing, for anointing &c, which were named from their appropriate 
uses. The various ointments used had different names according to 
the modes and materials of their preparation. To such an extent did 
extravagance go in this respect, that it was sometimes necessary to 
check it by laws. At Sparta the selling of perfumed ointments was 
wholly prohibited, and in Athens men were not allowed to engage in 
it. — Some of the services connected with washing and anointing were 
performed by women ; in particular they washed and anointed the feet. 
It was the custom to kiss the feet of such as were highly esteemed. 

In illustration of this custom of kissing the feet, Cf. Aristophanes, 2q»}xig (p. 
460. ed. Lug. Bat. 1624), and in New Test. Duke, vii. 38. John, xi. 2. 

The public baths were furnished with various accommodations for convenience 
and pleasure. They commonly contained several separate rooms; (1) the ano- 
dvn'iQiov, in which those who bathed put off their clothes; (2) the ircuxavoTor, 
the ' sweating room,' or room for taking vapor baths ; (3) the (SanrtOTiiQiov, for 
the hot bath; (4) the Xovtqov, for the cold bath; (5) the ItXcmrjJQiov the anoint- 
ing room. Robinson, 506. — Comp. P. V. § 64. 

1 Every part of the body had its appropriate unguent. To the feet and legs the 
Greeks applied ^Egyptian ointment ; the oil extracted from the palm was thought 
best adapted to the cheeks and breasts ; the alms were refreshed with balsam- 
mint; sweet-majoram had the honor of supplying an oil for the eye-brows and 
hair, as wild thyme had for the knee and neck.— A nice distinction divided per- 
fumes into two kinds; the first were a thicker sort and applied more as salves or 
wax (xQUictTa) • the others were liquid and poured over the limbs (aXslftfiara). 
To indulge in the liquid ointment was thought to evince a feminine and voluptu- 
ous disposition ; but the sober and virtuous, it was allowed, might use the thicker 
sort without any impeachment of their good qualities.' — L. Quart. Rev. xxiii. 263.j 

\ 171. The general construction of Greek houses has already 
been stated (§ 56). Perfect as was the art of architecture, particularly 
at Athens, it was applied to public buildings rather than private dwel- 
lings, which were mostly of an ordinary character. This was true 
also at Thebes, otherwise greatly celebrated for her superb archi- 
tecture. Much more care was bestowed in ornamenting the interior 
apartments, especially the hall for eating, with rich furniture and 
utensils, and with elegant works of art (P. I. § 178). Besides, the 
custom of encompassing and bordering most of the public places or 
openings with colonnades hindered a free view of the private houses, 
and rendered their beauty or splendor superfluous. The artists also 
found it to their honor and profit to construct the public edifices in a 
style of superior magnificence. 

The common term for the whole house was oixog ; the eating hall was called 
rqixXiviov and iaxiaToqiov; the sleeping room, xoirwv ; abed, xoirt] or Xi%og; a 
door, Svqcc. or 7itV.ij. — Potter gives the following account of Grecian houses. 



472 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES- LATER AGES. 

' The men and women had distinct apartments. The part, in which the men 
lodged, was towards the gate, and called arSqmv, or aviQuivlra; ; that assigned to 
the women, was termed ywaixuiv, ywaixoivirtg, and was the most remote part of* 
the house, and behind the avllj, before which were other apartments denominat- 
ed TtQoSoftog and Ttqoavlior. The women's chambers were called Tsyt ot &aXaf>.oi, 
as being placed at the top of the house (cf. § 56), for the lodgings of the women 
were usually in the highest rooms (alia, vTzcqua). Penelope lodged in such a 

place, to which she^ascended by a y.Xlfta^ (Odys. I. 330).' Although in general 

the private dwellings were of an ordinary character, yet in the time of De- 
mosthenes there were some, which were very costly and splendid. — The houses 
of Sparta are said to have been more lofty, and built with greater solidity 
than those at Athens. 

§ 172. The arts of industry, especially navigation and commerce > 
were highly prosperous in the flourishing period of Grecian history. 
These were originally in the hands of the Phoenicians solely ; but 
afterwards were shared by the occupants of Asia Minor and several 
of the Greek islands. The lucrative commerce of Egypt was then 
chiefly monopolized by the Greeks. Athens was forced to cultivate 
these arts by the unproductiveness of her soil ; and although Lycur- 
gus prohibited commerce at Sparta, yet afterwards even there it grad- 
ually and constantly increased. By the union with Egypt at a later 
period, Grecian commerce rose to still higher success. Besides the 
states just named, Corinth and the islands JEgina and Rhodes were 
the principal places of commerce; and their industry and enterprize 
contributed very much to the wealth and power of the Grecian 
states. 

See D. H. Hegewisck's geograph. und histor. Nachrichten die Colonien der 
Griechen betrefFend. Altona 1808. 8.—RoUin's History of the Arts and Sciences 
of the Ancients. 

Attica was favorably situated for commerce being washed on three sides by 
the sea. Her merchants are said, besides receiving the corn, wines, and metals, 
which came from various places in the Mediterranean, to have imported also 
timber, salted fish, and slaves from Thrace and Macedonia ; woollen and other 
stuffs from Asia Minor and Syria; and honey, wax, tar, and hides from the cities 
on the Black Sea. They likewise exported, not only different commodities, 
brought from foreign countries for the purpose, but the products of Attica; 
which were, chiefly, olives and oil, and various articles of manufacture, particu- 
larly arms and domestic utensils. — Barthelemy's Anacharsis. Ch. 55. 

§ 173. Here it may be proper to give a brief account of the mon- 
ies, weights, and measures of the Greeks. In early times, traffic was 
effected only by exchange of goods, or barter, the inconvenience of 
which must soon be felt. Rude metals were next employed, in order 
to render an equivalent for what was purchased, and were weighed 
for the purpose. Afterwards their weight and value were indicated 
by signs, marked or impressed upon them. At length, regular coins 
were stamped, but the exact time of their first appearance cannot be 
decided (cf. P. I. ^ 94, 95). It is known, however, that in the time 
of Solon, B. C. about 600, they were in common use in Greece. The 
metals used in making money-coins were gold, silver, brass, copper, 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. METALS AND COINS AS MONEV- 473 

and iron. The oldest coins were impressed only on one side. The 
impressions were various, both as to the objects represented, and as 
to the art and skill therein exhibited. The Attic coins were stamped 
with an image of Minerva, and of the owl, her sacred bird. 

fy 174. The general terms used to designate metals as a circulat- 
ing medium were these ; vc/fiiopu, any legitimate coin ; XQ 7 lf ta , money in 
the loose sense ; and xegpu, small coin or change. Besides these, 
there were numberless specific names, derived from the weight of 
the coins, the place where they were struck, or the image upon their 
face. There were also terms, which expressed large sums or amounts, 
but were not names of actual coins ; as e. g. the /uvu or five a, which at 
Athens was the sum of 100 drachms, at iEgina of 160; and the xa- 
IcevTov, which usually was the sum of 6000 drachms, but had a dif- 
ferent value in different places. A talent of gold in Attica was equi- 
valent to 10 talents of silver. 

Among the coins, named from the image upon them, were the (love bearing 
the figure of an ox; the xuqij, having a representation of Pallas, the maid; y?.avi, 
with an owl for its device, another name for the tetradrachma. 

§ 175. Of the actual and circulating coins the lemdv was the 
smallest. Seven of this name were equal to the zal%ovq, and eight 
of the latter to the dftold?. This last varied, however, in value, ac- 
cording to the place where it was coined. Six dftolot were equi- 
valent to the Sqw/n, which had its name from the weight, but was of 
different values in different places. The names of the coins jf,euw|?d- 
liov, duvfloliov or diofiolov, tqio^oIov &c. and if ^ISqaxfiov, dlSga^- 
l*ov &c. are easily understood. Four dQax/tal were equal to the ora- 
tiJj in silver; a. coin, which was also called rergoidQaxfiov, and seems 
to have been the one most generally in use among the Greeks. The 
arai-qg in gold was equivalent in value to 20 Sgaxfiai, in weight to 2, 
and was sometimes called 8i§Qa%(ios, but was most generally termed 
XQvaovg. It received likewise other names from the places where, or 
the kings under whom, it was struck; as e. g. Stater Daricus, Stater 
Craisi &c. The term ftva was also in many instances used to signify 
merely the golden orarifp. Various changes successively took place 
in the denominations of Greek coins. 

§ 176. So also there were changes in the worth of these coins, 
both as to their actual contents and their relative value. Sometimes 
it was necessary to coin tin and iron for money. The Spartans were 
required by the laws of Lycurgus to use iron, and did not depart from 
the custom until a late period. The common ratio of value between 
gold and silver was as one to ten, but it was sometimes above; as one 
60 



474 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

to twelve and a half. There are many difficulties in the way of com- 
paring Grecian money with modern, and thus obtaining a settled 
idea of the value of the former. The Sqax^r{ equalled about 9d 

sterling. 

Many specimens of the silver cronlg or nrqaiqaxfiov (§ 175) are still preserved 
in collections. Lctroiuic, having accurately examined 500 of them, and arranged 
them according to the centuries, in which they were struck, deduced the mean 
weight of the old Attic tQa/u'i,, coined B. C. 2 centuries and more ; and the 
value, as thus derived, is stated at 17 cents, 5-93 mills, of our currency. The 
later d'jayju, is stated at 1G coils, 5-22 mills.— Conger's Essay on the Measures, 
Weights and Monies of the Greeks and Romans. 

In connection with an account of the Grecian monies and coins, it is proper to 
speak of their systems of notation, or of denoting numbers.— The more ancient 
method was quite simple. Six letters were used for the purpose, viz. for one, I, 
perhaps from 'la for Mia ; for five, II, from Hivrc ; for ten, J, from Aixa ; for a 
hundred, II, from Hixarov ; for a thousand, X, from XiUa ; and for ten thousand, 
M, from Mvqia. All numbers were expressed by combinations of these letters ; 
each combination signifying the sum of the numbers designated by the letters 
separately; e. g. 77777 represented eight ; A III sixteen ; J J twenty &c. Some- 
times they were combined so as to express the product, instead of the sum, of the 
separate letters ; in such case one of the letters was made large, and the other 
was written within it of a smaller size ; for example, Jj] (designed to represent 
a 77 with a J in its bosom) signified 10X5, i. e. 50: so a 77 with an II placed with- 
in it signified 100 X 5, or 500 ; and a J having M within it signified 10,000 X 10, 
or 100,000 : this form of combination was chiefly confined to numbers involving 
5 as a factor; such numbers were expressed by using a large 77 and writing the 
letter for the other factor in its bosom. — This was the old Attic system, and is 
found on inscriptions ; it is seen in the Chronicon Parium (cf. P. I. § 91. 4). 

But this method was superceded by another, in which all the letters of the 
alphabet were employed, and also three signs in addition, viz. fiav, y.Lnna, and 
daunt, mentioned in P. I. § 46. By this system, the first eight letters, from Alpha 
to Theta, expressed the units respectively from 1 to 9, Bav being inserted after 
Epsilon to signify 6 ; the second eight, from Iota to Pi, expressed the tens ; the 
last, 77, signifying 80, and y.onna being used for 90 ; Ihe next eight, from Rho to 
Omega, expressed the hundreds, S2 standing for 800, and Sa/int being used for 
900. The letters, when thus used to designate numbers, were usually marked 
with a stroke above; thus, i', 10; z',20; z^' 22. In order to express thousands, 
the eight first letters with Bav were again used, but with a stroke beneath ; thus, 
,$, 4,000 ; ,c, 6000 ; ,y.vXfi , 20,432.— Cf. Robinson's Buttmann, § 2.—Bouiltet, Diet. 
Class. ( Tableaux &c. N. 34.) 

§ 177. The use of weights was of early origin among the Greeks, 
as elsewhere. Grecian weights had the same names with their 
coins of money, a circumstance which seems clearly to point back to 
the custom of weighing uncoined gold and silver for purposes of ex- 
change. The proportions of the weights were different in different 
applications of them; as e. g. those of common merchandize did not in 
all respects correspond with those of the apothecary. The ofioloq is 
said to have been the smallest weight used, except by apothecaries or 
physicians, who used a weight, termed xequtiov, about one fourth of 
the opoldg, and another, andgiov, only one fourth of that. 

§ 178. In speaking of the Greek measures, we may notice them 
as divided into measures of length, extent, or capacity. The names 
of the measures of lenafth were taken, as was the case in most of the 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 475 

ancient nations, from members of the human body; e. g. ddxxvlog, a 
ringer's breadth ; ani&ctfiri, a span, hand's width, the distance from the 
extremity of the thumb to that of the little finger ; novg, a foot. The 
Herculean or Olympic foot was longer. The n-fj^vg, a cubit, was the 
distance from the elbow to the extremity of the middle finger. '0§- 
yvid, a fathom, was the distance across the breast, between the ex- 
tremities of the hands, the arms being extended (ogeyw) in a hori- 
zontal line. 

Of measures including length and breadth, or measures of extent, the principal 
were the novg, the Hqovqcc, and the tcXcSqov. The novg was a square, with each 
side one foot; the agovQa, a square with each side 50 nodes ; and the nli&Qov, a 
square with a side of 100 rcudsg ; so that 2,500 nudtg made an ixoovQa, and 4 aqov- 
Qai a niiSqov. 

§ 179. Measures of capacity had mostly the same names, whether 

applied to liquids, or to things dry. The largest liquid measure was 

fieTQTjTrjg, equal to about 8 gallons, and called also sometimes xddog, 

xeqdfuov, and d^icpo^svg. The smallest measure was the xox^tdgiov, 

containing less than a hundredth part of a pint, and so called from 

ito/log or xo/Uov, a snail-shell. The £e<nr]g contained about a pint, 

and was equal to twice the measure termed xoivlrj. Between the 

aoxvlrj (half-pint) and the xoxluiQiov i six intervening measures are 

named. The measure next larger than the Zearyg (pint) was the 

%ovg, containing upwards of two quarts. 

The y.orvXrj is said to have been applied by ancient physicians to the same use 
as modern graduated glasses of apothecaries, being made of horn, and divided 
on the outside by lines, so that certain parts of the measure corresponded to cer- 
tain denominations of weight. — The largest measure, applied to things dry, was 
the fiidifivoc, which contained somewhat more than a bushel and a fourth, and 
received different names in different regions. The %otvi£, was a little less than 
a quart ; 48 xolvixe g made 1 fiidifivog. Most of the other measures were of the 
same names as the liquid measures. 

§ 180. The social pleasures and amusements of the Greeks were 
very numerous, and in the better portion of their history, various, re- 
fined and tasteful. Music and dancing were among the most promi- 
nent, and were almost a necessary accompaniment of public and private 
festivals, entertainments, and social meetings. In this custom there 
was a regard not merely to immediate gratification, but also to the pro- 
motion of the general culture. Song and musical accompaniment 
were almost inseparable ; at least instrumental music was scarcely 
ever practiced without vocal. — There were several kinds of exercise, 
which it was common to connect with the entertainments of the ban- 
quet, and various social games or plays (cf. § 167). 

See Jul. Caes. Bulengeri de ludis privatis ac domesticis veterum liber unicus. 
Lugd. 1627. 8. — On various Doric dances, cf. Mueller, Hist, and Antiq. of Dor. 
Race. B. i. ch. 6. — A favorite dance is still preserved in Greece, called Romaica ; 
see Lond. Quart. Rev. xxiii. 350. 



47G 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 



We have before spoken of the great importance and comprehensive meaning 
of music (fiovotxi/) in the system of education among the Greeks (cf. P. I. § (il). 
Here we introduce the Following remarks on musical sounds and instruments, from 
Robinson (Li. v. eh. 23). — ' In music the Greeks distinguished sounds, intervals, 
concords, genera, modes, rhyihmus, mutations, and melopccia. The notes or 
sounds of the voice were seven, each of which was attributed to some particular 
planet: l. inury, to the moon; 2. naqvnarri, to Jupiter ; 3. lixarog, to Mercury; 
4. jut in/., to the sun ; 5. naQafdor;, to Mars ; (J. rqirrj, to Venus ; and 7. rijri;, to 
Saturn. Some, however, take them in a contrary order, and ascribe vnuTtj to 
Saturn, and vijirj to the Moon. The tone or mode, which the musicians used in 
raising or depressing the sound, was called virion and they were called rciior, as 
being Jaws or models by which they sang or played. There were four principal 
riiiioi or modes; the Phrygian, the Lydian, the Doric, and the Ionic. To these 
some add afifth, which they call the iEolic, but which is not mentioned by ancient 
authors. The Phrygian mode was religious; the Lydian, plaintive; the Doric 
martial ; the Ionic, gay and cheerful ; and the iEolic, simple. The mode used 
in exciting soldiers to battle was called "Ondio;. — Afterwards, vuuoi began to be 
applied to the hymns which were sung in those modes. 

The music of the Greeks was either vocal or instumental. The musicof those 
who only played on instruments was called /.wvaixij \j/iVij ; that of those who also 
sang to the instrument, uovair.t, iiir'a inluiSiag. The musical instruments were 
divided into hmvivara, windinstruments, and e vrara or nvquSsra, stringed in- 
struments. The lyre, the flute, and the pipe, were the three principal instru- 
ments; but there were several others. 

Of the instruments to which chords or strings were applied, the most famous 
was the lyre, which was called in Greek xiduqa and ipuQtuyi, though some affect 
a distinction between the harp and the lyre.- At first, the strings were made of 
linen thread, and afterwards of the intestines of sheep. Anciently, the chords 
orstrings were three in number, whence suchlyre was. called roixoqdog ,■ and the 
lyre with three strings is said by some to have been invented in Asia, a city of 
Lydia, whence it was sometimes denominated aaiag. Afterwards, it was render- 
ed more perfect by having seven strings, and hence was called inruxoqdog, kr«- 
(f&oyyog, and inruylwaaog. They struck the strings sometimes with a bow, and 
sometimes only with the fingers ; and to play on this instrument was called in 
Greek >itda()'iL£ir t xqoi'ur nli\xrqu>, or diuixsiv, daxrvt-loig xnorur, and \fJuXi.nv. 
To learn to play well on the lyre^ an apprenticeship of three years was necessa- 
ry. . This instrument was invented in Arcadia, which abounded with tortoises, 
of the shell of which the lyre was made. 

The flute, av'/.og, was a celebrated instrument. It was used in the sacrifices of 
the gods, at festivals, games, entertainments, and funerals. Minerva is said to 
have invented the straight, and Pan the oblique flute (jzltxylavXov).— Flutes were 
made of the bones of stags or fawns, and hence called ripQeioi avlol ; and the 
invention of making them of these materials is ascribed to the Thebans. They 
were also made of the bones of asses, and of elephants; and likewise of reed, 
box, and lotus. The Boeotians excelled all the other Greeks in playing on this 
instrument. 

The pipe was called ax'Qiyi, and differed in sound from the flute. The tone of 
the pipe was sharp and shrill ; and hence its sounds were called ).enra).eai. On 
the contrary, the sound of the flute was grave, full and mellow; and hence the 

flute was denominated papilpQOfiog.' The Syrinx, which is called also the pipe 

of Pan, is of great antiquity ; some suppose it tobe the instrument mentioned by 
Moses (Gen. iv. 31.) by the name of ugabh (See Comprehensive Commentary). It 
is still found in the east, in Turkey and Syria ; with the number of its reeds vary- 
ing, it is said, from jive to twenty-five. 

Besides the instruments already named, we may mention the following, (a) 
Stringed ; vapid, a sort of lute or lyre said to have twelve strings (dioSexa (p6uy- 
youc) ; Ttiy/.xlg^ another variety,.of the lyre used bythe Lydians; uayaSig, a lute 
with twenty strings ; uaxaqov, said to be of asquare form and similar to the xpi- 
Gvrja ; znvqa,a,n Asiatic lute oftensaid to be of a melancholy tone, but perhaps 
without foundation; it has been supposed that the strings were drawn over a 
sounding board and in playing were struck with a plectrum, like a modern vio- 
lin ; aau^tixi^ a harp of a triangular form, with four strings of acute sound, used 
in chanting iambics ; Tgiytavov, a triangle with several strings of unequal length ; 
\pair-^iov, said to be like the fiayaStg, and also used for any variety of the lyre; 
■tpi&vnu, a Libyan instrument of a square form. — (b) Wind instruments ; tlviiog, a 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. MUS. INSTRUMENTS. FEM. SOCIETY. 477 

kind of flute of Phrygian invention, usually made of box-wood; yiyyQa, or Y l Y- 
yQia, a Phoenician pipe (§ 77. 2), short, of a plaintive note ; iiovavXos, a flute used 
especially at nuptial festivals. It may be remarked, that there was a great varie- 
ty of these instruments belonging to the class of pipes or flutes; a double flute is 
mentioned, called also the right, and left ; the right one, or that held in the right 
hand, is represented as shorter and having a higher tone than the left ; and both 
as blown by the performer at the same time ; thus a musician is exhibited in a 
representation discovered at Pompeii (see p. 260 of Pompeii, as cited P. I. § 
226.) — There were several varieties likewise of the o*Xniy%, or trumpet. — There 
seem also to have been, in the later times at least, a variety of musical instru- 
ments of the kind termed vd@avX.tg, or water-organ. See Thevenot, Vet. Math. 
Op. cited P. II. § 208. 1— Cf. Hawkin's History of Music. Lond. 1776.— (c) 
Some instruments of percussion were also used ; rrunavov, a sort of kettle-drum, 
flat on one side and convex on on the other, formed of wood with leather drawn 
over it ; much used at the festivals of Cybele and of Bacchus ; y.vfipaXa, cymbals 
which were of metal {xaXxa) • usually large and broad ; sometimes smaller so' 
that two' were held in each hand of the player, and such as are used by oriental 
dancing-women. The xwSusv was merely a little bell. — Some remarks with a 
plate illustrating apart of the instruments above named are found in Pfeiffer on 
the Music of the Hebrews, translated by O. A. Taylor, in the Bibl. Repos. <$• Quart, 
Obs. Vol. vi. p. 357.— Cf. Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, Article Instrumental Musik. 

fy 181. The restraint imposed upon the female sex among the 
Greeks has already been mentioned (§ 59). This state of subjection 
and degradation continued even in the most flourishing times. Un- 
married females, were very narrowly watched. Their apartment in 
the house {naqd-ev&v) was commonly kept closed and fastened- The 
married women were at liberty only to go as far as the door of the 
court or yard. Mothers were allowed a little more freedom. In 
general, women were allowed to appear in public but seldom,, and 
then not without wearing veils (xaXwrnQov). — In Sparta, however, 
only married women were required to wear veils ; the unmarried 
might appear without them. The sex enjoyed generally far more 
liberty at Sparta than at Athens. Lycurgus hoped by removing re- 
straints to promote an innocent familiarity of intercourse. But this 
freedom, however virtuous it might be at first, at length degenerated 
into licentiousness. 

On the state of female society in Greece, see Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. xxii. 1G3. 
— Bibl. Repos. vol. ii. p. 478. 

§ 182. The marriage state was much respected among the 
Greeks, and was promoted and guarded by the laws. In Sparta 
particularly, certain penalties were inflicted upon such, as remained 
unmarried after a certain age. At Athens also, all who wished to be 
commanders or orators, or to hold any public office, were required to 
have a family and to own a real estate. Polygamy on the other hand 
Avas not permitted, although exceptions were made in some special 
cases. The age, at which marriage should be allowed, was also pre- 
scribed, a younger age being granted to females than to males ; the 
latter, at Athens, were forbidden to marry, until they were thirty five. 



478 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGES. 

At Sparta the usual age for men to marry was thirty, and for women 
twenty. Marriage between parties of near consanguinity was not al- 
lowed, or at least was generally viewed as improper and scandalous. 
The Athenians, however, were allowed to marry sisters by the same 
father (o'fionaTgiovg), although not those by the same mother (6/*o- 
(tqigiovg). In most of the states, a citizen could marry only the 
daughter of a citizen ; yet there was sometimes an exception. 

§ 183. When a virgin was sought in marriage, it was necessary 
first to consult the parents, and if they were not living, the brother or 
guardian (inlioonog ). The betrothing was usually made in a formal 
manner by the father. The parties pledged to each other mutual fidelity. 
The giving of a dowry (noolg, cpegrr]) with the bride was a custom 
in Greece generally. At Athens it was a legal and indispensable 
requisite, although the dowry was but small. In Sparta however, 
Lycurgus nearly abolished the custom. In the settlement of the 
dowry, and the stipulations connected with it, witnesses were called 
in, and the husband delivered an acknowledgement or receipt (ngoi- 
xua), when he took the stipulated gifts. At Athens it was customary 
before the actual marriage to present the bride before Diana with of- 
ferings and prayers ; this ceremony was called dgy.TEla, and was .de- 
signed to appease the goddess, who was supposed to be averse to mar- 
riage. There were other divinities, male and female, who where 
imagined to preside over marriage, and were therefore called yu/irjfooi 
S-eol, to whom it was necessary to offer sacrifices on entering into 
the marriage contract. 

§ 184. At the nuptials the betrothed pair, as well as the place of 
the festivity, were adorned with garlands and flowers. Towards even- 
ing the bride was conducted to the house of the bridegroom (onto* 
dysadai) either on foot or in a carriage (ugfiu). The bridesman, who 
attended her on this occasion, was called ndgo/og or nagdwf/cpog. A 
procession went before her, bearing lighted torches, and accompanied 
with music and dancing. When the newly married couple entered 
the house, it was customary to place or pour upon their heads figs and 
other varieties of fruit. The parties then sat down to a banquet, 
which was, as well as the nuptial ceremonies together, termed ydfiog, 
and was attended with music and dancing. The songs were called 
vfievaioi, or vfisveg. After the dancing, the pair were conducted with 
torches to the bridal chamber (daldfiog), which was usually highly 
decorated for the occasion. The young men and maids remained 
without, dancing, and singing the imdaldfiiov xoi.firjTi.scdv, while a 
friend of the bridegroom stood by as keeper of the door (dvgcogog). 
This company returned to the door in the morning, and sung what 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. MARRIAGES. FUNERALS. 479 

was called the enidaldfiiov iyegnxdv. The nuptial solemnities occu- 
pied several days; one of them called indvha, another dndvha. 

See a lively description of an Athenian marriage in Barthelemifs Anacharsis, 
Ch. 77. — On the marriage customs in Sparta, cf. Mueller, B. iv. Ch. 4. Polyg- 
amy was not generally allowed. Adultery was punished, and in some cases with 
severity. But concubinage was permitted without restraint. Concubines (naX- 
Xaxides) were usually captives or purchased slaves. Prostitution was exceeding- 
ly common, and favored even by the whole system of religious worship. In 
Athens the most distinguished statesmen and philosophers openly associated 
with females of dissolute morals (sraiQai). The city of Corinth was still more 
famous for licentiousness. — Respecting the prevalence of sensuality among the 
Greeks, cf. Bibl.Repos. vol. ii. p. 441. 

§ 185/ Something should he said of the Greek customs in later 
times in reference to funerals and hurials. Funeral obsequies were 
considered as a sacred duty to the departed, and were therefore termed 
Sixaia, vouifia, oaia. They were denied only to notorious criminals, 
traitors and suicides, especially such as destroyed themselves to escape 
punishment, spendthrifts and the like, whose remains, if they hap- 
pened to obtain burial, were even disinterred. Some of the customs 
connected with the burial of the dead have already (^ 30, 31) been 
mentioned. In later times it was , common to wrap the corpse in a 
costly robe, the color of which was generally white ; and deck it with 
green boughs and garlands of flowers. The body was then laid out 
to view (nQOTidsadai) in the entrance of the house, on the ground, or 
on a bier (cpeQBTQov), where it remained at least one day, with the feet 
towards the gate. It was while here constantly watched. A vase of 
lustral water (dgddviov) stood by, to purify such as touched the corpse. 
Shortly before it was removed for burial, a piece of money, usually an 
oftolog, was placed in the mouth, as the fare [davdxjj, nogOfiiov) due 
to Charon for ferrying the departed over the Styx. A cake made of 
flour and honey (fislmovTa) was also put in the mouth, to appease the 
dog Ceberus supposed to guard the entrance into Hades (a dyg). 

§ 186/ The funeral itself was termed exxofiiSrj, or exyogd, the 
carrying forth of the corpse, which at Athena was performed before 
sunrise, but elsewhere in the day time. In Greece generally, young 
persons were buried at break of day or early morning.twilight. The 
corpse was placed on a bier, or if the deceased had been a warrior, on 
a large shield, and the bearers carried it on their shoulders (d'gdrjv 
cpegsiv), followed by the friends and relatives of both sexes. The 
procession was commonly on horseback, or in carriages; it was a to- 
ken of higher respect when all went on foot. — Sorrow for the deceas- 
ed was manifested by solitary retirement, fasting and silence, by wear- 
ing black and sordid garments, by covering the head with ashes, and 
plucking off the hair, by cries of lamentation, and by funeral dirges. 
The latter were performed by musicians employed for the purpose 



480 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. LATER AGIES. 

(fl^Von' t£«^oi); one was sung as the corpse was borne forward, 
another at ihe funeral pile, and the third at the grave ; they were called 
6i.oq>vg t uol, also ldke l uoi ) rdXe/iot. 

§ 187. The custom of burning the corpse became universal 
among the later Greeks ; the ceremonies attending it have been chief- 
ly mentioned before (§ 31). The ashes and bones were gathered 
{aQToloyiov) in an urn, and buried, commonly without the city, amid 
many blessings and prayers for their repose. The urns used for this 
purpose {xdlnat,, laqvaxeg, oarodrjuai, ooqoI &c.) were made of dif- 
ferent materials, wood, stone or precious metal, according to the rank 
and circumstances of the deceased. 

The sepulchral monuments of distinguished men were built often 
with great expense and splendor. Monuments were also frequently 
erected to them in other spots, where their ashes were not deposited. 
The solemnities of their burial were concluded with a funeral oration 
or eulogy, with games, repasts, and sacrifices and libations, which 
were, in many cases, repeated on the successive anniversaries of 
their decease. 

In early times the Greeks were accustomed to place their dead in repositories, 
made for the purpose, in their own houses. Temples also were sometimes made 
repositories for the dead ; especially for such as had rendered eminent public 
services. But in later ages it became the general custom to bury the dead- with- 
out the'cities and chiefly by the highways. Graves at first were mere openings 
dug in the earth, vnoyaia. Soon there was a custom of paving and arching 
them with stone. 

The fivtjfuia (also fivi'/fiara, ai'^iara) consisted of two parts ; the grave strictly, ■ 
called sometimes fivripetov, but also amjlaiov, rvii/iog and Taipo$ • and the space 
around it, usually fenced with poles, called -d-qiyxog, axlni], or ntQioixoSofil/. Pil- 
lars of stone, OTijlai, were usually erected within this space, bearing inscriptions 
(jniyQcupug) and often images of the deceased {ayal^iara) and also other orna- 
ments with devices denoting their character, and pursuits or particular achieve- 
ments. Thus on the monument of Diogenes was inscribed the figure of a. dog ; 
on that of Isocrates, a syren reclining upon a ram ; on that of Archimedes, a 
sphere and cylinder. 

Cenotaphs (xtvoracpia, y.tvi'iQia) were monuments erected for the dead, which 
were not the repositories for their remains. They were raised both for persons, 
who had never obtained a proper funeral, and also for such as had received fu- 
neral honors in another place. It was a notion of the ancients, that the ghosts of 
unburied persons could not be admitted into the regions of the blessed, without 
first wandering a hundred years in misery ; and if one perished at sea or where 
his body could not be found, the only way to procure repose for him was to build 
an empty tomb, and by certain rites and invocations call his spirit to the habitation 
prepared for it. — The custom of ornamenting the monuments of the dead at 
length led to such extravagance, that it became necessary to. impose penal 
restraints. 

In the case of such as had died in war, the oration at their funerals, and at 
subsequent anniversaries of their decease, was viewed as so important, that the 
speaker for the occasion was appointed by the public magistrates. Thus Pericles 
was appointed, when the Athenians solemnized a public funeral, for those first 
killed in the Peloponnesian war (Thuajd. ii. 34) ; and Demosthenes, when the- 
same honor was rendered to those, who fell in the fatal battle of Chasronea fcf. 
Milford. Ch. xlvii. Sect. 6J. 

For a most interesting view of the games and exercises performed in honor of 
the dead, the student is referred to the 23d book of the Iliad, where Homer gives 
an account of the funeral of Patroclus. 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



Introduction. 

§ 188. It belongs to the topics of history and geography rather 
than antiquities to describe the origin and progress of the Romans, 
and the extent of their empire. Yet a glance at these subjects, and a 
few remarks upon them, will aid in getting a better view of the Roman 
antiquities, and enable one to understand and appreciate more cor- 
rectly the people and their more important peculiarities. Some pre- 
liminary notices of Rome and its empire will be given first, and then 
something respecting the Romans themselves. 

According to the common accounts of history, the city of Rome 
was founded 754 B. C. by Romulus and Remus, grand-children of 
the Alban king Numitor. It was situated not far from the mouth of 
the Tiber, in Latium, a province in middle Italy. In the beginning 
it was of small extent, confined to Mount Palatine, on which it was 
built. The number of inhabitants did not amount to 4,000. This 
more ancient part of the city was afterwards called oppidum, while 
the better part, later built, was called urbs, which became at length a 
general name for Rome. It was first peopled by some families from 
Alba Longa, and afterwards by various accessions (cf. P. I. § 109, 
110), partly of the vagabond and worthless, from the neighboring 
people of Italy. The Capitoline Hill was occupied next after the 
Palatine, and at last five other mountains or hills were included in 
the city, and thence was derived the epithet septicollis. The first 
walls around the city were low and. weak ; Tarquinius Priscus and 
Servius Tullius improved them. 

§ 189. Among the principal events, which greatly changed the 
appearance of the city, were the capture and burning of it by the 
Gauls, 390 B. C, and the erection of numerous buildings in the reign 
of Augustus, and after the conflagration under Nero. In the two 
last mentioned periods, Rome was very rapidly enlarged and adorned, 
and continued to be further improved under succeeding emperors 
down to the time of Honorius. In his reign occurred the capture 
and sack of Rome by»the Goths under Alaric, A. D. 410. The city 
was in a great measure rebuilt by Theodorick. But by that disaster, 
t and the still greater devastations of the Gothic king Totila, A. D. 547, 
61 



482 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

it lost much of its ancient splendor. It continued to wane during the 
ages following. After all the exertions of the later popes to restore 
its former beauty, there is a vast difference between modern and an- 
cient Rome. Of the latter we find only certain traces and monuments, 
and these are in part mere ruins and fragments. 

See P. Macquer's Rcemische Jahrbuecher, oder chronol. Abriss der Gesch. 
Roms; aus dem Franz, mit Anmerk. von C. D. Beck. Leipz. 1783. 8. — For a 
more particular notice of Rome and its topography, see P. V. §§ 51 ss. 

§ 190. In the most flourishing period of Rome, at the close of the 
republic and beginning of the imperial monarchy, the population was 
very great. The number of citizens may be estimated at 300 thousand, 
and the whole number of residents at 2 millions and upwards. 

' Concerning the number of inhabitants in ancient Rome, we can only form 
conjectures. Lipsius computes them, in its most flourishing state, at four mil- 
lions.' (Adam.) — Tacitus (Annals. L. xi. c. 25) states, that by a census in the 
reign of Claudius the number of Roman citizens amounted to nearly 7 millions ; 
it is supposed that this number must have included the citizens in other places 
besides the city of Rome itself. — Gibbon has the. following remarks on the popu- 
lation of the Roman empire; ' The number of subjects who acknowledged the 
laws of Rome, of citizens, of provincials, and of slaves, cannot now be fixed with 
such a degree of accuracy, as the importance of the object would deserve. We 
are informed, that when the emperor Claudius exercised the office of Censor, he 
took an account of six millions nine hundred and forty-five thousand Roman 
citizens, who with the proportion ot women and children must have amounted 
to about twenty millions of souls. The multitude of subjects, of an inferior rank, 
was uncertain and fluctuating. But after weighing with attention every cir- 
cumstance which could influence the balance, it seems probable, that there ex- 
isted, in the time of Claudius, about twice as many provincials as there were 
citizens, of either sex, and of every age ; and that the slaves were at least equal 
in number to the free inhabitants of the Roman world. The total amount of 
this imperfect calculation would rise to about one hundred and twenty millions 
of persons: a degree of population which possibly exceeds that of modern Europe, 
and forms the most numerous society that has ever been united under the same 
system of government.' 

§ 191. Originally the authority of Romulus extended scarcely six 
thousand paces beyond the city. But he and the succeeding kings 
considerably enlarged the dominion of Rome. During the time of 
the Republic her empire was rapidly and widely spread, and at length, 
by numerous and important conquests, a great part of the known 
world was subjected to her sway. In the reign of Augustus the limits 
of the Roman Empire (1) were the Euphrates on the east, the Nile, 
the African deserts and Mt. Atlas on the south, the Ocean on the 
west, and the Danube and the Rhine on the north. Under some of 
the succeeding emperors even these limits were transcended. — Au- 
gustus made a division (2) of the whole empire into twelve parts. 

1." The countries subject to Rome were, in Asia, Colchis, Iberia, Albania, 
Pontus, Armenia, Syria, Arabia, Palsestina, the Bosphorus, Cappadocia, Gala- 
tia, Bithynia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lydia, in short the -whole of Asia Minor ; in 
Africa, Egypt, Cyrenaica, Marmarica, Gastulia, Africa Propria, Numidia and 
Mauretania; and in Europe, Italia, Hispania, Gallia, the Alps, Rhaetia, Nori- 
cum, Illyricum, Macedonia, Epirus, Graecia, Thracia, Mcesia, Dacia and Pan- 



INTRODUCTION. 483 

nonia. In addition to these were a number of islands from the pillars of Hercu- 
les to the black Sea, to which Britain may be added. 

2." The emperor Hadrian afterwards gave a new form to this division, and 
separated Italy, Spain, Gaul, Aquitania and Britannia, Illyricum, Thracia and 
Africa into provinces. 

One of the last changes of this kind was made by Constantine the Great, who 
divided the empire into four Prsefecturates, containing various dioceses and dis- 
tinct provinces, for the government of which he appointed a number of new ma- 
gistrates. The most complete description of the Roman Empire, and of its 

various changes, is found in Onuphrii Panvinii Roman um Imperium, in the 
Thesaurus Antiq. Rom. of Gravius, T. I. — Cf. Gibbon, Decl. and Fall &c. Ch. 1. 

fy 192. In a few centuries the Romans acquired a greatness and 
power, which is altogether singular and the most remarkable in all 
history. What in the highest degree contributed to this was their 
warlike character, for which they were from their first origin distin- 
guished. Bodily strength and superior prowess constituted the 
grand object of their wishes and efforts, and war and agriculture 
were their only pursuits. A great part of the people were directly 
occupied in their constant wars ; the proportion of soldiers compared 
with the rest of the citizens is estimated to have been as 1 to 8. All 
the early Romans felt an equal interest in defending their country, be- 
cause the conquered territory was divided equally among them. In 
addition to all this, much must be ascribed to their policy in the man- 
ner of maintaining their conquests, in the treatment of allies, and in 
arranging the government of the provinces, and to the respect towards 
them awakened in other nations. — To treat of these topics belongs to 
history ; yet a brief view of the principal revolutions in Roman af- 
fairs seems to be necessary for our object. 

§ 193. Romulus, the founder and builder of Rome, was the first 
king. According to the common accounts (not altogether certain, 
however), six other kings succeeded him, Numa Pompilius, Tullus 
Hostilius, Ancus Martins, Tarquinius Prisons, Scrvius Tullius, and 
Tarqiiinius Swperbus, men of active enterprize, who contributed to 
the growth and stability of the nation. The most remarkable circum- 
stances or events, during the regal form of government, were the di- 
vision of the people into Tribes, Curiae, Classes and Centuries ; the sep- 
aration of Patricians and Plebeians ; the establishment of the senate, 
and of the religious worship, the settlement of the mode of computing 
time, of the military discipline, of the valuation and taxation, and the 
introduction of coined money. In general it may be remarked, that 
the principles of the government under this first form were not strictly 
monarchical, buti'ather of a mixed character, and really laid the foun- 
dation of the subsequent advantageous system of the republic. Du- 
ring this whole period, the Romans were involved in wars; but this 
uninterrupted continuity of war contributed to their success, for they 



484 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

never would make peace until they had conquered. The regal gov- 
ernment continued 244 years, and was abolished B. C. 510, because 
the last king, Tarquinius Superbus, had provoked the nobility by ar- 
rogant haughtiness, and the people by heavy impositions. 

The immediate occasion of Tarquin's expulsion, and the abolition of the 
monarchy, is said to have been the vile abuse committed upon Lucretia, wife of 
Collatinus, by Sextus Tarquinius, the king's son. — Cf. Goldsmith's Rome by Pin- 
noch ; p. 85. ed. Phila. 1835, 

§ 194. Rome was now a free state, at first aristocratical, and then 
for a period governed more by the Plebeians, whose importance and 
power, sustained by their tribunes, constantly increased. During this 
time the dominion of the Romans, as well as the vigor of their consti- 
tution, was augmented; their legislation was judicious; and their 
morals comparatively rigid. For a considerable period they main- 
tained an elevated national character, in which simplicity and pro- 
priety of manners, a high spirit of enterprize, a strong sense of jus- 
tice, daring boldness and self-denial and the warmest patriotism were 
prominent traits. — The most brilliant era in the Roman Republic 
was the first half of the sixth century from the building of the city, 
and especially during the sixteen years of the second Punic war, at 
the close of which Rome was in possession of her greatest strength. 
But immediately after this, corruption of morals advanced with rapid 
steps. Among the various causes of this, we may mention the victo- 
ries in Greece and Asia, the long residence of the legions and officers 
amidst the luxuries of the east, and at last the overthrow of Corinth 
and Carthage; each of these things contributed to the unhappy re- 
sult. Through debauchery, luxury and effeminacy, the Romans now 
suffered a universal degeneracy of manners and morals, although 
they gained from their intercourse with the Greeks and the eastern 
nations an increase of knowledge and much polish and refinement in 
matters of taste. 

A valuable work on this subject is the following ; Chr. Meiners, Geschichte des 
Verfalls der Sitten und der Staatsverfassung der Romer. Leipz. 1782. 8. — Also 
by same, Geschichte des Verfalls der Sitten, Wissenschaften und Sprache der 
Romer in den ersten Jahrhunderten nach Ch. geburt. Wien und Leipzig 1791. 
8. — More minute, but especially instructive, is Ad. Fergurson's Rise and Prog, 
of Rom. Republic, cited P. II. § 296. 5. .(f). 

§ 195. Selfishness, avarice and lust of power were immediate 
consequences of this degeneracy ; and became in turn causes of the 
most melancholy disorders in the state, and of those civil wars, the 
leaders in which contended for the supreme authority. Octavius at 
last gained the point, and under the name of Augustus was the first 
possessor of the now established Imperial throne. His reign through- 



INTRODUCTION. 485 

out was a flourishing period of Roman history. Some of his suc- 
cessors were worthy rulers. But much more effectual and more fatal 
Avas the influence of those emperors, who disgraced the throne by the 
lowest voluptuousness and vilest despotism; under these, the already 
prevailing corruption was fully completed. Now arose in rapid suc- 
cession the most violent and fatal internal commotions; the right of 
the strongest triumphed over every thing, and although particular em- 
perors endeavored to prop up the sinking dominion, it constantly drew 
nearer and nearer to final ruin. 

Goldsmith's Rome, and Gibbon's Decline and Fall of Roman Empire. Cf. P. II. 
§ 296. 5 (f).— Bridge's Roman Empire under Constantine the Great. 

§ 196. It may be seen from this brief delineation of the Romans, 
that their history must be crowded with interesting and instructive 
incidents ; and that a familiar acquaintance with their constitution and 
customs must be highly useful. The utility of studying the Roman 
antiquities needs therefore no further recommendation. But besides 
the indispensable importance of a knowledge of the antiquities in or- 
der to understand properly the history of the Romans, there are other 
advantages, which render it worthy the attention of every lover of 
literature, and every one, in fact, who is not wholly indifferent to in- 
tellectual refinement and taste. It is essential as a help in reading 
the distinguished Roman authors, whose writings are preserved, and 
in obtaining a correct idea of the various works of Roman art. 

§ 197. The best sources, whence a knowledge of Roman antiqui- 
ties may be drawn, are doubtless the Roman writers themselves, par- 
ticularly the historians. There are also several Greek writers valu- 
able in this respect, as they lived among the Romans, and being stran- 
gers, many things must strike them as more important and remarka- 
ble than they might seem to the native citizens. Among the latter 
class of writers are Polybius, Dionysius, Strabo, Plutarch, Appian and 
Dion Cassius, and even some later writers, as Procopius, Zonaras &c. 
Some aid may be derived also from the writings of the Christian Fa- 
thers. In modern times Roman antiquities have been formed 

into a sort of science. The materials drawn from the sources just 
named, and various others, have been digested into regular systems on 
the one hand, while, on the other, particular branches of the subject 
have been examined in more full detail. Yet this has perhaps never 
been done with sufficient knowledge of fact, or adequate critical skill 
and discrimination ; the essential has not been sufficiently distinguish- 
ed from the less important, nor the general and universal from the par- 
ticular and local; nor has there been suitable care to note the periods, 



486 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

in which the customs and principles were introduced, made prevalent, 
or changed. These are defects, which we must notice rather than 
avoid in the brief treatise, upon which we now enter, and which can- 
not be fully removed without more labor than has hitherto been devoted 
to the subject. We mention here some of the principal wri- 
ters on Roman antiquities. 

The largest collections of separate treatises are the two following ; Jo. Georg. 
Grmvii Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanum; c. fig. Traj. ad Rhen. 1694-99. 12 
vols. fol. (For an account of the contents of this, see Appendix to Kennett cited 
below).— Alb. Henr. de Sallengre, Novus Thesaurus antiq. Rom. Hag. Com. 
1716 — 19. 3 vols. fol. — Very useful on account of its copiousness and its good re- 
ferences is Sam. Pitisci Lexicon Antiq. Roman. Hag. Com. 1737. 3 vol. fol. 

As a system formally arranged may be mentioned, Jo. Rosini Antiq. Roman. 
Corpus absolutissimum, c. n. Tho. Dempsteri. Traj. ad Rhen. 1710. 4. (Ed. J. F. 
Reilzius.) Amst. 1743. 4. 

The best manuals are, Bas. Kennett's Romae Antique Notitia, or the Antiqui- 
ties of Rome, in two parts. Lond. 1731. 8. There have been many later editions ; 
first American, Phil. 1822. 8. — G. H. Nieuport, Rituum, qui olim apud Romanos 
obtinuerunt, succincta explicatio. 14th ed. Berl. 1784. 8. — C. G. Swartz, Observa- 
tioues ad Nieuportii Compendium antiquitatum romanarum (ed. A. M. Nagel), 
Altd. 1757. 8. — C. J. H. Haymann, Anmerkungen ueber Nieuport's Handbuch 
der roemischen Alterthuemer. Dresd. 1786. 8. — Christ. Cellarius, Compendium 
Antiq. Rom. cum adnot. J. E. Im. Malchii. 2d. ed. Hal. 1774. 8.— G. C. Mater- 
nus von Cilano, Ausfuehrliche Abhandlung der roemischen Alterthuemer, her- 
ausgegeben von G. C. Adler, Altona, 1775, 76. 4 vols. 4. — C. G. Heynii Antiqui- 
tas romana, inprimis juris romani. Goett. 1779. 8.— P. F. A. Nilsh, Beschrei- 
bung des haeuslichen, wissenschaftlichen, sittlichen, gottesdienstlichen, politi- 
schen und kriegerischen Zustandes der Rosmer, nach den verschiedenen Zeit- 
altern der Nation, by J. H. M. Ernesti. Erfurt, 1812. 2 vols. 8.— Same work 
abridged (by Ernesti). Erf. 1812. 8.— K. Ph. Moritz, AN0OYSA, oder Rom's 
Alterthuemer. 1st part (of the sacred rites of the Romans), Berl. 1791, 1797. 8. 
2d part (of the civil and private affairs), ed, by F. Rambach, Berl. 1796. — Alexan- 
der Adam, Roman Antiquities &c. Edinb. 1791. 8. Often repr. Impr. ed. by 
James Boyd. Edinb. 1834. 12mo. Transl. into German with improvements by 
J. L. Meyer (3d ed.). Erlang. 1818. 2 vols. 8.--J. K. Unger, Sitten und Gebraeu- 
che der Reamer. Wien, 1805, 6. 2 vols. 8. with plates. — G. G. Kapke, Antiqui- 
tates Romana?, in xii. tab. descr. Berl. 1808. — L. Schaaff's Antiquitaeten und Ar- 
chaeologie der Griechen und Rcemer. (In his Encyclop. d. class. AtlertAumskunde.) 
Magdeb. 1820. 8. — F. Creutzer's Abriss der rosmischen Antiquitaeten zum Ge- 
brauche bei Vorlesungen. Leipz. 1824. 8. 

Less extensive but useful and instructive is the following, Ueber Sitten und 
Lebensart der Roemer, in verschiedenen Zeiten der Republic, von J. H. L. Meie- 
rollo. Berlin 1814. 8. (Ed. Ph. Buttmann.) — The following are abridgements; 
Abriss der griech. und rosmisch. Alterthuemer, von Chr. Fried. Haacke. Stendal 
1821.— Roman Antiquities, and Ancient Mythology, for Classical Schools ; by 
Chs. K. Dillaway. Boston 1831. 2d ed. 1835. — Worthy of mention also is, Wil- 
cock's Roman Conversations, or Descriptions of the Antiquities of Rome. Lond. 
1797. 2 vols. 8. 

We may also refer here to Montfaucon's Antiquite Expliquee, as illustrating 
by its plates and descriptions Roman as well as Greek Antiquities (§ 13). — The 
following work contains many excellent delineations; Raccolta Tavole rap- 
present, i costumi religiosi, civili e militari degli antichi Egiziani, Etruschi, 
Greci e Romani, tratti dagli antichi monumenti, — disegrate, ed incise in rame, 

da Lorenzo Roccheggiani. 2 vols. 4. containing 100 plates each. As pertaining 

especially to the subject of costume, we add, Bardon, Costume des Anciens 
Peuples. Par. 1786. 2 vols. 4. — A. Lens, Le Costume, ou Essai sur les habille- 
ments et les usages de plus, peupl. de l'Antiquite, prouve par les monuments. 
Liege 1776. 4. — Particularly, Maillot & Martin, Recherches sur les costumes, 
les mceurs &c. des anciens peuples &c.-orne de 296 planches, au trait. Par. 1804-6. 
3 vols. 4. ' The 1st volume contains, in great detail, the costume, manners &c. 
of the Romans, from Romulus to the last emperors of Constantinople. The en- 
gravings are taken from medals and monuments of each epoch.' 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. 487 

§ 198. We shall treat the Roman Antiquities, as we did the Greek, 
under four distinct branches, thus exhibiting separately the affairs of 
religion, civil government, war, and private life. 



(1) Religious Affairs. 

§ 199. As the word religion is of Roman origin, it may be well 
to notice the ideas attached to this term in the Latin language. Orig- 
inally religio seems to have signified every sort of serious and earnest 
exertion, to which one was impelled by external or internal motives. 
Afterwards, it was used chiefly to express the included idea of duty 
towards the Deity and towards fellow-creatures ; and the theory of 
this, as well as the practice, then took the name of religion. In the 
plural number, the word usually designates the regulations and prac- 
tices pertaining to the worship and propitiation of the Deity. And, 
in as much as the knowledge and practice of duty towards men and 
the Divine being will lead to a certain permanent moral sensibility 
and conscientiousness of deportment, the word religio was also natur- 
ally employed as comprehending in its meaning this correctness of 
morals. 

§ 200. In inquiring into the origin of the religion of the Romans, 
we must revert to the origin of the nation, already noticed (§ 188). 
There doubtless existed in Latium, long before the founding of Rome, 
various religious customs, and the worship of various divinities; and 
it is not easy to trace out their gradual rise and establishment. By 
the subsequent colonies from Greece, Elis and Arcadia, this native 
religion received many additions and modifications ; hence the great 
similarity between the Greek and Roman systems of mythology and 
worship (cf. P. III. § 8). In some particulars the Roman traditions 
differ from those of the Greeks, where the divinities and their chief 
attributes are the same. The Romans also adopted several religious 
usages, not practiced by the Greeks, as e. g. in relation to auguries 
and auspices, which were borrowed from the Etrurians. To the 
latter source, we may chiefly ascribe the great prevalence of super- 
stition in the earliest part of the Roman history. 

§ 201. The religion of the Romans was, like that of the Greeks, 
intimately connected with their politics. It was often employed as a 
means of promoting secret designs of state, which the projectors knew 
how to render agreeable and desirable, by the help of superstition. 
Thus the inclinations of the mass of the people were determined by 



488 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

pretended oracles and signs. Many military enterprizes derived their 
most effective stimulus from this source ; and not seldom it furnished 
the strongest motives to patriotic exertion, since love of country was 
held to be a religious duty. The pomp of the religious solemnities 
and festivals served to foster and to deepen sentiments of awe and fear 
towards the gods, and thus contributed to the same end. The pur- 
pose and influence of the gods were considered as effecting much in 
all events and transactions, and this belief was greatly confirmed by 
the artifice of the poets, who sought to impart dignity to the incidents 
of their stories, by describing the intervention and agency of the gods 
therein. 

§ 202. On the first establishment of the city Romulus made it a 
prominent object to render the national religion a means of union 
between the various and discordant materials, of which the first in- 
habitants were composed. Still more carefully was this object pur- 
sued by his successor Numa, who is viewed as the chief author of 
many of the religious usages of the Romans, which were in part, as 
has been suggested, borrowed from the Greeks and Etrurians. His 
pretended interviews with a supernatural being, the nymph Egeria, 
secured greater respect and success in his efforts. The fundamental 
principles of Numa's system, being retained, were afterwards carried 
out more fully and variously. — As knowledge and sound philosophy 
advanced among the Romans, the religious notions of the more in- 
telligent portion were gradually rectified and elevated ; but this was; 
confined to a few, while the great mass adhered to the common faith, 
even in the period, when the system became inconsistent and cum- 
brous by the deification of the emperors. 

For a particular account of the gods worshiped by the Romans, we refer to 
the part fill.) of this work, which treats of the subject of Mythology. The 
Roman division or classification of their gods is noticed in (P. III.) § 9. 

§ 203. The great number of the Roman deities occasioned a large 
number of temples, of which, as some assert, there were in Rome 
above four hundred (420). The name of temples, templa, however, 
properly belonged only to such religious buildings as were solemnly 
consecrated by the augurs ; by this circumstance, and also by a less 
simple style of architecture, they were distinguished from the cedes 
sacrce, although the names are often used interchangeably. Their 
form was almost entirely in Grecian taste, oblong rectangular oftener 
than round. It was customary to dedicate them with various cere- 
monies, on laying the foundation, and on the completion of the build- 
ing, and also after a remodelling or repairing of it. 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. TEMPLES. ALTARS. 



489 



The principal parts of a temple were commonly the sanctuary 
(cella sanctior, adytum), the interior, appropriated for the ceremonies 
of sacrifice, and the exterior or court, serving for various purposes. 
The temples however were often used, not only for religious solem- 
nities, hut also for meetings of the senate, select councils and the like. 
They usually stood in an open place, and were surrounded with pil- 
lars, or at least ornamented with them on the front. 

On the structure of ancient temples, cf. P. 1. § 234 and references there given. 
— We may obtain an idea of the ceremonies at the dedication or consecration of 
a temple from Tacitus, Hist. iv. 53. — Cf. also Hooke's Rom. Hist. 10th vol. p. 
282, as cited P. II. § 29C. 5 [6]. 

§ 204. The Romans adorned the interior of their temples, as did the 
Greeks, with statues of the gods, with other works of sculpture and 
painting, and with consecrated offerings of various kinds, called do- 
naria. Every thing connected with a temple was held as sacred to the 
god or gods, to whom it was devoted. — A general name for such places 
as were sacred to the gods, even if no buildings were there erected, 
was fanum. The word delubrum, on the other hand, had a more 
limited meaning, signifying properly only that portion of the temple 
where stood the images of the gods, one or more ; hut it is often used 
in a more general sense. Small temples, or chapels, also places for 
worship without roofs and only guarded by a wall, were termed sa- 
cella. Among the groves (luci) consecrated to the gods, of which 
there were thirty two in the city, those of Vesta, Egeria, Furina and 
Juno Lucina were the most noted. 

§ 205. Altars were sometimes erected apart frorh any temple, and 
were then inscribed merely with the name of the god to whom they 
were dedicated ; usually, however, they were placed in temples. A 
distinction was made between altaria and ara, ; the former were 
raised higher, and were used for offering the sacrificial victim; the 
latter were lower, and were used in offering the prayer and libation. 
The former were more usually consecrated to the celestial gods, the 
latter, to the infernal. They stood one behind the other, and were so 
placed that the images of the gods appeared behind them. 

l. u There was also a third kind of altar, anclabris, a sort of table, on which 
the sacrificial utensils were placed and the entrails of victims were laid by the Ha- 
ruspices. The rnensa sacra was something still different, a table on which incense 
was sometimes presented, and offerings not' designed to be burned, as various ar- 
ticles of fruit and food. — Altars were sometimes made of metals, even of gold 
or some metal gilded, but more frequently of marble and other stones, commonly 
of a white color. Sometimes they were hastily formed of ashes, earth or turf, 
orthe hornsof victims. The form of altars was various, quadrangular oftener 
than round. Not unfrequently they were adorned with sculpture and image- 
work. 

2. It was common also to adorn altars with fillets or ribbons, and garlands of 

62 



490 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

herbs and flowers. — Altars and temples afforded a place of refuge among the Ro- 
mans as \vell as Greeks, ehiefly for slaves from the cruelty of masters, for insolv- 
ent debtors and criminals, where it was impious to touch them, although contri- 
vances might be employed (as e. g. kindling a fire around them) to force them 
away, or they might be confined there until they perished. 

$ 206. The most important instruments {vasa sacra) employed in 
sacrifices were, the axe (securis, bipennis) or club (malleus), with which 
the victim was first struck ; knives for stabbing (cultri), and others, 
long, two edged, for dividing the flesh and entrails (secespitce) ; the 
censer (thuribulum), and the box containing the substance burnt for 
incense (acerra or arcula thuraria) ; a vessel used in dropping the 
wine upon the sacrifices (gutlus) ; a flat vessel, in which the priests 
and others offering sacrifices tasted the wine (simpulum) ; broad dish- 
es or bowls (paterae) for wine and the blood of the victims ; an oblong 
vase with one or two handles (capedo, capeduncula, capis) ; vessels 
to hold the entrails (ollce exlares) ; plates on which the entrails and 
flesh were brought to the altar (lances) ; baskets, particularly to con- 
tain the fruit offered (canislra) ; small tables with three legs (tripo- 
des) ; an instrument having a tuft of hair, or the like, for sprinkling 
the sacred water (aspergillum) ; pans for the sacrificial fire (praferi- 
cula) ; metallic candlesticks (candelabra) to which the lamps were at- 
tached. 

§ 207. The priests were very numerous, and were formed into 
certain common orders, or colleges. These were mostly established 
by the first kings ; Romulus established the Luperci, Curiones, Ha- 
ruspices ; Numa, the Flamines, Vestales, Salii, Augures, and Fecia- 
les. During the republic the Rex sacrorum and the Epulones were 
introduced ; and under the emperors some others. 

The Roman priests may be ranged in two general classes ; those 
common to all the gods (omnium deorum sacer dotes) ; and those ap- 
propriated to a particular deity (uni numini addicti). Of the former 
were the Pontifices, Augures, duindecemviri sacris faciundis, Harus- 
pices, Fratres Arvales, Curiones, Epulones, Feciales, Sodales Titien- 
ses, and Rex Sacrorum. Of the latter class were the Flamines, Salii, 
Luperci, Potitii, Pinarii, Galli, and Vestales. 

§ 208. The first rank was held by the Pontifices, instituted by 
Numa, originally only one, subsequently four, then eight, and finally 
more even to fifteen. The chief of these was styled Pontifex Maximus, 
who held the highest priestly office, dignity, and power. He was ap- 
pointed at first by the kings, subsequently by the college (Collegium) 
or whole Pontifices, but after 104 B. C. by the people. Sylla restor- 
ed the right to the college, but it was again taken from them. All the 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. CLASSES OF PRIESTS. 491 

other priests and the vestals were subject to the Pontifex Maximus. 
He had the oversight of all religious affairs, the regulation of the fes- 
tivals and the solemnities connected therewith, and the keeping of 
the records of public transactions (annales). He was also judge in 
many questions of right. — His dress was a togo Jk prcetexta, and his 
head-ornament a sort of cap made of the skin of a victim and called 
galerus. 

Augustus assumed this office himself as Emperor, which was done 
likewise by his successors down to Gratian, who abolished it. 

Those, who held the office of Pontifex Maximus, are said to have resided in a 
public house called Regia (cf. § 213). — The hierarchy of the church of Rome is 
thought to have been established on the model of the Pontifex Maximus and the 
college of Pontifices. 

§ 209. The Augurs, in ancient times called auspices, derived their 
name from consulting the flight of birds, augurium, avigerium. They 
were introduced from Etruria by Romulus, and established as a regu- 
lar order by Numa. Their number was originally three, then four, 
afterwards nine, and finally increased by Sylla to fifteen. At first 
they were taken only from the Patricians, but after B. C. 300, in part 
from the Plebeians. Their chief was called Magister Collegii, and 
Augur Maximus. Their badges of office were a robe striped with 
purple {trabea), a crooked staff (lituus), and a conical cap (sometimes 
called apex). Their principal business was to observe the flight and 
cry of birds (auspicium), from which they predicted future events. 
They also explained other omens and signs, derived from the weath- 
er, the lightning and the observation of certain animals, particularly 
of young fowls and the like. 

l.w In the camp, auspices were taken ex acuminibus ; i. e. prognostics were 
drawn from the glittering of the points of the spears by night, or from the adhe- 
sion of the lower points of the standard poles in the ground, where they were 
planted. — The places, where auspices were to be taken or holy edifices were to 
be erected, were consecrated by the Augurs. The order of Augurs continued 
until the time of Theodosius the Great. The public Augurs of the Roman peo- 
ple should be distinguished from the private Augurs of the emperors. 

2. The omen, signa, portenta, prodigia, from which the Augurs conjectured or 
pretended to foretel the future, have been classed in 5 divisions. (1) From birds; 
chiefly the flight of some (aliles) such as eagles, vultures and buzzards; but also 
the chattering and singing of others (oscines) such as the owl (bubo), crow (cor- 
vus, comix), or cock (gallus). (2) From appearances in the heavens; as thunder, 
lightning, meteors and the like. — For taking omens of either of these two kinds, 
the augur stood on some elevated point (arx, templum), with his head covered 
with the land, a gown peculiar to the office ; after sacrificing and offering prayer, 
he turned his face to the east, and divided the heavens in four quarters (called 
temping with his lituus, and waited for the omen. A single omen was not consid- 
ered significant ; it must be confirmed by another of the same sort. In whatever 
position the augur stood, omens on the left were by the Romans reckoned lucky, 
contrary to the notions of the Greeks (§ 75) ; the explanation given of this disa- 
greement is, that both Greeks and Romans considered omens in the east as lucky ; 
bul the Greek augur faced the north, and thuslucky omens would be on his right, 



492 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



while the Roman augur usually faced the south and therefore had the lucky- 
omens on his left. It is certain, however, that omens on the left were sometimes 
called unlucky among the Romans, and the term sinister came to signify unpro- 
pitious, and dexter to mean propitious, — (3) From chickens (pulli) kept in a coop 
tor the purpose. The omen was taken early in the morning from their actions 
when the augur threw crumbs or corn before them; if they turned away from 
it, or ate reluctantly, it was an unlucky omen; if they devoured greedily, very 
lucky. Taking this augury was called Tripudium, perhaps from the bounding 
of the corn when thrown to the fowls. (4) From quadrupeds, chiefly by observ- 
ing whether they appeared in a strange place, orhow they crossed the way wheth- 
er to the right or the left, and the like. (5) From various circumstances and 
events, which may be included under the term accidents ; among these were sneez- 
ing, falling, hearing sounds, seeing images, spilling salt upon the table, or wine 
upon one's clothes and the like, Omens of this class were usually unlucky and 
were called Dira. Kennelt, Ch. iv. 

§ 210. The Haruspices were the priests, who inspected the entrails 
of animals offered in sacrifice, in order to ascertain future occurren- 
ces ; they were called also extispices. They appeared under Romu- 
lus and were established by him; it is doubtful rjf what number their 
college consisted. For some time Etrurians only, and not Romans, 
discharged the duties of the office. It was borrowed from the Etru- 
rians directly, but seems to have been primarily of Asiatic origin ; 
the discovery of the art {Haruspicina) was ascribed by fable to Tages, 
a son of Jupiter. The number of the Haruspices gradually was in- 
creased up even to sixty. Their overseer was styled Magister Pub- 
licus, or Summus Haruspex. From the different modes and objects of 
their divination, they were divided into three classes, extispices, fulgu- 
ratores, and prodigiatores. For, besides observing the entrails of vic- 
tims and the various circumstances of the sacrifice, as the flame, 
smoke &c, they also were consulted in relation to lightning and pla- 
ces or buildings stricken by it, and they likewise explained prodigies 
and dreams. — In examining the entrails, they observed chiefly their 
color, their motion, and the condition of the heart, and when they could 
determine nothing from the appearances, they called them exta muta. 
On the other hand, the term litare was used to signify an auspicious 
sacrifice. 

The college of Haruspices had their particular registers and records, as also 
the other religious orders had ; these seem to have been accounts of their observ- 
ations, memorials of thunder and lightning, and ominous occurrences. — Most of 
the ominous circumstances connected with sacrifices are alluded to by Virgil 
(Georg. iii. 486). 

§ 211. The Epulones were priests, who attended on the feasts 
(epula) of the gods. There were three first appointed, B. C. 197 ; by 
Sylla the number was increased to seven, called septemviri epulones, 
and by Csesar at last to ten. They had the care of what were called 
the Lectistemia, when couches were spread for the gods as if about 
to feast, and ^their images were taken down, and placed on the couches 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. CLASSES OF PRIESTS. 493 

around the altars or tables loaded with dishes ; the most important of 
these was the annual feast in honor of Jupiter in the Capitol. They 
were required to be present also at the sacred games to preserve good 
order. Very young persons, even those under sixteen, were often 
taken for this office ; yet it was so respectable, that even Lentulus, 
Caesar, and Tiberius performed its duties. Like the Pontifices, they 
wore a toga prcelexta. The viri epulares must not be confounded 
with the epulones; the former were not the priests, but the guests at 
the repasts spoken of. 

§ 212. The Feciales were a class of priests or officers existing, 
long before the building of Rome, among the Rutulians and other 
Italian states. The order was introduced at Rome by Numa. It con- 
tinued to the beginning of the imperial authority, and consisted of 
twenty, sometimes of fewer, members. They may be considered as a 
body of priests, whose business chiefly related to treaties and agree- 
ments pertaining to peace and war. The highest in rank was called 
Pater patratus. It devolved upon him, or the Feciales under him, to 
give the enemy the warning, which preceded a declaration of war, and to 
make the declaration by uttering a solemn form (clarigatio), and hurl- 
ing a spear (hasta sanguinea) into the enemy's limits. These priests 
were also the customary agents in effecting an armistice or cessation 
of hostilities. Their presence and aid was still more indispensable in 
forming treaties and at the sacrifices therewith connected. They were 
charged also with the enforcing of treaties, and the demanding of 
amends for their violation, and also with guarding the security of 
foreign ambassadors at Rome. 

§ 213. The Rex sacrorum, or Rex sacrificulus, held an office, 
which was instituted first after the expulsion of the kings, and proba- 
bly derived its name from the circumstance, that originally the public 
sacrifices were offered by the kings themselves or under their immedi- 
ate oversight. Perhaps, as Livy suggests, the office and name both 
arose from a desire, that the royal dignity might not be wholly forgot- 
ten. This priest had a high rank, and at sacrificial feasts occupied 
the first place, although his duties were not numerous, and consisted 
chiefly in superintending the public and more important sacrifices. 
He was also required at the beginning of every month to offer sacri- 
fice jointly with the Pontifex Maximus, to convoke the people (popu- 
lism calare), and make known the distance of the Nones from the Ca- 
lends of the month then commencing. At the Comitia he offered the 
great public sacrifice, after which, however, he must withdraw from 
the forum, and conceal himself. His wife was called Regina sacro- 



494 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

rum, ; she was also a priestess, and offered sacrifices to Juno. His 
residence, freely granted to him, was also often termed Regia. The 
office continued until the time of Theodosius the Great. 

$ 214. The name of Flamines was given in general to all such 
priests, as were devoted to the service of a particular deity. The 
most eminent of them was the Flamen Dialis, or chief priest of Jupi- 
ter. At the first institution of the order, there were but two besides 
this, viz. the Flamen Martialis and the Flamen Quirinalis. After- 
wards the number rose to fifteen and still higher. They were divided 
into majores, who must be Patricians, and minores, who were taken 
also from the Plebeians. Their dress was a long white robe with a 
purple border (Icena), and a cap of conical form (apex) adorned with a 
twig of olive. The Flamen Dialis had a lictoY, and also a sella curu- 
lis, and the toga prcelexta; his wife was called Flaminica, and aided 
him in some parts of the worship on the festivals of Jupiter. This 
priest likewise held a seat in the senate, and enjoyed several other 
privileges, which were peculiar to the Flamines. Many duties and ser- 
vices were required of the Flamines, especially of the Flamen Dia- 
lis. They were distinguished by names derived from the god to 
whose service they were devoted, as Flamen Neptunalis, Floralis, 
Pomonalis ; so of those belonging to a deified Caesar, as Flamen Au- 
gustalis, Flavialis, &c. 

§ 215. The Salii were priests of Mars Gradivus, and according 
to the common opinion had their name from dancing (salire), because 
on certain festival days they passed about the city dancing, and sing- 
ing songs in honor of Mars. They were first instituted by Numa ; 
the immediate occasion of their institution, according to the tradition, 
was the famous shield, Ancile, said to have been sent from heaven ; 
this shield, and the eleven others made exactly like it in order to hin- 
der its being stolen, which were all guarded by the Vestals, were 
carried by the twelve Salii Palatini, when they made their circuit 
around the city. 

l.w Their chief and leader in the procession was styled Prasul, whose leap- 
ing was expressed by the verb amlruare, and the leaping of the others after him 
by redamlruare . They had their appropriate residence [curia Saliorum) upon 
the Palatine Hill. Besides the music which accompanied their dancing, they 
struck their shields together, and in that way noted the measure of their songs, 
which celebrated the praises of the god of war, and of Veturius Mamurius, the 
artist who made the eleven shields. The order was highly respected, and was 
rendered the more so by the accession of Scipio Africanus as a member, and 
some of the Emperors, especially M. Aurelius Antoninus. Their term of ser- 
vice was not for life, but only for a certain period.— The Salii Collini or Quiri- 
naleswere distinct from this body, and established by Tullus Hostilius. 

2. See T. Gulberlethi de Saliis Martis sacerdotibus apud Romanos liber sin- 
gularis. Franequerse 1V04. 8.— A. Apel's Metrik, Th. 2. p. 647— Cf. P. I. § 114. 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PRIESTS. VESTALS. 495 

§ 216. The Luperci, priests of Pan, were of Arcadian origin, 
and established hy Romulus. Their name was derived from that de- 
signation, which Pan received from his guarding the flocks against 
the wolf, Lupercus (ab arcendo lupos). His temple was from the 
same circumstance called Lupercal, and his most celebrated festival at 
Rome, Lupercalia. This festival began about the middle of February, 
and was regarded as a season of expiation for the whole city. The 
Luperci on this occasion ran up and down the streets, naked excepting 
a girdle of goat's skin about the waist; they carried in their hands 
thongs of the same material, with which they struck those whom 
they met ; the word to express the action was catomidiare. A pecu- 
liar efficacy was ascribed to these blows, particularly in rendering 
married women prolific. — There were three distinct companies (Soda- 
lilates) of these priests, the Fabiani, Quintiliani, and Julii. The last 
were of later origin and took their name from Julius Caesar ; the others 
were named after individuals, who had been their chief or head priests. 

§ 217. The Galli were priests of Cybele the great mother of the 
gods, so called from the river Gallus in Phrygia, whose waters were 
regarded as possessing singular virtues, rendering frantic those who 
drank it. The circumstance of their being castrated is referred to the 
fable respecting Atys. At the festival of their goddess, celebrated in 
March, and called Hilaria (cf. P. III. $ 21), these priests imitated the 
phrenzy of Atys by strange gestures, violent motions, and self-scourg- 
ing and cutting. Their chief priest was termed Archigallus. The 

order was not highly respected. The Potitii and Pinarii, 

priests of Hercules, were not held in important estimation, although 
their pretended origin was traced to the age of the hero himself. The 
tradition was, that Hercules, during his residence in Italy with Evan- 
der, instructed in the rites of his worship the tribes or families bearing 
this name, which was afterwards retained by the priests. 

§ 218. The Vestals, Virgines Vestales, were an order of Priest- 
esses, of very early origin, devoted to the goddess Vesta. The con- 
stant preservation of the holy fire, and the guarding of the Palladium 
(P. III. § 43), were the principal duties of the Vestals. They were 
first instituted by Numa, four in number ; two were added by Tarqui- 
nius Priscus or Servius Tullius, and the number ever after remained 
six. Their leader, the eldest, was called Vestalis or Virgo Maxima. 
They were selected (capere) between the age of six and ten, particular 
regard being had to their descent and their bodily vigor and perfection. 
They were obliged to continue in the office thirty years, unmarried. 
The first ten years were employed in learning the rites, the second ten 



496 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

in performing them, and the rest in instructing others. Negligence 
in any of their duties was severely punished. If any one violated her 
vow of chastity, she was buried alive in a place called Campus sctle- 
ratus, near the Porta Collina. Besides the two principal duties of 
these priestesses, they were accustomed to offer certain sacrifices, 
whose precise object is unknown. They also had the care of some 
preparations and services connected with other sacrifices. They en- 
joyed great respect, and many privileges; e. g. entire freedom from pa- 
rental control ; authority to deliver from punishment a criminal, who 
accidentally met them ; certain revenues of lands devoted to them ; 
the attendance of a lictor, whenever they went out ; a public mainte- 
nance, and release from the obligation to take an oath. Their office 
was abolished under Theodosius, on account of its expense. 

§ 219. A few words must be added respecting the other classes of 
priests before named (§ 207). The Quindecemviri sacris faciundis had 
the care of the Sibylline Books, of which we shall speak again (§ 226). 
The Fratres Arvales served especially at the festival, called Ambar- 
valia (P. III. § 63), when the fields were dedicated and blessed, these 
priests passing over them in procession with a crowd of attendants. 
The Curiones were thirty priests, who performed the sacred rites 
common to the several Curia? ($ 251). The Sodales Titii or Tatii 
had their name from the Sabine king Titus Tatius ; each tribe had 
seven of them. There were also Sodales Augustales, or priests in 
honor of Augustus. 

l.« The priests had their assistants and servants (ministri). Among these 
■were the waiting boys and maids, camitli and Camilla; the assistants of the 
priests who offered sacrifices, flaminii and /lamina ; the keepers of the temples, 
tzditui or wditumni ; those who brought the victims to the altars and slew them, 
poptE, victimarii and cultrarii. The tibicines, tubicines, fidicines, &c. who ac- 
companied the sacrificial rites with music, formed likewise another fraternity. 

2. Respecting the emoluments of the Roman priests little is known. When 
Romulus first divided the Roman territory, he set apart what was sufficient for 
the performance of sacred rites, and for the support of temples. Numa is said 
to have provided a fund for defraying the expenses of religion, and to have ap- 
pointed a stipend for the vestals ; but there is no evidence, that the priests re- 
ceived any regular stipend or salary. Yet there can be no doubt that, in some 
way or other, sufficient provision was made for their support. — By some later 
writers the priests were divided into three classes, anlistites, chief priests, sacer- 
dotes, ordinary priests, and ministri, meanest priests. 

\ 220. Of the vast multitude of religious customs among the Ro- 
mans, we will notice first some of those pertaining to their prayers to 
the gods. They prayed with the head covered or veiled (capite ve- 
latu). They bowed themselves down to the ground, in this posture 
moved around completely from right to left, placed their right hand 
on the mouth (adoratio) and directed their face towards the east, 
where the altars and images of the gods were placed. In a higher 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PRAYERS AND SACRIFICES. 497 

degree of devotion they cast themselves upon their knees, or prostrated 
the whole body upon the ground. They were accustomed to lay hold 
of the altar and to make offerings of meal and wine with their pray- 
ers. The prayer was not always offered with an audible voice. 
Public prayers (precationes) were made by a priest or a magis- 
trate. The most solemn prayer of this kind was that before the 
Comitia, by the Roman consul. Thanksgivings (supplicationes) were 
also public and general, for the purpose of entreating, appeasing, and 
praising the gods ; in which view the people made a solemn proces- 
sion to the temples. Public occasions of this sort were called suppli- 
cationes ad pulvinaria deorum; these pulvinaria were cushion-like 
elevations or stools, on which were placed the statues of the gods. 
They were also termed supplicia, and were appointed in honor of 
particular deities, or of all the gods united. The prayers offered on 
these occasions were called obsecrationes, which usually has reference 
to the averting of evil or danger. 

§ 221. The sacrifices of the Romans (sacrificia) were very various. 
Animal sacrifices were termed hostice or victimce; the original difference 
between these words, viz. that the former designated a sacrifice offered 
on going out against a foe, and the latter a sacrifice on returning vic- 
torious, is as little regarded by the writers, as another distinction, 
which makes the former a smaller and the latter a greater sacrifice. 
The animals must be without blemish, and were therefore previously 
selected. They were brought to the altar, ornamented, like the per- 
son offering them, with garlands of flowers ; the horns of bullocks and 
rams were decked with gilt, and white fillets were hung over their 
necks. The willing approach of the victim was considered as a 
favorable omen ; reluctance and resistance on the other hand as un- 
favorable ; the act of bringing the victim forward was called admovere. 
The priest then commanded all the profane to depart, and another 
priest ordered silence (Unguis favete). Then followed the prayer to 
the gods, and after it the offering of the victim. The knife and the 
altar were consecrated for the purpose, by sprinkling them with a 
mixture of salt and the meal of new barley or spelt roasted (mola 
salsa). The head of the victim was sprinkled with the same, and this 
is what is properly expressed by the word immolare, although it is 
often synonymous with mactare. 

§ 222. The cultrarius, whose business was to kill the victim, having 
asked, Agone? and the consul, praetor or priest having answered, Hoc age, 
then struck the animal in the forehead with his axe or mallet ; another 
J 63 



498 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

next cut or stabbed him in the throat, and a third caught the blood in 
a sacrificial vase. The entrails were then examined by the haruspex, 
and if they were found favorable, were, after being cleansed, laid on 
the altar and burned. Sometimes the whole animal was burned (holo- 
caustum) ; but usually only a part, the rest being assigned to the sacri- 
ficial feast, or to the priests. Upon the burning flesh incense was 
scattered, and wine was poured out ; the latter constituted the libation, 
and was accompanied with a formal address to the deity, accipe libens. 
In early times milk was used in the libation instead of wine. After 
all came the feast, of which the priests and those who presented the 
sacrifice partook in common, and which was usually accompanied 
with music and dancing, and often followed with games. Sacrifices 
were offered either at stated times (stata, solemnia), or on particular 
occasions [ex accidente nata). 

§ 223. It was very common among the Romans to make vows 
{vota), which generally consisted in promises to render certain 
actual acknowledgements or returns, provided the gods should grant 
the requests of those making the vows. A person doing thus was 
said vota facere, concipete, suscipere, nuncupare, and was called voti 
reus ; to fulfil the promise was vota solvere, redder e ; he who gained 
his wish was said to be wti damnatus, voti compos. Sometimes the 
thing desired was itself termed votum. Often public vows were made 
for the benefit of the whole people ; these were considered as the 
most binding. The vow was usually written upon a wax-tablet, 
"which was preserved in the temple of the god to whom it was made. 

\. w Those, who had survived shipwreck, especially were accustomed to hang 
■up in the temple of some god (Neptune often) pictures, representing the circum- 
stances of their danger and deliverance (tahula. votiva). Similar pictures were 
sometimes caried about by them in order to obtain charitable relief. 

2. u Among the vows of a private nature were those, which a person made to 
Juno Lucina or Genius, on a birth-day, vota natalitia ; those made when boys, 
on passing from childhood, cut off their hair and dedicated it to Apollo, vota 
.capillitia ; the vows of the sick in case of recovery ; of those in shipwreck for 
escape ; of those on journeys by land. It also became a custom for subjects to 
make vows for the welfare of their emperors, which were renewed after the fifth, 
tenth, or twentieth year of their reign, and therefore called quinquennia, decen- 
nalia, or v'icennalia. 

§ 224. The dedication of the temples, sanctuaries and altars (de- 
dicatio templi, § 203), was one of the religious solemnities of the 
Romans. This was originally performed by the kings, afterwards by 
the consuls, and often also by two magistrates appointed for the pur- 
pose and called duumviri dedicandis templis. The senate must first 
decree the service ; the Pontifex maximus must be present at the solem- 
nity and pronounce the form of dedication, which was accompanied 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. LUSTRATIONS. OATHS. ORACLES. 499 

with acclamations from the people. Sacrifices, games, and feasts then 
followed. Similar to this was the ceremony of consecration (con- 
sec.ratio) ; only, the latter expression was applied to a great variety 
of particular objects, e. g. statues, sacred utensils, fields, animals &c. 
Restoration, on the other hand, was a private transaction, in which 
the people or individuals were freed from their vows ; this was also 
called religions solvere. Execration was imprecating evil on an 
enemy. 

I.m Evocation of the gods was a solemn rite by which (cerlo carmine) they called 
upon the gods of a besieged city (evocare) to take the side of the Romans ; it was 
attended with sacrifices and consultation of the entrails. — Expiation was a so- 
lemnity designed to appease offended gods, and the sacrifice or propitiatory offer- 
ing was called piaculum. — Much more frequent and various were the lustrations 
(lustrationes) both public and private. The former were occasionally connected 
with certain festivals ; the latter were annually repeated in the month of Febru- 
ary. It was also customary before the march of an army or the sailing of a fleet 
to appoint a lustration, not for reviewing the torces, but to purify them by 
sacrifices. 

2. After the taking of the census, which was done at the end of every five 
years, a purifying sacrifice was made, consisting of a sow, a sheep, and a bull, 
which were carried round the whole assembly and then slain. The sacrifice 
was called suovetaurilia, and he who performed it was said conderc lustrum. 
The name lustrum is said to have been applied to it, because at that time all the 
taxes were paid by the farmers general to the censors (from lucre, to pay) ; the 
term is also used to signify a space of five years, because the ceremony was per- 
formed always at the end of that period. The verb lustrare expressed the act of 
purifying, and as in doing this the victims were carried round, the word natur- 
ally obtained another meaning, viz. to go around, to survey. The lustrum was 
always made in the Campus Martins. 

§ 225. The oaths (Jusjurandum, juramenium) of the Romans, 
which were regarded as holy and inviolable, may be divided into 
public and private. The first were taken by the magistrates before 
the Tribunal (§ 244. 1), often also by the whole senate, the generals, the 
whole army, all the citizens at the census, and every single soldier^ 
To the latter class belonged judicial oaths, and such as pertained to 
marriage. They were usually taken before the altars of the gods, 
who were thus invoked as witnesses; not unfrequently sacrifices were 
at the same time offered. A form was prescribed so that the persons 
were said conceptis verbis jurare. 

What was called devolio consisted in a voluntary surrender of one's 
self (devovere) to capital danger or to. violent death, in order to rescue 
his country or the life of a person particularly dear. Sometimes the 
term was applied, when a conqueror assigned (devovebat) a captured 
city or army to destruction, or when an individual was punished. 

§ 226. The Romans had no oracles themselves, but in cases of 
importance resorted to those of Greece, particularly to the Delphic. 
Roman superstition, however, found nearer sources of information 



500 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

respecting the will and declarations of the gods. Besides the use of 
their augurium and cztispicium, they had recourse to the Sibylline 
books, or the pretended prophecies of the Sibyl of Cumae, which she 
gave to Tarquinius Superbus. These books were kept with great 
care in a stone vault under ground in the capitol, in the custody of 
the Quindecemviri sacris faciundis (§219). In important and per- 
plexing circumstances, in general disasters, when omens were in- 
auspicious, and the like, they consulted the Sibylline predictions and 
endeavored thence to ascertain, how the offended deities could be ap- 
peased. The burning of the capitol, B. C. 84, occasioned the destruc- 
tion of these books ; there were attempts to restore some parts of 
them from fragments and quotations. The pieces now extant under 
this name, however, are in all probability not genuine, but of later 
origin. 

A marvellous account is given of the origin of the Sibylline books, in the time 
of Tarquin Superbus.— See Dionys. Hal. Rom. Arch. iv. 62 (p. 261, 2d vol. Spcl- 
mann cited P. II. § 246).— Cf. P. II. § 16. 

§ 227. The use of lots (sortes), in order to ascertain the result of 
an affair or undertaking, was very common with the Romans. They 
were small tablets or blocks (tali) of wood or metal, on which certain 
words or marks were inscribed, which were kept, in an apartment in 
the temple of Fortune. The most famous were those in the temple 
of this goddess at Prseneste, which in early times were very fre- 
quently employed. Those at Antium were also renowned ; those 
at Casre and Falerium disappeared, as it was pretended, miracu- 
lously. Sometimes lots of this sort were provided and kept for do- 
mestic use. Those, who foretold the future by means of lots, were 
called Sortilegi. 

Besides the use of lots and the practice of augury (§ 209), other artifices were 
employed among the Romans by those, who pretended to foretel the future. 
Some professed to do it by consulting the stars, and were called Astrologi, Malhe- 
matici, or Genethliaci, and sometimes Chaldai or Babylonii, as the art was first 
practiced in Chaldeea. Others professed to interpret dreams, Conjectores ; others 
to have an internal afflatus or inspiration, Harioli, Vaticinatores. Insane per- 
sons were supposed to foreknow the future; in which class were the Cerili, those 
rendered insane by Ceres ; the Lymphati, rendered so by the water-nymphs ; 
LMnatici, by the moon ; Fanatici, by the spirit of the Fauni, or of Faunus, the 
first builder of a fane (fanum,). In short many of the Grecian arts of divination 
(§ 75) were practiced among the Romans. 

§ 228. The division of the year was made at Rome a care of the 
priests, and therefore falls under the head of religious affairs. With- 
out noticing the various changes in this, we may remark that Romu- 
lus, Numa and Julius Caesar were the authors of the principal meth- 
ods of dividing and computing the year. The month was divided in- 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. DIVISION OF TIME. FESTIVALS. 501 

to three parts by the Calends, Nones and Ides ; and in computing 

the days of the month the Romans reckoned backwards from these 

three fixed points. The day was reckoned from sunrise to sunset. 

This space was divided into twelve hours (hora), which of course 

were of different length at the different seasons of the year ; hence 

the phrase hora hiberna, equivalent to hora brevissima. The use of 

sun-dials (solaria) and water-glasses (clepsydra) seems to have been 

introduced at a comparatively late period. The night was likewise 

divided into twelve hours, and also into four watches (vigilice). 

The dial is said to have been invented at Lacedsemon in the time of Cyrus the 
Great. The first one at Rome was set up B.C. about 300.— The clepsydra (x?.t\pv$Qa) 
was invented at Alexandria, and carried thence to Athens and afterwards, B. C. 
about 160, introduced at Rome. ' It was formed by a vessel of water, having a 
minute perforation in the bottom, through which the water issued [stealing out 
xllxptg vtvqi} drop by drop, and fell into another vessel, in which a light body 
floated, having attached to it an index or graduated scale. As the water in- 
creased in the receiving vessel, the floating body rose, and by its regularly in- 
creasing height furnished an approximation to a correct indication of time.' 
iBigelovfs Technology, p. 365.) — It was so constructed, that the orifice for letting 
out the water could be accomodated to the varying length of the Roman hours. 
A servant was employed, whose business it was from time to time to examine 
the water-clock, and report the hour to his master. 

§ 229. The Romans had a multitude of festival-days, set apart 
for the service of the gods, and celebrated with sacrifices, banquets, 
and games, These were called dies festi. The days called dies 
fasti were those, on which no assembly of the people or senate was 
held, but the prastor administered justice. Days, on which he could 
not do this, were termed nefasti. Days, of which only a part of each 
could be appropriated to business, were called intercisi ; those wholly 
resigned to business, profesti. Such as were considered inauspicious 
were called dies religiosi ; among these they reckoned especially the 
first days after the Calends, Nones and Ides, which they named post- 
ridiani. The festival-days were termed also ferice, dies feriati, from 
the cessation of common business. 

l. M The Roman festivals were public or private. The public were either of 
regular occurrence (ferioz stativa) or annually fixed by the magistrates or priests, 
(jus pontificium). Private and domestic festivals, e.g. for birth-days and mar- 
riages, depended of course on the pleasure of the parties interested. 

2. Ferias Nundina were regular days, on which the people from the country 
assembled to expose their various commodities for sale, market days; called 

Nundina, because they occupied every ninth day (Ov. Fast. i. 54). It was the 

business of the Pontifices to prepare annually a register called Kalendarium, or 
Fasti Kakndares, in which the days were marked in each month and distin- 
guished according as they belonged to the different classes above named; and 
the various festivals were mentioned as they were to take place through the year. 

§ 230/ Of the numerous Roman festivals, we will mention some 
of the principal in the order of the months, 

January. 1st day. The festival of Janus, on the first day of the year, on 
which, in later times, the Consuls entered upon their office. The presents cus- 



502 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

tomary on this day were called strenee; they were sent from clients to their pat- 
rons, from citizens to the magistrates, and from friends to one another. 9th. 

The Agonalia, also in honor of Janus. 11th and 15th. The Carmentalia, 

to the goddess Carmenta, an Arcadian prophetess, mother of Evander. 

25th. The Samentincc, or festival of seed, accompanied with the Ambarvalia, 
which differed from the festival of the same name in May; on which they pass- 
ed over the fields with the animals to be slain in sacrifice. 30th. The festi- 
val of P°.ace (Pax), first established by Augustus. 31st. The festival in 

honor of the Penates, or household gods. 

February. 1st. The Lucaria, in memory of the asylum formed by Romulus, 
or of the refuge (hicus) of the Romans after the sack of their city by Brennus. — 

This day was also dedicated to Juno Sospita. 13th. Faunalia, in honor of 

Faunus and the Sylvan gods, repeated 5th December. 15th. Lupercalia, to 

Lycacan Pan (§ 216"). 17th. Quirinalia, to Romulus deified by the name 

Q.uirinus. 18th. Fercdia, to the Manes, accompanied with a solemn expi- 
ation or purification of the city, called februatio, whence the name of the month 
itself. It continued from the 18th to the end of the month, during which time 
presents were carried to the graves of deceased friends and relatives, and the 
living held feasts of love and reconciliation. 2lst. Terminalia, to Termi- 
nus, the god of boundaries. 

M^rch. On the 1st day, with which in early times the year began, a festival 
to Mars, on which the procession or war-dance of the Salii was made (§ 215) ; 

called also the festival of the shields; it lasted three days. 6th. Vestalia, 

different from that held in June. 17th. Liberalia, to Bacchus, but different 

from the Bacchanalia. 19th. Quinquatria, to Minerva, named from its 

duration of five days ; the last day called Tubilustrium, because the trumpets 
used in sacred rites were then purified. 23d. Hilaria, to Cybele, whose sa- 
cred image was during it sprinkled and purified; called also Lavatio Malris 
Deum. 

April. On the 1st day, the festival of Venus, to whom the whole month was 

dedicated. 5th. Megalesia, to Cybele, whose priests, the Galli(§217), on 

this made their procession. 12th. Cerealia, to Ceres, attended with games. 

15th. Fordicidia, to the goddess Tellus, for the purpose of averting a 

dearth or scarcity, on occasion of which Numa instituted the festival; each Cu- 
ria furnished a pregnant cow (forda) to be sacrificed to Tellus. 21st. Pa- 

lilia, a rural, country festival, to Pales, goddess of cattle. 22d. Vinalia, re- 
peated in August, to consecrate to Jupiter the growth of the vine in Italy. 

23d. Robigalia, to the god Robigus, that he might protect the grain from 

blighting (a rubigine). 28th. Floralia, to Flora, or Chloris, attended with 

games |"§ 236]. 30th. The festival of the Palatine Vesta, instituted by 

Augustus. 

May. On the 1st day the Festival to the Lares Prmslites, and the ceremonies 

by night to Bona Dea, performed by the Vestals and women alone. 2d. 

Compitalia, to the Lares in the public ways. 9th, Lemuria, to the Lemures, 

or wandering spirits of deceased ancestors and relatives on the father's side 

(P. III. §§ 110, 111). 15th. Feslum Mercatorum, lo Mercury, for merchants 

(P. III. I 56). 23d Vulcanalia, to Vulcan, called also Tubilustria from the 

purifying of the sacred trumpets. 

June. On the 1st day were several festivals, to Dea Carna, Juno Moneta, 

Mars Extramuraneus, and Tempestas. 3d. The festival to Bellona. 

4th. To Hercules. 9th. Vestalia, to Vesta, in memory of the gift of 

bread to men. Food was sent to the Vestals to be offered to the gods; and the 
asses, which turned the mills, were decked with garlands and led in procession. 

10th. Matralia, to Matuta, celebrated by Roman matrons ; also a festival, 

on the same day, to Fortuna Virilis, by women ; and to Concordia. 13th. 

Quinquatria (parva), designed for the improvement and pleasure of those, who 

had the care of the music in the worship of the gods. 16th. Purifying of 

the temple of Vesta. 19th. To Summanus, i. e. probably to Pluto. 

24th. To Fortuna Fortis, for people of the lower classes. -"—30th. To Her- 
cules and the Muses. 

July. On the 1st day the occupants of hired houses changed their residence. 

5th. Lnodi Apollinares, with sacrifices. 6th. To Female Fortune, in 

memory of Coriolanus withdrawing his army from the city (Li v. II. 40]. 

7th. To Juno Caprolina, for young women. 15th. To Castor and Pollux. 

23d. Neplunalia. 25th. Furinalia, to the goddess Furina. 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. GAMES. 503 

August. On the 1st day a festival to the goddess of Hope; and gladiatorial 

sports and games in honor of Mars. 13th. To Diana. 17th. Portumna- 

ha, to Portumnus, the god of harbors. 18th. Consualia, to Consus, the god 

of counsel, or rather to Equestrian Nejitune. The seizure of the Sabine women 

was commemorated the same day. 21st. Vinalia (the second), or festival of 

the vintage to Jupiter and Venus. 23d. Vulcanalia, to Vulcan as the god of 

fire, for security against conflagrations. 25th. Opeconsiva, to Rhea, or Ops, 

or fruitbearing Earth. 

September. On the 1st day, to Jupiter Maimactes. 4th Ludi Magni, or 

Romani, in the Circus, to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva ; they lasted from the 4th 

day to the 12th. 13th The ceremony of fixing a nail (clavus figendus) in 

the temple of Jupiter, by a dictator appointed for the purpose, to avert contagious 

pestilence. 25th. To Venus Genelrix. 30th. Meditrinalia, for tasting 

new wine before the vintage • that this festival was sacred to a goddess of health, 
named Medilrina, is as doubtful as the existence of the goddess herself. 

October. 12th. Augustalia, properly games in honor of Augustus, instituted 
after the close of his campaigns, particularly the Armenian, B. C. 19 or 20. 
13th Fontinalia, in which the public fountains were crowned with gar- 
lands. 15th. To Mars, chiefly a horse-race on the campus Martius, at the 

end of which a horse was offered in sacrifice. 19th. The Armilustrium, or 

review-muster, celebrated only by soldiers, and in full armor. 

November. 13th. A feast dedicated to Jupiter, Epulum Jovis. 15th. Ludi 

Plebeii, in the theatre, or the circus ; they were also frequently held at other 
times not defined. 

December. 5th. Faunalia, kept by the people of the country, as the same in 

February was by the inhabitants of the city. 17th. Saturnalia, one of the 

most famous festivals of Rome, originally limited to a single day, afterwards 
extended over three, four, and more. It was a festival of leisure and general 
joy, in memory of the golden period in Italy under the government of Saturn. 

During it slaves were placed on a footing of equality with their masters. 

19th. Opalia, to the goddess Ops. The Compitalia, to the Lares of the 

cross-ways, were often held shortly after the Saturnalia, as well as in other 
months. 

§ 231. The public games {ludi) among the Romans, as well as 
among the Greeks from whom the former borrowed them in part, 
were viewed as festival occasions in honor of the gods. These games 
were usually at the expense of the state, sometimes at the expense of 
individuals, particularly the emperors. They were very different in 
their character, as well as in the time and place of their celebration. 
Many were held annually, or after a period of several years, at a 
time fixed or variable ; many also arose from particular occasions : 
hence the variety in distinctive appellations ; e. g. ludi stati, impera- 
tivi, instauraiivi, votivi, quinquennales, decennales, seculares, lustra- 
les, &c. Names were given also in reference to their character, and 
the place, where they were celebrated ; e. g. ludi circenses, capitc- 
lini, scenici, piscatorii, triumphales, funebres. Only the most famous 
of these games can here be noticed. 

k 232. The first to be mentioned are the Ludi Circenses, or by way 
of eminence Ludi Magni. They received their name from the Circus 
maximus, which was not merely a large free place, but, taken in its 
whole, formed a superb edifice ; it was a kind of theatre, commenced 
by Tarquinius Priscus, and enlarged and adorned by Julius Caesar as 
dictator. Its breadth was more than a stadium and its length was 



504 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

three and a half stadia (2187 feet). All around it were seats (fori) 
for spectators, so as to accommodate at least 150,000 persona In the 
middle, extending lengthwise, was a wall called spina circi, 4 feet 
high, 12 broad, and 1 stadium in length, having at each end three 
pyramids on a single base. These pyramids were the goals (metce), 
round which the horses and chariots turned. This wall had many 
other ornaments; so had the whole edifice, which was altogether the 
largest of the kind, although there were in Rome eight other places; 
for races and games, called Circi. At one end were 12 openings or 
parts separated by walls, called carceres, where the horses and chari- 
ots stood waiting for the signal to start. Those, who governed the 
chariots, were divided into certain classes (factiones or greges), dis- 
tinguished by dresses of different colors. The whole Circus was de- 
dicated to the god of the sun. 

§ 233." These games were commonly held but once a year ; sometimes they 
were appointed on extraordinary occasions ; in both cases they were maintained 
at public cost. The solemn procession which preceded them, pompa circensis, 
moved from the capitol. The images of the gods were borne in splendid car- 
riages or frames (in tkensis et ferculis) or on men's shoulders (in humeris), fol- 
lowed by a great train, on horseback, or on foot, with the combatants, musicians 
&c. Sacred rites were then performed, and the games opened. 

The games or shews (speckucula) in the Circus were of four kinds; chariot-races- 
with two or four horses; contests of agility and strength; wrestling (lucta), box- 
ing (pugilatus), throwing the discus (disci jactus), leaping (saltus), and running 
(cursus) ; representations of sieges and of battles on foot and on horseback, in- 
cluding the Ludus Trojm (Virg. Mu. v. 545); fighting of wild beasts (venatio).. 
— To describe these particularly would exceed our limits. Many of the exer- 
cises, however, corresponded to those of the Greeks [§ 78J. 

At the time of the Ludi Magni, other spectacles were also exhibited,. not in the 
Circus; particularly the NaumacMa, or representations of naval battles. These- 
originally were made in the sea, but afterwards in artificial basins,, or excava- 
tions made for the purpose and filled with water, which were also called Nau- 
mar.hia. The vessels were usually manned by prisoners, malefactors, slaves, or 
conquered foes, and many lost their lives or were severely wounded. This 
ispectacle was sometimes exhibited in the Circus maximus, water being intro- 
duced into it for the purpose. 

§ 234. The Ludi Sceculares, or centurial games, were solemnized 
with much ceremony. They were not celebrated exactly after the- 
lapse of a century, but sometimes a little earlier, or a little later ; 
usually in the month of April. For this occasion long preparations 
were always made, the Sibylline books were consulted, and a sort of 
general purification or expiation of the whole city was previously 
made. Sacrifices were offered to all the gods, those of the infernal 
world as well as those of Olympus, and while the men attended ban- 
quets of the gods in their temples, the women assembled for prayer in 
the temple of Juno. Thankofferings were also presented to the 
Geaii. After the sacrifices, a procession advanced from the capitol to 
a large theatre on the bank of the Tiber, where the games were ex- 
hibited, in honor of Apollo and Diana. On the second day the Ro- 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. CENTURIAL GAMES. GLADIATORIAL SHOWS. 505 

man matrons were collected to offer sacrifice in the Capitol. On the 
third, among other solemnities, a song of praise to Apollo and Diana 
was sung in the temple of Palatine Apollo, hy a select hand of young 
men and virgins, of patrician rank. The carmen saculare of Horace 
was prepared to be thus sung, at the command of Augustus, in whose 
reign the games were celebrated. To the religious solemnities, which 
were held for the purpose of securing the safety of the whole state, 
were afterwards added various amusements, which rendered this a 
festival of universal hilarity. Among the diversions were panto- 
mimes, histrionic plays, and the feats of jugglers (prastigiatores), 
persons who seemed to fly in the air (petauristce), rope-dancers (fu- 
nambuli) and the like. 

§ 235. The gladitorial shows, Ludi Gladiatorii, were greatly ad- 
mired in Rome. They were usually called Munera, as they would 
impart pleasure to the spectators, or bestow respect on those out of re- 
gard to whom they were held ; in the latter view they were appointed, 
e. g. at the funerals, or in commemoration, of the deceased. 

1." These shews were of Etrurian origin, and probably grew out of the an- 
cient custom of sacrificing prisoners at funeral solemnities in honor of the de- 
parted. At Rome they were at first exhibited chiefly at funerals ; afterwards 
they were given by the iEdiles, Praetors, Quaestors and Consuls in the amphi- 
theatres, especially on the festivals of the Saturnalia and Quinquatria. 

The gladiators were supported at public expense. Their residence or place 
of instruction was called Indus, a name often given to any arena or building, 
where such exercises were learned or practiced ; their overseer was termed pro- 
curator ; and their instructor lanista. In the public spectacles the combat was 
often carried to blood and even to death, unless the conquered gladiator begged 
his life of the crowd of spectators. The number of combatants was originally 
indeterminate, and until fixed by Caesar. The gladiators bore various names 
according to their armor and their mode of fighting. 

2. The gladiators termed secutores were armed with helmet, shield and 
sword. They were usually matched with the retiarii, who were dressed in a 
short tunic with nothing on the head, bearing in the left hand a three-pointed 
lance (tridens) and in the right a net (rete) in order to throw it over the head of 
their adversary. The mirmillones were armed like Gauls, and took the name 
from the image of a fish on their helmet, and were usually matched with those 
termed thraces. The esscdarii fought from chariots, and the andabata on horse- 
back.— At first gladiators were wholly composed of criminal and slaves ; but af- 
terwards free citizens of noble birth, and even women, fought on the arena. — An 
advertisement or public notice was put up by the person who intended to exhibit 
a gladiatorial show (editor) with an account of the combatants and sometimes 
a delineation or picture annexed. On the day of exhibition the gladiators were 
led along the arena in procession, and then matched for the contest. When a 
gladiator lowered his arms, it was a sign ;of being vanquished ; his fate depend- 
ed on the spectators ; if they wished him to be saved, they pressed down their 
thumb; if to be slain, they turned up their thumbs (pollicem premebant or verte- 
bant). Vast numbers of men, and of brute animals, were destroyed. In the spec- 
tacles after the triumph of Trajan over the Dacians, it is said 10,000 gladiators 
fought, and 11,000 animals were killed. These shows were prohibited by Con- 
stantine, but not fully suppressed until the time of Honorius. — For more full de- 
tails, see the work entitled Pompeii, cited P. II. § 226. 

§ 236. The Ludi Florales were united with the festival of the god- 
dess Flora, held on the 28th of April ($ 230). They were instituted 

64 



506 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

at Rome, B. C. 240 ; afterwards they were discontinued for a period, 
but were renewed again in consequence of a sterility of fruit, which 
was viewed as the punishment for their omission. They lasted from 
the day abovementioned to the evening of the 3d of May ; no sacri- 
fices were offered ; those, who engaged in the celebration, wore gar- 
lands of flowers, and indulged in frequent banquetings, and often de- 
scended to extreme licentiousness. Parties for hunting and dancing 
were also formed ; and the cediles curules, who had the care of the 
plays, distributed vast quantities of peas and beans among the populace 
in the circus. 

§ 237/ There were other games or sports (ludi), which we may 
just mention here. 

The Ludi Megalenses, in honor of Cybele, mother of the gods, celebrated with 
shows, and by mutual presents and entertainments (mutitare) between persons 
of 1he higher ranks. — The Ludi Cereales in the Circus, in the memory of the rape 
of Proserpine, and the consequent sorrow of her mother Ceres. — The Martiales, 
dedicated to Mars Ultor, or the avenger. — The Apollinares, in honor of Apollo, 
and generally seenical. — The Capilolini, to Jupiter, in memory of his pre- 
serving the Capitol from the Gauls. — The Plebeii, in the Circus, in commemora- 
tion of the expulsion of the kings and the recovery of freedom. — The Consuales, 
in honor of Neptune, and in memory of the seizure of the Sabine women. — 
Among the games occasioned by vows and called ludi volivi, the principal were 
such as were promised and appointed by generals in war ; among which may be 
ranked those already mentioned (§ 231), the quinquennales, decennales &c, given 
by the emperors every five, ten, and twenty years. — To the class called ex- 
traordinarii, belonged such as were held at funerals, the Funebres, and those 
appointed by Nero for youth on completing their minority in age, the Juve- 
nales. 

§ 238. For exhibiting many of these games, especially the dra- 
matic (scenici) and gladiatorial, theatres and amphitheatres were 
used. In the first ages theatres were constructed merely of wood, 
and were taken down after being used. Afterwards they were built 
of stone, and sometimes of great size and splendor. Their construc- 
tion was similar to that of Greek theatres ; one side or end had the 
form of a prolonged semicircle, for the spectators, and the other was 
rectangular for the stage and actors. The most famous theatre was 
that built B. C. 59 by the sedile M. Scaurus, at his own expense, 
partly of marble, and so capacious that 80,000 spectators could sit in 
it. The theatres of Pompey and Marcellus were also very large and 
celebrated ; the latter in part still remains. — The first amphitheatre 
was built B. C. 45 by Julius, but merely of wood. The emperor 
Titus erected the first of stone, the ruins of which, under the name 
of the Colosseum, or Coliseum, (from a colossal statue of Nero, which 
stood near it,) constitute still one of the most remarkable curiosities of 
Rome. The form of amphitheatres was oval or ecliptical. They 
were generally used for gladiatorial shows and the fighting of wild 



RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. DRAMATIC ENTERTAINMENTS. 507 

beasts. Both theatres and amphitheatres were commonly dedicated 

to certain gods. 

The most important particulars respecting the construction of ancient theatres 
are given under the Archaeology of Art (P. I. § 235). The Roman theatre, like 
the Greek, consisted of three parts, the scena, orchestra, and cavea ; but the two 
latter are sometimes included under one (cavea), because in the Roman the cho- 
rus and musicians were placed on the stage (sce?ia); and in the orchestra the 
senators, foreign ambassadors and specially distinguished personages were 
seated. The next fourteen rows of the cavea were assigned to the equites, and 
the rest to the people. Women occupied the portico surrounding the whole, by 
an arrangement of Augustus. — The stage, or portion allotted to the performers, 
had several parts distinguished by name ; one part was that to which the term 
scena, (which is put sometimes for the stage as a whole) more appropriately be- 
longs, the scene, or scenery; the part sometimes concealed by a curtain (autaum), 
which was fastened not at top but at the bottom, and when it was necessary to 
hide the scene, was drawn up by a machine for the purpose (called exostra) ; 
columns, statues, pictures, and various ornaments of the most magnificent char- 
acter were exhibited, according to the nature of the plays. The postscenium was 
a place behind the scene, where the actors changed their dresses, and the pro- 
scenium was the space in front of the scene. The place usually occupied by [he 
actors when speaking was termed pulpitum (Xoyttov, § 89). 

The amphitheatre exhibited the appearance of two theatres joined ; thus Curio 
actually formed one, perhaps the first; wishing to outdo others in exhibitions 
of this sort, he constructed two large theatres of wood looking opposite ways, 
in which dramatic plays were performed in the morning; then by machinery 
for the purpose he suddenly wheeled them round so as to look at each other 
thus constituting an amphitheatre, and presented a show of gladiators in the 
afternoon. The term arena is sometimes put for the amphitheatre, but means 
properly the place in the centre where the gladiators fought, and was so called 
from its being covered with sand. The arena was surrounded with a wall, 
guarded with round wooden rollers turning in sockets to prevent the animals 
from climbing up. Sometimes the arena was completely surrounded with a 
ditch filled with water (euripus). Next around the arena was the podium, raised 
12 or 15 feet above it, projecting over the wall and protected by a sort of parapet. 
The fourteen seats next to the podium were occupied by the equites and the rest 
(called popularia) by the people. There were, as in the theatre, passages running 
in the direction of the seats (called by the same name pracinctiones), and others 
running transversely (scaloe), by which there were formed several compartments 
in the shape of wedges {cunei). The women, after they were allowed to attend 
at the amphitheatre, were seated in a gallery or portico exterior to the whole of 
these, and servants and attendants in the highest gallery. The general direction 
of the amphitheatre was committed to an officer styled ViUicus amphitheatri, 
and persons, called designator es, were employed to superintend the seating of 
the spectators. 

By a device of luxury, perfumed liquids were conveyed in secret tubes around 
these structures and scattered over the audience, sometimes from the statues 
which adorned the interior. — The Romans had also a remarkable contrivance for 
covering the vast area embraced in such a building ; an awning was suspended, 
by means of ropes stretched across the building and attached to masts or spars, 
which rose above the summit of the walls. Near the top of the outer wall of the 
Coliseum there are above 200 projecting blocks of stone, with holes cut to re- 
ceive the ends of the spars, which ran up through holes cut in the cornice. — 
For fuller details on the Roman theatres and amphitheatres, see Pompeii already 
cited. — On the theatre and masks, also Dunlop's Hist. Rom. cited P. II. § 296. 
Vol. I. p. 238.— On various existing ruins of amphitheatres, Stuart's Diet, of 
Architecture. Lond. 1832. 3 vols. 8. 

§ 239. We may here introduce a few things respecting the dra- 
matic, entertainments of the Romans. The principal forms of these 
were, Tragedy, Comedy, the Atellanas, and Mimes. The two first 
were borrowed from the Greeks, among whom we must look for their 



503 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



origin and gradual advancement to maturity. Among the Romans 
Tragedy and Comedy were either palliata, i. e. constructed of Grecian 
characters, fashions and personages, or togatce, constructed of native 
materials. Comedies Avere also distinguished, according to the rank 
of the persons represented, as pratextata, in the case of civil magis- 
trates ; trabeata, of military officers ; and tabernaria, of persons of 
the lower classes. — The common musical accompaniments of comedy 
were the flutes termed tibia dextra or Lydice, and tibia sinistra or 
Serrana or Tyria. 

The Romans are said to have borrowed their first dramatic entertainments 
from Etruria, and to have employed for the purpose Tuscan players (histrio- 
nes), about B. C. 370. The earliest attempts of the Romans themselves seem to 
have been in the Versus Fescennini, which were rude and satirical verses that 
were rehearsed at certain festivals, in the time of harvest, accompanied with 
rustic gestures and dances. These were followed by the performances called Sa- 
tura, which were of a character somewhat more cultivated perhaps, yet by no 
means forming a regular or connected play ; they were accompanied with dan- 
cing and the music of the flute. The first regular dramatic piece was from Li- 
vius Andronicus, B. C. about 240; and both tragedy and comedy soon became 
frequent and favorite amusements. . 

The term pares and impares are applied to the flutes as well as sinistra and 
dextra. There has been some disagreement as to what these terms mean. It is 
most commonly supposed, that the musician used two flutes at once or a double 
flute ; that the sinistra had but few holes and sounded a sort of bass, while the dex- 
tra had more holes with sharper tones, and when these two were united they 
were termed impares, and took the other names because one was stopped by the 
left hand and the other by the right : when two dextra, or two sinistra were 
united and played upon by the musician they were called pares. — A painting 
found at Pompeii represents a flute-player blowing upon the double flute (cf. § 
180). — The lyra or harp was also used in the orchestra, and in later times, a 
hydraulic organ, sometimes called cortina. 

§ 240. The Atellana, which had their origin in Atella, a city of 
the Osci, were an intermediate form between Tragedy and Comedy, 
and somewhat like the Satyre of the Greeks, which was never intro- 
duced upon the Roman stage. — In the Mimes there was not merely 
dumb action and gesture, but a mimicking of the peculiarities in 
speech and dialect of certain classes or individuals, in a manner some- 
times indecent and licentious. They Were probably performed by 
one or two actors only. — In Pantomimes also the dancing and ges- 
turing were not wholly without song and language. The Mimes 
shortly before Julius Caesar, and the Pantomimes under Augustus, 
were so common as in some measure to crowd out the other forms of 
the drama. 

The Fabula Atellana or Ludi Osci or SoMra just named, which were the 
nearest approximations to the drama before the time of Livius Andronicus, were 
kept up afterwards by the Roman youth (not professed actors), at first in the 
Oscan language, afterwards only in Latin. Along with them, were performed 
short pieces, called exodia, of a still more loose and farcical character. — The 
mimes were first introduced as a sort of afterpiece or interlude to the regular 
drama. But they subsequently came to form a separate and fashionable public 
amusement, and in some measure superceded other dramatic entertainments. — 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. KINGS. CONSULS. 509 

On the drama of the Romans, see Dunlop's Hist, of Roman Literature, cited 
P. II. § 296. 5 (g). Vol. l.—Schlegel's Dram. Lit. Lect. viii. 



(2) Civil Affairs. 

§ 241. In order to understand properly the civil constitution of 
Rome, it is necessary to consider distinctly the different periods of its 
history; particularly to notice the three different forms of govern- 
ment which were successively established, the regal, consular, and 
imperial. The first continued 244 years to B. C. 510; the second 
479 years, to B. C. 31 ; and the third 506 years to the overthrow of 
the western empire, A. D. 476. Under the kings the government 
was of a mixed character, and we should estimate the powers of the 
kings by a reference to the early kings and princes among the Greeks, 
the chiefs of particular tribes (§ 34), rather than according to more 
modern ideas of an unlimited authority. The essential prerogatives 
of the Roman kings were the control of the religious worship, the 
superintendence of the legislation, and of judicial decisions, and the 
assembling of the senate and the people ; yet even in the exercise of 
these prerogatives, they were in most cases much restrained by the 
part, which the senate and the people had in the public concerns. 

The ensigns of regal dignity were borrowed from the Etrurians, 
and consisted of a golden crown, a chair {sella) of ivory, or highly 
ornamented with ivory, a sceptre of the same material, with an eagle 
on its extremity, a white robe (toga) with purple embroidery or bor- 
derings, &c. a body of twelve attendants (lictores), who went before 
the king, carrying each a bundle of rods (fasces) with an axe (secu- 
ris) in the middle. 

The time, during which the regal form is said to have continued, is 
too long for the probable reigns of only seven kings, which is the 
number specified in the traditions respecting this period. But it must 
be remarked that the whole of the early Roman history is at least 
uncertain, and is by some considered as purely fabulous (cf. P. I. 
§ 109). 

§ 242. On the abolition of monarchy the constitution became aristo- 
cratical. Two magistrates were annually chosen, with the authority and 
influence, which the kings had possessed, and called Consuls (consules). 
No particular age was originally requisite for this office, but a law 
(lex annalis) was enacted 180 B. C, that it should be held by no per- 
son under forty three. Those, who sought the office, were called 
candidati, from their peculiarly white shining robe (toga Candida). 



510 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

The election took place, in the assembly of the people, voting by Cen- 
turies, usually towards the end of July or the beginning of August. 
From that time until January of the following year, the person chosen 
was called consul designatus, and then he entered upon his office un- 
der many solemnities. The two consuls had equal power. Their 
badges of office were the same as those of the kings, excepting the 
golden crown, and the robe with purple ornaments ; the latter was 
allowed them on certain public solemnities, as e. g. a triumph. At 
first, both consuls were chosen from the patricians ; afterwards, how- 
ever, one was often taken, and sometimes both, from the plebeians. 

The duties of the consuls consisted in taking the auspices, as- 
sembling the senate, declaring the votes, among which they first 
gave their own, in proposing business to the senate and the people,, 
fixing the comitia, appointing the judges, and preparing declarations 
of war. They were also usually commanders of the army, and were 
required to attend to all its wants, and inform the senate of all im- 
portant occurrences. After completing the year of their office they 
were usually proconsuls or governors of provinces. The power of 
the consuls was gradually diminished, partly by the institution of the 
office of dictator and tribunes, and partly by the law which author- 
ized appeals from the decisions of the consuls to the people. Under 
the emperors nothing more than the mere name remained ; they were 
merely the agents to execute the imperial will, to whom a few privi- 
leges were secured. In the later ages also, their number was in- 
creased, and their term of continuance very short. The office was 
preserved until A. D. 541, when it was conferred upon the reigning 
emperor for life. 

§ 243. Prator was in early times the name for any magistrate, 
signifying merely an overseer, superintendent, or leader (from praire}. 
But, in the year B. C. 365, the name was appropriated to an officer 
appointed to attend to the administration of justice. The Praetor was. 
at first chosen from patricians, when the consulship was communi- 
cated to the plebeians. Two Praetors were chosen after the year 
B. C. 243, one to attend to the business of the citizens {Prator urba- 
nus ), the other the business of strangers (Prator per egrinus). After- 
ward there were four Prastors, and six, then ten, fourteen, sixteen, 
and even eighteen, until Augustus, it seems, limited the number 
to twelve. 

l. u The dignity of the city-Praetor was next to that of Consul, and his prin- 
cipal business was holding courts of justice in the Tribunal (in or pro tribunali) 
a building appropriated to the purpose in the Forum (§ 261). The Praetor on 
entering upon his office, always published a statement of the rules and princi- 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. PR.ET0RS. jEDILES. TRIBUNES. 511 

pies, by which he should be guided in his trials and decisions; this was called 
his edict {edictum Prcetoris). The usual form in giving his decisions was do, 
dico, addico. — In the absence of the Consul, the city-Praetor took his place ; he 
could also call meetings of the senate and hold Comitia ; he had the care also of 
some of the great public games. The insignia of the Praetor were the togapree- 
texta, a sword and spear (gladius et hasta), and an attendance of six lictors. 
In the provinces the Propraetors had similar rank and authority, in the same 
manner as the Proconsuls took the place of Consuls. 

2. Besides the general edict above mentioned, the Praetor published particular 
edicts from time to time. Such as he copied from those of his predecessors were 
termed tralatilia ,-those framed by himself, nova. An edict published at Rome, 
edictum urbanum ; in a province, provinciate ; sometimes named from the pro- 
vince, as edictum Siciliense. Other magistrates (honorati) published edicts also. 
The law derived from all the various edicts was termed jus honorarium ; this 
term or phrase, in later times, was applied to a collection of Praetor's edicts regu- 
larly arranged by order of the emperor Hadrian; the same was also called edic- 
tum perpetuum. 

§ 244. JEdihs were the magistrates, whose principal duty was 
the care of the buildings (cedes). They were of two classes, plebeii 
and curules, two of each. The former were created first, B. C. 493 ; 
the latter, B. C. 266. At a later period, Julius Caesar added two oth- 
ers, called Cereales, who had the oversight of the stores of grain and 
provision. — The JEdiles Plebeii had originally the care of the public 
and private buildings ; and were required to make arrangements for 
the public games, see to the preservation of the public roads, regulate 
the markets, prove the justness of weights and measures, and in short 
attend to the police of the city. — The JEdiles Curules were distin- 
guished from them by the toga prcetexta, and the sella curulis. They 
were at first taken solely from the patricians, but afterwards also 
from the people. Their chief care was of the great public games. 
They had also the oversight of the temples, except that of Ceres, 
which always belonged to the plebeian iEdiles, with whom the Cu- 
rules probably shared, without distinction, the business of the police. 
In the Roman provinces, also, there were iEdiles, whose office was 
usually but for a year. The office seems to have continued until the 
time of Constantine the Great. 

§ 245. Of the Tribunes there were different kinds. The Tri- 
bunes of the people (tribuni plebis) were the most remarkable. The 
office originated from the general disaffection and secession of the 
plebeians B. C. 493. The number was first two, then five, finally 
ten. One of them always presided at the i Comitia for electing tri- 
bunes. Their proper object was the protection of the people against 
the encroachments of the Senate and Consuls. In order to obtain 
this office, patricians allowed themselves to be adopted into plebeian 
families. In the earliest times, the tribunes could not enter the Sen- 
ate, but had their seats before the door of the Senate-room, where 



512 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

they heard all the deliberations, and could hinder the passage of any 
decree by the single word veto. By the Atinian law B. C. 131, it 
was decreed that the Tribunes should be of the rank of Senators. 
Their power and influence constantly increased, although it was con- 
fine d tothe city and the circuit of a mile around it, beyond which 
they could not be absent over night. 

The Tribunes had no lictors, nor any insignia of office, except a 
kind of beadles called viatores, who went before them. Their per- 
sons were regarded as inviolable. Sylla abridged their power ; he 
took from them the right, which they had exercised, of assembling 
the people by tribes, and thereby passing enactments (plebiscite/,) 
binding upon the whole nation, and left them only the power of their 
negative or intercession (intercedere). Their authority, however, 
was afterwards elevated again, but under Julius Caesar it was small, 
and became still more insignificant under the emperors, who appro- 
priated to themselves the tribunitial power, so that the tribunes annu- 
ally elected had but merely the name and shadow of it. The office 
was abolished in the time of Constantine the Great. 

§ 246. The Qucestors were among the earliest magistrates of 
Rome, first appointed by the kings, then by the consuls, afterwards by 
the people. They were charged with receiving and managing the 
revenues, and with the scrutiny of certain kinds of blood-shed. 
Those for the city were called Qucestores urbani, those for the provin- 
ces Qucestores provinciales, and those for the examination of capital 
offences, Qucestores return capitalium, or parricidii. Originally 
there were but two, afterwards four, and then eight; Sylla raised the 
number to twenty, and Julius Caesar to forty. 

l.« The Glueestors had also the oversight of the archives, the care of for- 
eign ambassadors, the charge of monuments, presents and other tokens of re- 
spect publicly authorized, and the preservation of the treasures acquired in war. 
They were at first taken only from the Patricians, but afterwards partly from 
the Plebeians. 

Under the emperors there was a kind of quaestors, called qucestores candidati, 
who were, properly, speaking, nothing more than imperial messengers or sec- 
retaries, and were afterwards called juris interpretes, precum arbitri, &c, from 
their employment. Still later there was another kind, of considerable impor- 
tance, styled Qucestores palatii, or Magistri officiorum. 

2. The age requisite for the Quaestor was 30, or at least 25, until reduced by 
Augustus to 22. The office was one of the first steps to preferment in the com- 
monwealth, although sometimes held by those who had been Consuls. 

§ 247. The office of the Censors (Censor es) was established at an 
early period, B. C. 442. There were two at a time, holding their of- 
fice originally for five years, but afterwards only a year and a half. 
Their duties were various ; the following were some of the principal ; 
to take the census of the people, an accurate account of the age, pro- 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. CENSORS. DICTATOR. 513 

perty and descent of each head of a family, to divide the people into 
their tribes and rectify existing errors in the distribution, to decide the 
taxes of each person, to enrol those who were obligated to military 
service, to make account of the revenues in the provinces, to inspect 
the morals of the citizens, to superintend the leasing of public lands, 
to attend to contracts respecting public works, such as streets, bridges, 
aqueducts and the like. 

l. w The censors were authorised to inflict marks of disgrace (nolo, censoria, 
ignominia) from any evidence and for any cause, which appeared to them suita- 
ble. The luxury of the Romans, which in later times became so excessive, was 
considerably restrained by the censors. In order to escape the censorial re- 
bukes or punishments, the office seems to have been left vacant for some time. 

2. The censorial power was, however, vested in Julius Caesar, first with the 
title Prafectus morum, afterward, for life, with the title of Censor. Augustus 
also assumed the power, although he declined the title. The same was done by 
several of his successors down to the time of Decius, A. D. 250, when the cor- 
ruption of morals was too great to allow any magistracy or power of the kind. 

§ 248. Among the extraordinary magistrates of Rome, whose of- 
fice was not permanent, hut necessary only in particular circumstan- 
ces, the Dictator is especially to be noticed. The first Dictator was 
created on occasion of the same sedition or insurrection which occa- 
sioned the appointment of tribunes of the people (§ 245) ; and similar 
disturbances, difficult wars, and other important emergencies occa- 
sioned the appointment of the subsequent Dictators. Sometimes they 
were appointed for less important reasons, e. g. for regulating the pub- 
lic games and sports in the sickness of the Praetor, not by the people, 
but by one of the Consuls. The Dictator was indeed always ap- 
pointed by the Consul, by order of the people or senate, and must be 
a man of consular rank. The power of the Dictator was very great, 
in some respects supreme. War and peace, and the decision of the 
most important affairs depended on him. 

l.« Citizens, who were condemned to death by him, could appeal to the peo- 
ple (cf. Liv. viii. 33). The power and office of the Dictator was limited to six 
months. He could not appropriate without consent of the senate or people any 
of the public money. As commander of the army, he was confined to the limits 
of Italy. No one ever abused the power of this office so much as Cornelius 
Sulla. Caesar, by this office, opened his way to absolute power, and after his 
death the dictatorship was abolished. It was, however, offered to Augustus, who 
refused the odious name or title, although he exercised all the power. 

2. ' Plutarch and Polybius state that the Dictator was attended by 24 lictors; 
but in the epitome of the 89th book of Livy, Syllais said to have unwarrantably 
assumed this number (Kennett, p. 123). The Dictator appointed, usually from 
among those of consular or praetorian dignity, an officer, styled Magister equitum, 
whose business was to command the cavalry, and execute the orders of the Dic- 
tator ; but this officer was sometimes appointed by the senate, or the people ; he 
was allowed the use of a horse, but the Dictator could not ride without the order 
of the people. — Sometimes a Consul, or other existipg magistrate, was invested 
with the power of dictator, by decree of the Senate {ne quid detrimenti capiat res- 
publica), 

§ 249. The discontent of the people under the use, which the con- 
65 



514 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

suls made of their power, led to the creation of a new office in the 
year B. C. 451, that of the Decemviri, with consular authority (de- 
cemviri consulari potestale, s. legibus ferendis). They wefe appointed 
for the special purpose of forming a code of laws. This gave rise to 
the laws of the twelve tables (§ 265). As they soon began to abuse 
their great power, the office was abolished B. C. 449, and that of Con- 
sul restored — From the same cause originated the office of military 
Tribunes (tribuni militum consulari potestate), who in the year B. C. 
445, were appointed in the place of Consuls ; but were dismissed after 
three months. Originally they were six in number, three patricians, 
and three plebeians ; afterwards the number varied, sometimes three, 
sometimes four, six, or eight ; sometimes military tribunes, and some- 
times consuls were elected, as the plebeian or the patrician interests 
prevailed, until the year B. C. 366, when the plebeians were quieted 
by the choice of a consul from among themselves. — Among the ma- 
gistrates not permanent, must be mentioned also the Prsfect of the 
city, Prcefectus urbi, to whom the Consuls in their absence, especial- 
ly in war, entrusted the charge of the police. Under the emperors 
this became a regular and permanent office of great influence. 

The Interrez was an officer created to hold elections when there was no consul 
or magistrate, to whom it properly belonged. The name was drawn from the 
title of the temporary magistrate appointed by the senate, when there was a va- 
cancy in the throne under the regal government. 

Less important magistrates were the following ; the Prcefectus annonce, charg- 
ed with the procuring and distributing of grain, in cases of scarcity; the Quin- 
queviri mensarii, whose chief business was to reduce public expenses (minuendis 
publicis sumtibus) ; the Q,uinqueviri muris turribusque reficiendis, to see to repairs 
in the walls and fortifications ; the Triumviri ccdi&us sacris reficiendis, to repair 
the sacred buildings; Triumviri monelales, having charge of the mint; Trium- 
viri noclurni, to superintend the nightly watch; Duumviri navales (classis ornan- 
dce reficiendaque causa) for equipping and repairingthe fleet, &c. — Some of these, 
however, were not magistrates in the proper sense, but they were chosen from 
among the most respectable men. 

The servants or attendants of magistrates were called in general apparitores ; 
under which were included scriba?, notarii, actuarii, accensi, pracones, lictores, 
viatores, &c. — The Camifex was the executioner or hangman. 

§ 250. Besides the magistrates which have been named, falling 
under the denomination of ordinary {ordinarii) or regular and per- 
manent, and the extraordinary {extraor dinar ix) or occasional, there 
were various magistrates whose authority pertained to the provinces of 
Rome. These were in part such as have been named. Among them 
were the proconsuls, propraetors, proqusestors, the legates, conquis- 
itors &c. 

Proconsuls-were either (1) such as being consuls had their office prolonged be- 
yond the time fixed by law; or (2) such as were raised from a private station to 
govern some province or to command in war ; or (3) such as having been consuls 
went, immediately on the legal expiration of their consulship, into provinces as- 
signed to their charge under the commonwealth; or (4) such as were appointed 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. PROVINCIAL OFFICERS. CLASSES OF CITIZENS. 515 

governors of the provinces under under the empire; as all these were called 
proconsuls. But the name and dignity properly belonged to the third of these 
classes. 

The senate decided from year to year what provinces should be consular, and 
then the consuls, while only designati (§ 242), agreed by lot, which of them each 
should take on the expiration of his consulship. A vote of the people afterwards 
conferred on them the military command in their provinces. Their departure 
to their provinces and return to the city were often attended with great pomp. 
They enjoyed very absolute authority both civil and military ; but it was limited 
to a year, and they were liable to a rigid trial on their return ; the offences most 
commonly charged were (1) crimen peculatus, ill use of the public money, (2) 
majestatis, treachery or assumption of powers belonging to the senate or people, 
and (3; repetundarum, extortion or oppression towards the inhabitants. 

The Proprietors were such asafteV their praetorship received provinces, in which 
for a year they had supreme command, usually both civil and military. Their 
creation, administration and responsibility were similar to those of Proconsuls; 
only they had but six lictors instead of twelve, and the praetorian provinces were 

usually smaller than the consular. The Legati were the chief assistants of 

the Proconsuls and Propraetors. The number depended on the rank of the chief 
officer, and the circumstances of the provinces. They at length obtained im- 
portant authority as military commanders. One Quastor or more attended 

each Proconsul or Propraetor. His business was to superintend the public ac- 
counts, and the supplies of the army. Proquaestors were such as the chief officer 
appointed temporarily, on the absence or -death of the provincial Q.uaestor (§246). 
The duties of the duaestor were assigned under the emperors to the officer 
styled Procurator Casaris. The conquisitores were inferior officers not prop- 
erly civil, who were employed to raise soldiers and by force if necessary. 

§ 251. Before proceeding to a sketch of the Roman Constitution, 
we must notice the division or classification of the people, which had, 
throughout, an important influence on the government. At the be- 
ginning, Romulus divided the city itself and the whole people into 
three tribes, and each of these into ten Curia. The tribes were the 
Rhamnensis consisting of native Romans, the Tatiensis, of Sabines, 
and the tribus Lucerum, of all other foreigners. — Servius Tullius al- 
tered this division and made thirty tribes, 4 of the city (tribus urbance), 
and 26 for the territories (tribus rustica). The latter at length gained 
the precedency of the former, and were considered as more honora- 
ble. Five tribes were added at a later period ; and also others, which 
were not permanent. 

The four city tribes were Suburana, or Succusana, Esquilina, Collina, Palati- 
na; the rustic tribes, Romilia, Lemonia, Pupina, Galeria, Pollia, Voltinia, Clau- 
dia, ^Emilia, Cornelia, Fabia, Horatia, Menenia, Papiria, Sergia, Veturia, 
Crustumina ; these belonged to the proper Roman territory; in addition there 
were the Etrurian tribes, Vejentina, Stellatina, Tromentina, Sabatina, Arnien- 
sis, Pomptina, Publilia or Papilia, Maecia, Scaptia, Ufentina, Falerina; and the 
Sabine tribes, Aniensis, Terentina, Velina, duirina. 

k 252. Servius Tullius also divided the Roman citizens, for the 
sake of an equitable distribution of the public burdens, into six classes 
according to property. These classes were subdivided into centuries, 
amounting in all to 193. In order to preserve this distribution, an 
ordinance was established requiring the census and valuation to be 
taken every five years (§ 247). 



516 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

' The first class consistedof those whose estates in lands and effects were worth 
at least 100,000 asses, or pounds of brass; or 10,000 drachma according to the 
Greek way of computing; which sum is commonly reckoned equal to £322. 18s. 
4d. sterling ; but if we suppose each pound of brass to contain 24 asses, as was 
the case afterwards, it will amount to £7750. 

This first class was subdivided into eighty centuries or companies of foot, forty 
of young men ( juniorum), from seventeen to forty-six years of age, who were 
obliged to take the field (ut foris bella gererent), and forty of old men (seniorum), 
who should guard the city (adurbis cuslodiam ut prasto essenl). To these were 
added eighteen centuries of Equites, who fought on horseback ; in all ninety- 
eight centuries. — The second class consisted of twenty centuries, ten of young 
men, and ten of old, whose estates were worth at least 75,000 asses. To these 
were added two centuries of artificers (fabrum), carpenters, smiths, &c. to man- 
age the engines of war. — The third class likewise contained twenty centuries ; 
their estate was 50,000 asses. — The fourth class likewise contained twenty centu- 
ries; their estate was 25,000 asses. To these Dionysius adds two centuries of 
trumpeters (vii. 59). — The fifth class was divided into thirty centuries ; their es- 
tate was 11,000 asses, but according to Dionysius, 12,500. — The sixth class com- 
prehended all those who either had no estates, or were not worth so much as 
those of the fifth class. The number of them was so great as to exceed that of 
any of the other classes ; yet they were reckoned as but one century. — Thus the 
number of centuries in all the classes was, according to Dionysius, 193. 

Each class had arms peculiar to itself, and a certain place in the army according 
to the valuation of their fortunes. — Those of the first class were called Classici ; 
all the rest were said to be Infra classem, A. Gell, vii. 13. Hence classici auctores, 
for the most approved authors, lb. xix. 8. 

By this arrangement the chief power was vested in the richest citizens who 
composed the first class, which, although least in number, consisted of more cen- 
turies than all the rest put together; but they likewise bore the charges of peace 
and [war (munia pads et belli) in proportion. For as the votes at the Comitia, so 
likewise the quota of soldiers and taxes, depended on the number of centuries. 
Accordingly, the first class, which consisted of ninety-eight, or, according to 
Livy, of one hundred centuries, furnished more men and money to the public 
•service than all the rest of the state besides. But they had likewise the chief in- 
fluence in the assemblies of the people by centuries. For the Equites and the 
centuries of this class were called first to give their votes, and if they were unan- 
imous, the matter was determined; but if not, then the centuries of the next 
class were called, and so on, till a majority of centuries had voted the same thing. 
And it hardly ever happened that they came to the lowest (Liv. i. 43. Dionys. 
vii. 59.).'— Adam. 

§ 253. Another division of the Romans, existing from the earliest 
times, was into Patricians and Plebeians, according to family descent 
The patricians were the descendants of the Senators appointed by- 
Romulus, the Fathers, Patres, of whom he selected three from each 
tribe, and three from each curia, making ninety-nine ; to these he add- 
ed a man of distinguished merit, so that the Senate originally consisted' 
of 100 members. Afterwards the Sabini were admitted into it, and 
the number was doubled. Tarquinius Priscus increased this number 
by a third hundred from the plebeians, who were termed Patres mi- 
norum gentium, to distinguish them from the original Senators, and 
their descendants were called Patricii minorum gentium. Sulla add- 
ed to the Senate 300 Equites, raising the whole number to 600 ; to- 
wards the end of the republic it was even as great as 1000, but Au- 
gustus reduced it to 600 ; under his successors the number was not 
uniformly the same. 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. THE SENATE. 517 

§ 254. The Senators, when assembled in council, were called Pa- 
trts Conscripti. Their election was at first made by the kings, next 
by the consuls, afterwards by the censors, and in one instance, after 
the battle of Cannae, by a Dictator. Under the Emperors, a Trium- 
virate was sometimes formed to attend to the election. In the choice 
of Senators regard was had to descent, character, property, and age, 
which must not be less than twenty-five. — The Senators were distin- 
guished in their dress particularly by two things, the tunica laliclavia,. 
a tunic or waistcoat with abroad stripe of purple (latus claims) attached 
to it, and high black buskins (calcei, or ocrece, nigri colons') which had 
the letter C marked on them. At public spectacles the Senators also 
sat in the foremost part of the Orchestra. 

l. u The Senate was assembled by the Kings, Consuls, Dictators, Praetors or 
Tribunes of the people, by public summons (ediclum), or by means of a herald. 
In the former case the object of assembling was specified. There were, besides, 
certain days fixed for regular meetings of the senate, the Calends, Nones and 
Ides of every month. On festivals, and in time of the Comitia where the whole 
.people were assembled, the senate could not meet. Augustus restricted the reg- 
ular meetings to the Calends and the Ides. The place of assembling was not 
exclusively 'fixed, but it must be set apart and consecrated for the purpose by the 
Augurs. The temples, and the Capitol among them, were usually selected, ex- 
cepting always the Temple of Vesta. 

The number of members necessary (numerus legilimus) to pass a decree (Se- 
nates consvltum) was 100; and from the year B. C. 67, 200. The meetings 
were opened early in the morning and continued until near or after mid-day; be- 
fore and after the light of the sun no lawful decree could be enacted. Sacrifices 
were always offered and the auspices taken by the magistrate, who was to hold 
the senate, before entering the place of meeting. The magistrate then, Consul, 
Praetor or whoever assembled the senate, proposed the business, and the members 
gave their opinions usually in an established order. In important or interesting 
cases, questions were decided by the Senators separating into two parts (itio in 
partes). The Emperors had the right of proposing questions to the senate, not 
properly, but at first only by special permission. A distinction was made be- 
tween a decree of tbe Senate, Senatus consultum, and a judgment or opinion, Se- 
no.tus GMctoritas ; the latter term was applied, when the sentence was less deci- 
sive, or was not passed without some person's intercession or veto, or was at- 
tended with some informality; decrees were ratified by being engrossed or 
written out, and lodged in the treasury (in Mrarium condebantur) in the place of 
public records (tabular ium), in the temple of Saturn. 

2. 'Although the supreme power at Rome belonged to the people, yet they 
seldom enacted any thing without the authority of the Senate. In all weighty- 
affairs, the method usually observed was, that the senate should first deliberate 
and decree, and then the people order. But there were many things of great im- 
portance, which the Senate always determined itself, unless when they were 
brought before the people by the intercessions of the Tribunes. This right the 
Senate seems to have had, not from any express law, but by the custom of their 
ancestors. — 1. The Senate assumed to themselves the guardianship of the public 
religion ; so that no new god could be introduced, nor altar erected, nor the 
Sibylline books consulted, without their order.— 2. The Senate had the direction 
of the treasury, and distributed the public money at pleasure. They appointed 
stipends to their generals and officers, and provisions and clothing for their ar- 
mies. — 3. They settled the provinces, which were annually assigned to the Con- 
suls and Praetors: and, when it seemed fit, they prolonged their command. — 4. 
They nominated out of their own body all ambassadors sent from Rome, and 
gave to foreign ambassadors what answers they thought proper. — 5. They de- 
creed all public thankgivings for victories obtained ; and conferred the honor 
of an ovation or triumph, with the title of Jmperator, on victorious generals. — 
6. They could decree the title of King to any prince whom they pleased, and de- 
clare any one an enemy by a vote.— 7. They inquired into public crimes or 



518 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

treasons, either in Rome or the other parts of Italy, and heard and determined 
all the disputes among the allied and dependent cities.— 8. They exercised a 
power, not only of interpreting the laws, but of absolving men from the obligation 
of them, and even of abrogating them.— They could postpone the assemblies of 
the people, and prescribe a change of habit to the city in cases of any imminent 
danger or calamity. But the power of the Senate was chiefly conspicuous in evil 
dissensions or dangerous tumults within the city, in which that solemn decree, 
UUimum or Exlremum, used to be passed, ' That the consuls should take care 
that the republic should receive no harm.' {Adam.) 

§ 255. The Equites formed another body of high rank in Rome 
(ordo equester). They were originally composed of 100 young men 
taken from each of the three tribes, thus making three centuries (300). 
Their number was greatly increased by the kings, so that there were 
18 centuries (1800) under Servius Tullius. They became at length 
a distinct order, not including all who served on horseback, but only 
such as were chosen into the rank. In the year 124 B. C. the order 
received some important prerogatives, being chosen to act as judges, 
and to farm the revenues. The property requisite to qualify one foi 
election as a knight, at this period, was 400 thousand sesterces (cen- 
sus equester) ; the age about eighteen ; nobility of descent was not 
sufficient to secure it. The Censors Avere entrusted with the scrutiny, 
and they presented to those found worthy, a horse at the public ex- 
pense ; hence the phrase, equo publico merere. — The knights were 
distinguished by a golden ring or rings, and by the tunica angusti- 
clavia, a white tunic with its purple stripe, or border, narrower than 
that of the Senators. At the spectacles, their seat was next to the 
Senators, who were frequently chosen from the Equestrians. They 
made annually on the 15th of July a splendid procession [t'ransvectio) 
through the city to the Capitol. The order was under the constant 
supervision of the Censors. 

§ 256. The word populus had among the Romans a more general 
meaning than plebs ; the former signified the whole body of the Ro- 
man people, the latter a particular portion distinct from the senate and 
the knights, and called also ordo plebeius. In early times, this order 
consisted of such as were proprietors of land, but in the times of the 
republic it was composed mainly of the lowest class, which we de- 
nominate the populace. The patricians and plebeians were from 
the beginning greatly at variance. The former were such as sprang 
from the noblest families, particularly the oldest senators under the 
kings, and at first held all the public offices exclusively. The ple- 
beians gained a share in them B. C. 493, as has been already men- 
tioned (§ 245), After this the patricians often allowed themselves to 
be adopted into plebeian families, in order the more easily to secure 
offices, which were common to both ranks, or confined to plebeians. 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS. COMITIA. 519 

as was the office of tribunes. Intermarriage between the two clas- 
ses took place first in B. C. 445. 

l. u Previously to intermarriages the only mutual relation was that of patron 
and client ; in which the plebeian made free choice of some patrician as his 
guardian and patron and this patrician in turn was obligated by certain duties 
to the plebeian as his client. At last this relation existed chiefly between mas- 
ters and freed men. — The power of the people rose to a great height during the 
time of the republic, and often was perverted to the greatest abuses. 

2. It was esteemed highly honorable for a Patrician to have many clients, 
both hereditary and acquired by his own merit. The duties of the relation were 
considered as of solemn obligation. Virgil {Mn. vi. 605) joins the crime of in- 
juring a client with that of abusing a parent ; the client on the other hand was 
expected to serve his patron even with life in an extremity. Amidst all the dis- 
sensions which marks the Roman history, there seems lo have been a mutual 
and faithful observance of these duties. In later times cities and nations chose 
as patrons distinguished families or individuals at Rome. 

§ 257. It is necessary to distinguish between the Patrician rank, 
and what was called Roman nobility (nobilitas Romano). The lat- 
ter was a dignity resulting from merit, either personal or derived 
from ancestors, and acquired especially by holding a curule office. 
Patrician descent was not necessary for this, although when united 
with merit it heightened the nobility. Such as acquired this nobility 
themselves, were styled novi homines. One of the principal distinc- 
tions of those possessing this nobility (nobiles) was the jus imaginum, 
which allowed them to form images or busts in painted wax of their 
ancestors, placing them in cases in their halls (atria), and carrying 
them in funeral processions and at other solemnities. This right 
was sometimes conferred as a reward by an assembly of the people, 
and received with public thanks. The Roman history is filled with 
contests between the old and the new nobility. 

A curule office was one, which entitled the person holding it to use the sella 
curulis or chair of state. Such was the office of dictator, consul, praetor, censor, 
and curule sedile. The chair was composed of ivory, or at least highly adorned 
with it. The magistrates in the colonies and municipal towns sat on public oc- 
casions in a large chair called bisellius ; two of these have been found at Pom- 
peii, made of bronze, inlaid with silver, of extraordinary workmanship. Pom- 
peii, p. 265. 

$ 258. The term Comitia has already been used by us more than 
once as signifying the days of election or assemblies of the people. 
The word comitium originally signified the place of assembling, 
which was an open space in the Roman forum, in front of the court- 
house of Hostilius ; it was afterwards applied to the assembly itself 
consisting of the three ranks or orders of the Roman people and held 
at that place, or the Campus Martius, or the Capitol. Assemblies of 
one or two orders were called Concilia, and less formal ones, where 
merely notices or addresses were given to the people, and nothing 
was decided, were termed Condones. The Comitia were appointed 



520 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

only by the higher magistrates, a Consul, Dictator, or, in the Consul's; 
absence, a Prastor. The most important subjects were considered in 
these assemblies, some of which have been already mentioned in- 
cidentally. 

$ 259. The days of the year, on which such assemblies could be 
held, 184 in number, were called dies comitiales. Romulus establish- 
ed the Comitia curiata, in which the votes were given by Curia ; 
Servius Tullius the Comitia centuriata, in which the people voted by 
centuries, and which were the most important ; and the Tribunes, 
B. C. 491 instituted the Comitia Tributa, in which the votes were 
given by tribes. The decrees passed at the last mentioned were 
termed Plebiscita, and at first were binding only on the plebeians — 
The election of officers, which became the principal business of the 
Comitia, was chiefly made at the Comitia centuriata. These were 
held in the Campus Martius, where more than 50,000 persons might 
assemble. 

\. u The consul or presiding magistrate at the Comitia of Centuries occupied 
an elevated wooden erection, called Tribunal. There were 193 small slips or 
narrow passages {pontes, ponticuli) raised for the 193 centuries to ascend upon 
as they went to vote. Both these and the tribunal were surrounded by a bal- 
ustrade, forming what was called the Septa or Ovile. Outside of this the people 
stood until they were called in (intro vocata) to vote century by century through 
the six successive classes. The order, in which the centuries voted, was de- 
termined by lot (sortitio), the names being thrown into a box {silella) and drawn 
out by the presiding magistrate. The votes were by means of ballots (Jabellce), 
which were given to each citizen by persons (diribitores) standing at the en- 
trances of the passages just named, and were cast by the citizens into a box or 
chest (cista) at the end of the passage. The manner of voting was the same in 
the. case of elections, of enacting laws, and of passing decrees or judicial senten- 
ces. Only persons between 17 and 60 years of age were allowed to vote. 

2. ' By the chests were placed some of the public servants, who, taking out 
the tablets of every century, for every tablet made a prick or point (punctum) in 
another tablet, which they kept by them. Thus the business being decided by 
most points gave occasion to the phrase, Omne lulit punctum, and the like.' 
(Kennett.) — It is obvious, that in the Comitia centuriata the mode of voting must 
give the higher classes an entire preponderance over the others (cf. § 252). 

§ 260. The rights of Roman citizenship included several impor- 
tant privileges, especially during the freedom of the state. The life 
and property of a citizen were in the power of no one, but of the 
whole people appealed to thereon ; no magistrate could punish him 
by stripes ; he had a full right over his property, his children and his 
dependents ; he had a voice in the assemblies of the people and in 
the election of magistrates ; his last will and testament had full author- 
ity after his death. The right of voting was the most valued ; full 
citizenship including this could be bestowed only by the people • 
citizenship embracing the other rights could be conferred by the 
senate also. All freed men and their children were excluded from 
this right, which is what was properly meant by the Jus Quiritium. 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. RIGHTS. JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS. 521 

1." Whoever once acquired Roman citizenship, could not be deprived of it, 
even by banishment ; it was lost only by voluntary resignation or by taking a 
foreign allegiance. The Jus Quiritium privatum, conferred on the colonies and 
municipal towns, comprehended in it fewer or less important privileges ; in the 
case of the Latin colonies it was called Jus Laiii or Latinitatis ; of the Italian, 
Jus Italicum. Still more limited were the privileges included in the Jura pro- 
vinciarum and Jura prcefecturarum. 

2. The rights of a Roman citizen have been divided into private and public ; 
both are included under the common designation Jus Quiritium, and sometimes 
under that of Jus civitatis ; and sometimes these phrases seem to be limited res- 
pectively to the rights termed private or public. — To the private belonged; 
h Jus libertatis, which secured to each the control of his person; 2. Jus gentis et 
families, which secured the peculiar privileges of his descent ; 3. Jus patrium, 
the entire control over his children ; 4. Jus dominii Ugitimi, the possession of 
legal property ; 5. Jus testamenli and hcereditatis, the right to inherit or be- 
queath property by will ; 6. Jus tutela, the right to appoint by will guardians 
for his wife and children. To the public belonged the following ; 1. Jus cen- 
sus, the right of being enrolled by the censor ; 2. Jus militice, none but citizens 
being enlisted at first, a restriction which was afterwards abolished ; 3. Jus tri- 
butorum, which secured to the citizen taxation proportioned to his wealth ; 4. Jus 
suffragii, the right of voting, so highly valued ; 5. Jus honorum, eligibility to 
public offices, a right, originally confined to patricians, but finally extended to 
plebeians also ; 6. Jus sacrorum, which included certain rights in relation to 
religious worship. — Those who did not possess the rights of citizens (cives) 
were generally termed foreigners (peregrini) wherever they resided. 

3. This is a proper place for a brief view of the rights and privileges, which 
were allowed by the Romans to the cities or nations conquered by them. The 
forms of governments established in such cases may be divided into four. — 1. 
The Colonics or colonies were cities or tracts of country, which persons from 
Rome were sent to inhabit. These persons, although mingling with the con- 
quered natives and occupants, gained the whole power in the administration of 
affairs. In the later periods of the republic and under the emperors, many 
colonies were planted with soldiers, who had served out their legal time (twenty 
years in the foot, or ten in the horse), and who after thus laboring for their 
country were permitted to receive possessions in a colony and spend their age 
in ease and plenty. — The colonies were scattered over the empire and gov- 
erned by laws prescribed to them by the Romans. 2. The Municipia were 

cities, which enjoyed the right of governing themselves by their own laws, re- 
taining, if they chose it, such as were in use before their subjection to the 
Romans. They were in some respects like the corporate cities of our country, 
and their inhabitants had the name and some of the rights of Roman citizens. 
Originally confined to Italy, they were subsequently formed even in the pro- 
vinces. The coloniae and municipia had similar magistrates; the Duumviri 

were the chief officers; the senators were called Decuriones. 3. The Pra- 

fectura were certain towns in Italy, whose privileges were curtailed for of- 
fences against the Roman government. They were not suffered to frame their 
own laws as did the municipia, nor to chose their own magistrates, as did 
both the municipia and the colonise. They were governed by a prefect sent 

annually from Rome. All the other cities of Italy, which were not either 

coloniae,, municipia or prcefecturce, were called civitates fazderatoe, enjoying their 
old rights and customs and joined to the Romans only by confederacy or al- 
liance.- — 4. The Provincice were foreign countries of larger extent, which 
when conquered, were remodeled as to their governments at the pleasure of 
the Romans. They were compelled to pay such taxes as were demanded, and 
subjected to the authority of governors annually sent out from Rome. These 
governors were often tyrannical and always oppressive; and the provincial 
system became one of the most odious features in the Roman adminis- 
tration. 

§ 261. The judicial 'proceedings of the Romans included trials of 
public and private cases, criminal and civil. The former involved 
the general peace and security, the latter the claims and rights of in- 
, 66 



l 



522 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

dividuals. The public ov criminal trials (judicia publico) were either 
ordinary or extraordinary.— The latter were such as belonged not to 
any regular jurisdiction, or fixed time or place, but had a special day 
of trial" assigned, or a special assembly of the people' appointed for 
them. Sometimes the people selected certain persons, as a sort of 
commissioners in cases of this kind; such were the Duumviri per- 
duellionis, or Qucesitores.— The ordinary public trials were also called 
qucestio?t.es perpetuce, and were first established in the year B. C. 149, 
for the most common state offences. In these the Praetor presided 
($ 243), by whom assistant judges (judices assessores) were chosen 
annually, originally from the senate, then from the knights, and at 
last from all conditions. The judges were divided into several decu- 
ria, from which the requisite number of them were taken by lot for 
each trial. Under the emperors the judges were appointed by them- 
selves. In all public trials a certain order of proceeding and a series 
of established usages were observed. The plaintiff {actor, accusator) 
commonly spoke against the defendant {reus) ; the witnesses were 
then heard; the opinion of the judges was given orally or in writing, 
and judgment was pronounced. The person acquitted could, when 
he had ground for it, bring his accuser to trial for slander (calumnia); 
the person condemned, on the other hand, was punished according 
to the law. • 

Public trials of a capital kind were held before the ^f^^^VoZta 
as involved only the question of some minor punishment, befor ^^ n ™^ 
tributa. In these cases some magistrate must be the accuser Having called 
an assembly he announced that on a certain day he should accuse the person 
of a certain crime; doing this was expressed by the phras e dime dtem,^e 
person named must procure bondsmen (vades, pjdes) or be kept . * custodj to 
the day named; on that day the magistrate made his accusation which was 
repeated three times, with one day intervening between each; then at I {ro- 
Jtio) including the charge and the punishment proposed was posted up for 
three market-days; on thl third market-day, the accuser again repeated the 
charge, and the criminal or his advocate .{advocatus, V atronus)mzde a defence ; 
after'which the comitia was summoned against a certain day ,to decide the 
trial then by suffrages.-On the judicial affairs of the Romans the fu lest 
authority is C. Sigonms de Judiciis (in his Opp. vol. m.-A so in 2d vol. ot 
Graoius T cited § 197).-Cf. Beaufort, Repubhque Romaine. 2d vol. 

$ 262. In private affairs the accusation was commonly called pe- 
titio; the plaintiff petitor, and the defendant, is unde petitur. The 
plaintiff could compel' the other party to appear at court, not usually 
however without calling in some one as witness to the step (antesta- 
tio) If the defendant chose not to go, he must give security or bail 
(satisdare). The plaintiff himself stated the matter or object of his 
complaint (causa); if the plaintiff denied the thing charged it led to 
a formal trial (actio).— There were two principal kinds of actions, 
viz. actiones in personam, which related to the fulfilment of obligations, 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. OFFENCES AND PUNISHMENTS. 



523 



and actiones in rem, which related to the recovery of property in pos- 
session of another. The proceeding, in a case of the latter kind, was 
termed vindicatio. All private trials belonged to the jurisdiction of 
the Prcetor. 

1." The Prsetor named the judges, who, when the dispute was about the re- 
stitution of property, were called recupalores. Often for this purpose a hundred 
or a hundred and live were appointed from the different tribes, called cen- 
lumvirale judicium. The judges or jury, as well as the litigating parties, were 
put under oath. Then the action was carried forward orally, and after ex- 
amination, judgment was pronounced, and provision made for its execution. 
It may be important to distinguish judges properly so called from arbi- 
trators {arbitri causarum), who made awards in cases, which were not to be 
decided on the exact principles of law but to be adjusted by accommodation, 
or by their best discretion ; such cases were termed causa Jidei bonce et arbi- 
trarice. 

2. u The usual places for trials were, in public cases, the Forum or the Cam- 
pus Martius, and in private, other free places, or more frequently the Basilica. 
(Cf. P. V. § 61.) 

§ 263. Among the principal penal offences, which demanded pub- 
lic trials, were the following ; Crimen majestatis, or an offence 
against the dignity and security of the state and its magistrates; per- 
duellionis, high treason against the freedom of the people ; peculatus, 
embezzling in any way the public property, sacrilege, counterfeiting 
money, or falsifying records ; ambitus, bribery or corruption of the 
people to procure votes in an election ; repetundarum, extortion, when 
a Praetor, Gluffistor, or other provincial magistrate made unjust exac- 
tions, for which compensation was demanded ; vis publicce, public 
violence, including conspiracies, personal assaults, and various simi- 
lar offences. — There were various more private offences of which cog- 
nizance was taken in public trials ; e. g. crimen inter sicarios, assas- 
sination ; crimen veneficii, poison ; parricidii, parricide ; falsi, forg- 
ery; adulterii & plagii, adultery and man-stealing. 

§ 264. The punishments inflicted on those found guilty were 
various. The following were the principal ; damnum, mulcta, fines, 
which at first never exceeded thirty oxen and two sheep, or the value 
of them, but afterwards were increased ; vincula, imprisonment with 
bonds, which were cords or chains upon the hands and feet ; verbera, 
blows, inflicted on the free-born with the rods of the Lictors (virgis), 
upon slaves with whips (flagellis) ; lalio, satisfaction in kind, i. e. 
the punishment similar to the injury, e. g. an eye for an eye ; infamia 
or ignominia, disgrace or infamy, which generally rendered the per- 
son incapable of enjoying public offices ; exilium, banishment, which 
was either voluntary or inflicted, and was attended with a deprivation 
of all honors. When the person was banished to no particular place, 
he was said to be int erd ictus ; when banished to a certain place, re- 




524 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Icgalus. The form termed deportatio was the most severe, as the 
persons were then sent into perpetual exile in distant and desolate 
places or islands. Two other punishments should be noticed, servi- 
lus, slavery, into which offenders of a certain class were sold ; and 
mors, death, inflicted for heinous crimes. 

The modes of inflicting death were various. Slaves were usually crucified 
{craci affigere) ■ others it was customary at first to hang {arbori suspender e), after- 
wards to behead (securi percutere), or to strangle in prison (strangulate), or to 
throw from the Tarpeian rock (de saxo Tarpeio dejicere), or east into the sea or 
a river (projicere in projluenLcm). The latter mode was used in the case of par- 
ricide, or the murder of any near relative. The criminal was first whipped, 
then sewed up in a leather sack (cuktis), sometimes along with a serpent, or an 
ape, or a dog and a cock, and then thrown into the water. — The bodies of exe- 
cuted criminals were not burned or buried, unless, as was sometimes permitted, 
their friends purchased the privilege of doing it ; but were usually exposed be- 
fore the prison, on certain stairs (scales) called gemonia, or gemonii gradus ; 
down which they were dragged with a hook and cast into the Tiber. The in- 
nocent victims of popular violence or civil war were sometimes thrust down 
these steps of infamy (Tac. Hist. iii. 74]. — Three other modes of punishment 
were also practiced, especially under the emperors; ad ludos, in which the crim- 
inals were obliged to fight with wild beasts in the amphitheatre (bestiarii), or 
with each others as gladiators; ad metalla, in which the offenders were con- 
demned to work in mines ; ad bestias, in which they were thrown to wild beasts 
to be devoured. These forms were often inflicted on those, who embraced and 
would not renounce Christianity. There was also another form, still more hor- 
rid, which was to wrap the offender in a garment covered with pitch and set it 
on fire ; thus Nero murdered the Christians, on whom he charged his own crime 
of burning Rome. 

§ 265. The system of laws was in general very loose and inde- 
finite in the early times of Rome. The kings, and likewise the .first 
consuls, decided all cases according to their own judgment, or accord- 
ing to usage in similar instances. The abuses growing out of this 
state of things occasioned, according to the common accounts, the 
sending of three commissioners, B. C. 455, to Athens and Sparta in 
order to collect the laws of Solon and Lycurgus. They returned 
B. C. 453, and in the following year ten patricians were appointed 
to devise and propose a body of laws. The laws proposed by the 
decemviri (§ 249) were embodied at first in ten, then in twelve tables, 
and by the people in the Comitia Centuriata were adopted and estab- 
lished as the ground and rule of all judicial decisions. — To these were 
afterwards added many particular laws, which were usually named 
from their authors, the consuls, dictators, or tribunes who proposed 
them ; e. g. Lex Atinia, Lex Furia, &c. ; also from their contents ; 
e. g. Leges agrarice, frumentarice, &c. 

1." It was necessary, that every law proposed for enactment should be previ- 
ously posted up in public for 17 days {per trinundinum), and then be submitted 
to the decision of the people in the Comma centuriata, that they might adopt it 
(legem jubere, accipere), or reject it (legem a?itiquare). When a previous law 
was abolished, they were said to abrogate it (legem abrogare). Laws thus adopt- 
ed were engraved on brass, and lodged in the archives. Under the emperors 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. LAWS. SUPPLY OF GRAIN. 525 

their own ordinances had the force of laws, called Constitutiones principales, and 
including not only their formal edicts (edicta), but answers to petitions (re- 
scripta), judicial decisions (decreta), and commands to officers (mandala). 

2. Under Tarquin the Proud a collection of the Roman laws and usages was 
made by Papirius, which received the name of Jus Papirianum. — Of the laws 
of the Twelve Tables, highly lauded by ancient writers, and said by Cicero to be 
more valuable than whole libraries of philosophers, a few fragments have been 
preserved (cf. P. I. § 113, 114). — Besides these collections, and the constitutiones 
and leges above named, Roman law included also the plebiscita (§ 259), the sena- 
tusconsulta (§ 254), and the jus honorarium (§ 243). It is obvious therefore that 
in the lapse of years the system of laws must have become exceedingly cumbrous 
and perplexing. The emperor Justinian first reduced the Roman law to some- 
thing like order ; employing for the purpose the celebrated Tribonian, assisted 
by the most eminent lawyers of the empire. 

'Justinian first published a collection of the imperial constitutions, A. D. 529, 
called Codex Justinianus. — Then he ordered a collection to be made of every 
thing that was useful in the writings of the lawyers before this time, which are 
said to have amounted to 2000 volumes. This work was executed by Tribonian 
and sixteen associates, in three years, although they had been allowed ten years, 
to finish it. It was published A. 533, under the title of Digests or Pandects, 
(pandectce vel digesta). — The same year were published the elements or first 
principles of the Roman law, composed by three men, Tribonian, Theophilus, 
and Dorotheus, and called the Institutes (instituta). — As the first code did not ap- 
pear sufficiently complete, and contained several things inconsistent with the 
Pandects, Tribonian and four other men were employed to correct it. A new 
code, therefore, was published 534, called Codex repetitcs prcclectionis, and the for- 
mer code declared to be of no further authority.— But when new questions arose, 
not contained in any of the above-mentioned books, new decisions became neces- 
sary to supply what was wanting, or correct what was erroneous. These were 
afterwards published under the title of Novels {novellce sc. constitutiones), not 
only by Justinian, but also by some of the succeeding emperors. So that the 
Corpus Juris Romani Civilis is made up of these books, the Institutes, Pandects 
or Digests, Code and Novels. 

The Justinian code of law was universally received through the Roman 
world. It flourished in the east until the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, 
A. D. 1453. In the west it was in great measure suppressed by the irruption of the 
barbarous nations, till it was revived in Italy in the 12th century by Irnerius, who 
had studied at Constantinople, and opened a school at Bologna under the auspices 
of Frederic I. Emperor of Germany. He was attended by an incredible number 
of students from all parts, who propagated the knowledge of the Roman civil 
law through most countries of Europe ; where it still continues to be of great 
authority in courts of justice, and seems to promise, at least in point of legis- 
lation, the fulfilment of the famous prediction of the ancient Romans concerning 
the eternity of their empire.' (Adam.) — J. A. Bachil Historia Jurispr. Rom. (ed. 
A. C. Stockmann.) Leipz. 1807. 8. Cf. Schazll, Hist. "Litt. Gr. vol. vii. p. 214.— 
Especially, Gibbon's Dec. and Fall &c. Ch. xiv. 

§ 266. One thing especially noticeable in the legislation and reg- 
ular policy of the Romans was their care to provide sufficient sup- 
plies of grain. A general scarcity, as in the year B. C. 440 and at 
other times, occasioned the appointment of a special officer to attend 
to the subject, called Prcefectus annontz, although the iEdiles had 
previously been charged with this care, and it continued afterwards 
to be a duty of their office (§ 244). Augustus ordained, that two men 
should be annually elected to perform this duty, duumviri dividundo 
frumento. The annual contributions in grain, which were exacted 
of the provinces, served likewise to prevent the occurrence of a scar- 
city of bread, and the provincial officers, especially the Quaestors 



526 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

(^ 24(5), were required to attend carefully to the business. — In this 
respect, Egypt was the most productive province, and it was on ac- 
count of its grain, that the annual voyage was made by the Alexan- 
drine fleet, with which the African fleet was afterwards joined. The 
distribution of grain among the people, at a low rate, was practiced in 
Rome from the earliest times. 

$ 267. The sources of income to the Roman treasury (wrarium), 
and afterwards to the imperial exchequer (fiscus), were the tributa, 
taxes imposed on the citizens according to their property, or on the 
provinces as an annual tribute, and the vectigalia, which included all 
the other forms of taxes. The latter were let by auction (locabantur 
sub hasta). Those who hired or farmed them were called publicani, 
the rent or hire paid being called publicum ; they were usually Ro- 
man knights, who of course possessed property, and on taking the 
lease advanced a large sum, or gave landed securities (prccdes). 

Leases of the revenues of whole kingdoms and provinces were 
often taken by several knights associated, who had in Rome a super- 
intendent of the concern (magister societatis publicanorum), with a 
subordinate one in each province or region (promagister), and a 
multitude of subalterns'to collect the revenue, keep the accounts &c. 

There were three principal kinds or branches of the vectigalia ; the 
portorium, duties on exports and imports, the person taking lease of 
which was called manceps portuum ; the decuma, tithes or tenth parts 
of the produce ; and the scriptura, or pasture-tax, paid for feeding cattle 
on the public lands. There were also taxes on mines (especially the 
silver mines of Spain), and on salt, which yielded considerable reve- 
nue. Less important were the taxes on roads, on the value of freed 
slaves (vicesima, a twentieth), on aqueducts, on artisans, and the like. 

See D. H. Hegewisch's histor. Versuch ueber die Rcemischen Finanzen. Altona 
1804. 8. — R. Bosse's Grundzuege des Finanzwesens im Roem. Staate. Braunsch- 
weig 1803, 4. 2 Bde. 8. — — After the conquest of Macedonia the revenues from 
the provinces became so great, that the taxes previously assessed on Roman citi- 
zens were abolished. They were renewed again by Augustus, and continued 
by his successors. Caracalla bestowed the name and privilege of Roman citi- 
zens on all the free inhabitants of the empire, in order to increase the income 
from these taxes ; this was done without lessening the taxes levied on them as 
provincial subjects. — Cf. Gibbon, ch. vi. xvii. — The publicans so often mentioned 
in the N. Testament were of the class of subaltern collectors above described, 
who were guilty of great extortion in all the provinces. 

§ 268. Although commerce could not flourish much at Rome in 
early times, when the spirit of war and conquest engrossed every 
thing, yet there existed a body of merchants, who were Roman citi- 
zens. The Roman commerce was also extended, on the expulsion of 
the kings, by a treaty with the Carthaginians. Yet commercial pur- 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. COMMERCE AND ARTS. 527 

suits were regarded as unbecoming for the higher classes, who never- 
theless covertly and through agents not unfrequently engaged in them 
and indulged in speculations. They did this especially in connection 
with the slave-trade, which was very lucrative. 

I." The merchants at Rome were styled mercatores, those abroad in the pro- 
vinces, negotiators. There were also brokers and bankers (argentarii and mensa- 
rii), and contractors of various kinds, besides the publicani mentioned in the pre- 
ceding section, whose contracts may be viewed as a sort of commercial transac- 
tions. Yet Rome never acquired a high rank among the states of antiquity in 
point of commerce. 

2. M Other trades were still less reputable than commerce. The mechanics 
and artisans were slaves, or foreigners, although they sometimes acquired Ro- 
man citizenship. Under Numa there were formed certain corporations of them, 
or colleges (collegia), which afterwards became more respectable and numerous. 
Of this kind were the collegia fabrorum, tignariorum, dendrophororum, sagario- 
rum, tabulariorum &c. The overseer of such a body was called prcefectus ; they 
had also their de cur tones and magistri, whose office was usually for five years. 
They performed work for the state, or for individual citizens, who were not able 
to hold slaves. 

§ 269. Agriculture was in much higher estimation; and the fields 
of the wide Roman territory, as well as those taken in war, were 
chiefly possessed by respectable Roman citizens. Many noble Ro- 
mans lived upon their own lands, and made the cultivation and im- 
provement of them a special study. The ornamenting of their es- 
tates proved, in the flourishing periods of the state, an important part 
of Roman luxury. 

On the agriculture, commerce, and other arts among the Romans, see Gibbon, 
ch. ii. — Cf. G. Pancirollus, De Corporibus Artificum, in 2d vol. of Grcevius, 
cited § 197. 

We will here insert a brief account of the implements and objects of agri- ' 
culture among the Romans. — (1) Of the former, the plough, aratrum, ranks first ; 
its chief parts were the temo, beam, to which the jugum or joke for the oxen was 
attached ; stiva, plough-tail or handle, having on its end a cross-bar (manicula) 
of which the ploughman took hold to direct the instrument; buris, a crooked 
piece of wood between the beam and ploughshare; dentale, or dens, the piece of 
timber which was joined to the buris and received on its end the share; vomer, 
the share; awes, affixed to the buris, and answering to mould-boards to throw 
the earth back ; culler, the coulter. The rallum was a staff used for cleaning the 
plough, or beating off clods from it. In some ploughs wheels were attached; 
but the plough most commonly used was more simple, having neither coulter 

nor mould-boards. Other instruments were the ligo, spade ; rostrum, rake ; 

sarculum, hoe or weeding-hook ; bidens, a sort of hoe, with two hooked iron 
teeth; occa. and irpex, different kinds of harrows; marra, a mattock or hoe for 

cutting out weeds; dolabra, a sort of adz; securis, axe; falx, pruning knife. 

The implements for beating out grain were the perlicce, a sort of flails; traha, a 
sort of sledge; tribula, a board or beam, set with stones or pieces of iron, with a 
great weight laid upon it, and drawn by yoked cattle. These were all used upon 
the threshing-floor, area, which was a round space, elevated in the centre, some- 
times paved with stone, but commonly laid with clay carefully smoothed and 
hardened. Sometimes the threshing was done merely by driving oxen or horses 
over the grain spread on this floor, as among the Greeks and Jews. — —(2) The 
grain chiefly cultivated was wheat, but of various kinds; triticum was a common 
name; far is put for any kind of corn, and farina for meal. Barley, hordeum, 
and oats, avena, were also raised. Flax, linum, was an article cultivated consid- 
erably. Meadows, prata, were cultivated for mowing ; they seem to have yield- 
ed two crops of hay, foznum. The breeding of cattle was an object of atten- 



. r >28 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

tion, usually included tinder husbandry: chiefly, oxen, horses, sheep and goats. 
Much care was also bestowed on bees (apes). — Trees also, both forest, fruit and 
ornamental, received their share of attention. The Romans were acquainted 
with most of the various methods now practiced for propagating the different 
species and varieties. — But the culture of the vine finally took the precedence of 
all other cultivation (§ 331'). (3) The carriages used for agricultural pur- 
poses were chiefly the plaustra, or vekec, which had usually two wheels, some- 
times four, and were drawn commonly by oxen, but also by asses and horses. 
These often had wheels without spokes, called tympana. The body of these car- 
riages (and indeed of any carriage) was termed capsum, and the draught-tree 
or beam, tcrno. The jug-am was the yoke, fastened to the beam and also to the 
cattle by thongs, lora subjugia. — Pack-horses (caballi) were sometimes used for 
carrying burdens ; more frequently asses or mules, called clitellarii, from the 
packages (elitelltc) on their backs. 

We may remark in this connection, that the Romans had various carriages 
for convenience and amusement. The chariot, currus, was the most common ; 
always with two wheels, but with either two, three or four, or even six horses. 
Those with two were termed bigcz ; those with four quadrigm ; in the races, 
the horses were always yoked abreast.— The pilentumwas an easy soft vehicle 
with four wheels, used in conveying women to public games and rites. The 
carpentum was a carriage with two wheels and an arched covering. The thensa 
was a splendid carriage with four wheels and four horses, in which the images 
of the gods were taken to the pulvinaria in the Circus, at the Circensian games 
<'§ 233). The cisium was a vehicle with two wheels, drawn by three mules, used 
chiefly for traveling. The rheda was a larger traveling carriage with four 
wheels. The horses were guided and stimulated by the bit {frcenum) and reins 
(habena) and whip ( flagelluni). — Conveyance was also made on horseback, in 
which case the spur, calcar, was the stimulus. Saddles and stirrups seem also to 
have been used (cf. § 329. 3). 

§ 270. Here will be the place to notice what is most important re- 
specting the nature, and value (1) of the circulating coin of the Ro- 
mans. Servius Tullius was the first who caused money to be coined 
(P. I. $ 134), by stamping on brass the image of cattle ( pecudes, 
whence the term pecunia). Previously, exchanges were made by bar- 
ter, or by means of uncoined metal. The most common brass coin, 
the as, was originally a Roman pound in weight, and was divided like 
that into twelve ounces (nncice). Two undo, made a sextans, three a 
quadrans, four a triens, five a quincunx, six a semis, seven septunx, 
eight bes (bis triens), nine dodrans, ten decunx, and eleven deunx. 
Afterwards the as was gradually reduced (2) to an ounce in quantity, 
and finally even to a half-ounce. Silver coin was stamped first B. C. 
269 ; the most common coins were the Denarius, Quinarius and Ses- 
tertius. The Denarius was originally reckoned as equal to ten 
pounds of brass, and marked X, or X, but after the reduction of the as 
to an ounce B. C. 217, it passed as equal to sixteen asses. The pro- 
per value of it also varied at different times. The Quinarius was half 
the Denarius, and marked V. The Sestertius was a fourth part of 
the Denarius, and originally equal to 2 1-2 asses (hence its name se- 
mis tertius), and marked LLS, i. e. Libra Libra Semis, abbreviated 
IIS or HS. After the reduction of the as to one ounce, the Sestertius 
passed for 4 asses. The Sestertius was often called Nummus. — Gold 



CIVIL AFFAIRS. MONEY. SYSTEM OF NOTATION. 529 

coin was first stamped at Rome B. C. 207 ; the most common coin 
was the Aureus or Solidus, equal in weight to two Denarii, and a Q,ui- 
narius in value to 25 Denarii. 

(1) See the works of Hcgcwisch and Bossc, cited § 267. — (2) Pliny, Nat. Hist. 

xxxiii. 3. The temple of Juno Moneta was the place of the Roman mint, 

where their money was coined ; the term moneta (whence money) referred origi- 
nally to the image, or stamp, impressed on the coin and reminding one of the per- 
son or thing represented. The mint was under the care of the Triumviri mone- 
tales ; the coins were examined by the Nummularii. The impression of the As 
or Assipondium was a Janus bifrous on one side and on the reverse the rostrum 
of a ship ; on the Semis and Quadrans (called also Sembella and Terwucius) was 
a boat instead of the rostrum. The silver coins Denarius, Quinarius and Sester- 
tius, had on one side a chariot with two or four horses, and on the reverse the 
head of Roma with a helmet. — The value of the Denarius was about 15 cents, 
as deduced from the experiments of Letronne who carefully "weighed 1350 consu- 
lar denarii. {Conger's Essay.) — The ratio of gold to silver in the republic was 
about 10 to 1. 

§ 271. The Romans usually reckoned by Sestertii. The sum of 
1000 Sestertii they called Sesiertium ; duo Sestertia, e. g. signifies 
the same as bis mille sestertii. When the sum was ten hundred thou- 
sand or over, they used the word Sesterlium in the case required, pre- 
fixing only the numeral adverb for the first number, ten, twenty &c. 
and leaving the hundred to be supplied by the mind; e. g. Decies 
Sestertium signified 10,00,000 Sestertii, Quadragies Sesiertium sig- 
nified 40,00,000, or 4 million Sestertii. — They sometimes reckoned 
by talents, in case of large sums. The talentum was equal to 60 
pounds (Librae). 

1. Kennet gives the following rule for interpreting the Latin expressions for 
sums of money; if a numeral agree in case, number and gender with Sestertius, 
then it denotes precisely and simply so many sesterces ; if a numeral of another 
case be joined with the genitive plural Sestertium, it denotes so many thousand 
sesterces ; if a numeral adverb be joined to the same, or be used alone, it denotes 
so many hundred thousand sesterces. 

We have on record some statements, from which we may form a notion of the 
Roman wealth and luxury. Crassus, for instance, is said to have possessed 
lands to the value of bis millies, i. e. by the above rule, 2000 X 100.000= 200,000,- 
000 sesterces; taking the value of the sesterce obtained as mentioned in the pre- 
ceding section (15-:-4= about 3 cents 8 mills), we have 3.3X 200.000.000-:-1000= 
$7,600,000, for the value of the land owned by Crassus ; he is said to have had, 
in slaves, buildings, furniture and money, as much more.— Caligula laid out upon 
a single supper centies, i.e. 100x100,000 sesterces= 3.8x 10.000.000-:-1000= 
$330.000. — Cleopatra is said to have swallowed, at a feast with Antony, a pearl 
worth the same sum, centies HS. — Cicero is said to have had a table, which cost 
centum sestertium, i. e. lOOx 1.000 sesterces= $3800. — Cf. Adam, Rom. Ant. (ed. 
Boyd) Edinb. 1834. p. 432. 

2. In the Roman system of notation seven letters of the alphabet were em- 
ployed for expressing numbers; viz. I for 1, Vfor5, X for 10, L for 50, Cfor 100, 
D for 500, and M for 1000. Instead of D, they sometimes used iC to signify 
500; and instead of M, they also used H or CIC, or OO , to signify 1000. Some- 
times a line drawn over a letter indicated that it was to be multiplied by one 
thousand; e.g. x stood for 10,000 ; l, 50,000; c , 100,000.— Combinations of these 
letters usually signified the sum of the numbers represented by the several letters 
separately; e.g. VIII, 8; XV, 15; LX, 60; CX, 110. But when I, V, or X 
was placed before a letter representing a larger number, the combination ex- 
pressed the difference; e. g. IV, 4; XL, 40; XC, 90; and when to IC another C 

67 



530 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



was annexed it indicated a multiplication by 10 ; e. g. IC, 500 ; ICC, 5000; ICCC, 
50,000; in order to signify the same multiplication of CIC, a C was also prefixed 
as well as Q annexed; e.g. CIq, 1000; CCIqq, 10,000; CCCIqoo, 100,000. 
For any multiple, however, of this last, 100,000, the Romans did not employ let- 
ters; but prefixed to this expression a numeral adverb; as bis, ter, decies &c. to 
signify 200,000, or 300,000, or 10,00.000 &c. 

§ 272. It may be in place lo speak here of the modes of acquiring or trans- 
ferring property {res privata). The following may be named ; (1) Mancipalio, 
when a regular compact or bargain was made, and the transfer was attended 
with certain formalities used among Roman citizens only ; (2) Cessiu in jure, 
when a person gave up his effects to another before the Praetor, or ruler of a pro- 
vince; chiefly done by debtors to creditors; (3) Usucapio, when one obtained a 
thing by having had it in possession and use {usus auctoritate) ; (4) Emptio sub 
corona, the purchasing of captives in war, who were sold at special auction, 
with garlands {corona) on their heads; (5j Audio, public sale or auction; (6) 
Adjudicatio, which referred strictly either to dividing an inheritance among co- 
heirs, or dividingstock among partners, or settling boundaries between neigh- 
bors, but is applied also to any assignment of property by sentence of a judge or 
arbiter ; (7) Donatio, when any thing was given to one for a present. Property 
was also acquired by inheritance, and this was either (1) by bequest from a tes- 
tator, who could name his heirs in a written will (testamcnto) or in a declaration 
{vica voce) before witnesses, or (21 by law, which assigned the property of one 
dying intestate to his children and after them to the nearest relatives on the fa- 
ther's side. 

§ 273. The public sale of property (audio, also called proscriptio) 
was very common among the Romans. In the place where such sale 
was held, a spear was set up, whence the phrase sub hasta venire or 
vendere. A notice or advertisement of the goods to be sold (tabula 
proscriptionis, tabula auctionaria) was previously suspended upon a 
pillar in some public place. Permission for such sales must be ob- 
tained of the city Pi'Eetor. The superintendent of the sales was term- 
ed magister auctionum ; in cases where the sale was to meet the de- 
mands of debt, he was selected by the creditors, and was generally the 
one who had the highest claim against the debtor. — The sale of con- 
fiscated goods was termed seclio ; the money arising therefrom went 
to the public treasury. 

§ 274. The principal Roman measures of extent and capacity 
should be explained here ; although the best view of such a subject is 
obtained by means of tables. 

\. u The measures of length and surface were the following ; digitus, a fin- 
ger's breadth, 4 of which made a palrnus, or hand's breadth, and 6 of which a pes 
or foot ; 5 feet were equal to a passus or pace, and 125 of the latter formed a sta- 
dium, and 1,000 of them, or 8 stadia, a milliare.—ln land measures the following 
were the most common denominations; jugerum, what could be ploughed in a 
day by one yoke (jugo) of cattle, 240 feet long, 120-broad, or containing 28,800 
square feet; actus quadrat/us, equal to half the jugerum, being 120 feet square 
and containing 14,400 feet ; clima, equal to an eighth of the jugerum, 60 feet 
square, containing 3,600 feet. 

The smallest measure of capacity for liquid and for dry things was the ligula, 
4 of which made a cyalhus, and 6 an acetabulum ; the acetabulum was the half of 
a quartarius, which was the half of a hemina, and the hemina half of a sextarius, 
nearly equal to our pint. For dry things there was also the modius, equal to 16 
sextarii. In liquids the sextarius was a sixth of the congius, 4 congii made an 
urna, two urnae an amphora, and 20 amphora? a culeus. 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. AUTHORS ON THE SUBJECT. 531 

2. Various methods have been adopted to determine the value of the Roman 
foot, which is important in learning the values of the several measures of length, 
extent and capacity. 1. One means is furnished by specimens of the Roman foot 
on tomb-stones; there are four of these, preserved in the Capitoline museum. 

2. Several foot-rules also have been discovered. The foot-rules were bars of 
brass or iron of the length of a pes, designed for use in actual measurements. 

3. The length of the Roman foot has likewise been deduced from the distances 
between the milestones on the Appian way. 4. Attempts have been made to 
ascertain the Roman foot likewise from the congius, the measure of capacity, 
of which two are yet in preservation, one at Rome, the other at Paris ; the solid 
contents of the congius are said to have been the cube of half a pes. From the 
same measure, it may be remarked in passing, there have been attempts to de- 
duce the value of the Roman Libra, as the congius is said to have held 10 pounds 
of wine or water. 5. The actual measurement of ancient buildings now standing 
at Rome is a method, which is thought most satisfactory. By these various 
methods the Roman foot is made nearly equal to 12 inches. — Conger, before 
cited. 

Gassendi's experiment to ascertain the Libra from the Congius is related in Diss. I. appended to 
vol. Hi. of GogueVs Origin of Laws. &c— Among the authorities on the Roman money, weights and 
measures, the following may be named. G. Budceus, De Asse and partibus ejus. Libri V. Lugd. 1551. 
8.— J. F. Gronov, De Sestertiis. L. B. 1691,— B. Beverini Syntagma dc ponderibus et mensuris Rom. 
Leipz. 1714. 8.— The treatises oCPcetus and others in the 11th vol. of Grcevius cited § 197,— Gf. Hooper, 
State of the Ancient Measures, the Attic, Roman and Jewish, with an Appendix concerning the old 
English Money &c. (publ. 1721). Also in his Works. Oxf. 1757. fol,— J. Greaves, Description of the Ro- 
man Foot and Denarius.— J. Arbuthnot, Tables of Ancient Coins &c. Lond. 1727. 4.— Oflater authors in 
Metrology, Letronne and Wurm are most eminent. Cf. Bouillet's Dictionnaire Classique; in which 
are good tables, as there are also in Conger s Essay, of the Greek and Roman weights and measures. 



(3) Affairs of War. 

§ 275. The Romans were of all the nations of antiquity pre- 
eminently warlike ; and hy an uninterrupted series of great military 
enterprises made a rapid and remarkable advancement in power and 
dominion. Hence an acquaintance with what pertains to their mili- 
tary antiquities must aid in forming a just idea of their character and 
the original sources of their greatness. This knowledge is to he drawn 
from their chief historians as the primary source, particularly from 
the commentaries of Julius Caesar, and the historical works of Livy 
and Tacitus, to which we may add the Greek writers on Roman 
history, Polybius and Appian, on account of their constant reference 
to military affairs. Besides these sources, there are the Roman 
writers, who have made it their chief object to describe the Roman 
art of war in its various particulars, viz. Hyginus, Frontinus, and 
Vegetius. It is from these sources that those, who have formed treat- 
ises and manuals of Roman antiquities, have derived their materials 
on this branch of the subject. 

A good manual on this branch of antiquities is the following; Nast & Rmsch, 
Rcemische Kriegsalterthuemer, aus echten Q,uellen geschcepft. Halle 1782. 8. — 
The 10th vol. of Gravius (cited § 197) consists of treatises by R. H. Schelius and 
others, on the military affairs of the Romans. — Cf. also RoUin, on the Ait mili- 
tary, in work cited P. II. §296.— Gibbon's Rom. Emp. Ch. i. 



532 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

§ 276. On account of the frequent changes in the military system 
of the Romans i# the successive periods and revolutions of their 
history, the antiquarian must in treating of this suhject pay constant 
attention to the order of time. Of the Roman art of war in its earliest 
state we have hut imperfect accounts ; but we know that the warlike 
spirit of the nation showed itself under the kings, and gave no dubious 
intimations of their future career. In the division of the people into 
three tribes, made by Romulus, a thousand men for foot soldiers, and 
a hundred for horsemen were taken from each tribe, and thus origin- 
ated the first Roman legion. The 300 horsemen, called celeres, and 
constituting in time of peace a body-guard of the king, were dis- 
banded by Numa, but re-organized by Tullus Hostilius, and increased 
by the addition of 300 noble Albani. The whole number thus made 
was doubled by Tarquinius Priscus, and the body at last comprised 
2,400 men. 

§ 277. No one could be a soldier under 17, and all between 17 
and 45 were enrolled among the class of younger men, and liable to 
service ; while those over 45 were ranked among the elder men, ex- 
cused from military duty. They were always received to service 
under a formal oath (sacramentum). The regular time of service 
was 16 years for footsoldiers, and 10 for horsemen ; it was not custom- 
ary, however, to serve this number of years in succession, and who- 
ever, at the age of 50, had not served the prescribed number of cam- 
paigns, was still excused from the rest. Persons of no property (ca- 
pite censi) were not included in the rule of requisition as to service, 
because, having nothing to lose, they were not supposed to possess 
sufficient bravery and patriotism. In protracted wars the time of 
service was sometimes extended four years longer, and under the 
emperors 20 years became the regular period, except for the imperial 
guard, who were required to serve but 16. As all the soldiers were 
Roman citizens and free-born, the rank of soldier was in high estima- 
tion ; and their peculiar rights and privileges were termed jus mili- 
tia. Freed men could be admitted only into the naval service- — In \ 
the earliest times the Roman order of battle resembled the Grecian 
phalanx. Subsequently it was a custom to form several platoons or 
divisions. At a later period the method of three lines was adopted, 
which will be described below (§ 286). 

$ 278. During the freedom of Rome, as has been mentioned, the 
army was usually commanded by one of the consuls. A consular 
army commonly consisted of two legions of foot, and six hundred 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. CONSULAR ARMY. MODE OF LEVY. 533 

horse, all native Romans. For two consuls a double number was re- 
quisite, 4 legions and 1,200 hundred horse. The legion contained 
originally 3,000 men, but gradually increased to 6,000, and higher ; 
in the second Punic war it consisted of 6,200 foot with 300 horse, and 
each legion had at that time six tribunes, of whom there were of 
course as many as 24 in all. These tribunes were chosen by the 
people, partly from the equites, partly from the plebeians. 

1." In cases of great urgency, those who had served their time and were over 
six and forty years of age, were yet bound to defend their country, and to fill va- 
cancies in the city legions; in such emergencies, freed men and slaves were 
sometimes enlisted. Soldiers received at such times of sudden alarm (tumultus) 
were called tumultarii, or subitarii ; those of them enlisting voluntarily were 
called volones. 

2." Entire freedom from military duty was enjoyed only by the senators, au- 
gurs and others holding a priestly office, and persons suffering some bodily weak- 
ness or defect. Remission of some part of the legal term of service was, how- 
ever, often granted as a reward of bravery; this was called vacatio honorata. 

§ 279. In the levying of the soldiers {delectus) the following were 
the usages most worthy of notice. The consuls announced by a 
herald the time of the levy [diem edicebant) ; then every citizen, liable 
to service, must appear, on peril of his property and liberty, at the 
Campus Martius ; each consul elected for himself two legions, assisted 
by the military tribunes. The common soldiers were taken from all 
the tribes, which were called successively and separately in an order 
decided by lot. Four men were selected at a time, of which the 
tribunes of each legion, in rotation, took one. Afterwards the oath of 
fidelity (sacramentum) was taken, first by the Consuls and Tribunes, 
then by the Centurions and the Decuriones, and lastly by the com- 
mon soldiers. Then the names of the latter class were placed in 
the roll of the legion, and under the emperors a mark was brand- 
ed on the right hand, that they might be recognized, if they at- 
tempted desertion. Compulsory levying, resorted to in necessities, 
was called conquisitio ; the same thing among the allies was term- 
ed conscriptio. 

§ 280. After the levy was made, the legions were directed to 
another place of assembling, in which they were formed into divi- 
sions and furnished with arms. The younger and feebler were 
placed among the light troops, velites ; the older and richer among 
the heavy-armed, to which class belonged the hastali, principes, and 
iriarii. The first were young men in the flower of life, named 
from the long spear used by them at first, and occupying the fore- 
most line in battle: the second were the men in full vigor of mid- 
dle age, standing in the second line in battle; the third the more 
advanced in age, veterans, constituting the third line in battle and 



534 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

taking thence their name. A legion, when it consisted of 3,000, 
had 1,200 hastati, 1,200 principes, and 600 triarii. The last num- 
ber always remained the same ; the two former were variously in- 
creased, and light-armed troops were added according to pleasure. 
On this occasion the colors or standards were brought forth from 
the capital and treasury, and committed to the proper officers. (Cf. 
$ 282.) 

§ 281. The subdivisions were originally manipuli, or centuries. 
containing each a hundred men ; and the leader and captain of this 
number was called Ccnturio. — When the legion was divided into 
the three ranks of the hastati, principes and triarii, each rank 
had at first fifteen maniples, and the whole legion of course forty- 
five maniples. These maniples were all equal, consisting of 60 
regular privates, two centurions, and a standard-bearer. The mani- 
ples of the hastati had 300 men of the velites, distributed equally 
among them ; to the triarii also were allowed thirty companies of 
the same ; the principes had none. 

l. u In the time of the second Punic war, the legion was divided into 30 mani- 
ples, and each of the three ranks into 10. The maniples of the triarii contained 
still the same number, 60 in each, 600 in all; those of the hastati and principes 
contained double the number, 120 men in each, 2,400 in all of both ranks; among 
these were divided 1,200 light-armed soldiers; thus making a legion of 4,200. 
Each maniple was now divided into two centuries, sometimes called ordines. The 
tenth part of a legion, three maniples of each rank, and therefore including 300 
men, was called a cohort, and from the number of men contained, tricennaria ; 
when the legion contained 4,200, the cohort had 420, and was termed quadri- 
genaria ; so also when larger, quingenaria and sezcenaria. 

2. u Each maniple had now two centurions distinguished as prior and posterior; 
and every centurion had his assistant, called uragus, subcenturio, and optio. — 
The 300 horsemen belonging to a legion were divided into 10 turmm, and each 
turma into 3 decuria, consisting of 10 horsemen, whose head or chief was called 
decurio, 

§ 282. Each maniple had its standard, placed in its midst when 
in battle. The chief standard was always in the first maniple of the 
triarii, which was styled primus pilus. The images and, figures upon 
the Roman standards were various ; but the principal standard, com- 
mon to the whole legion, was a silver eagle on a staff or pole, some- 
times holding a thunderbolt in his claws, an emblem of the Roman 
power or success. These of the infantry were usually termed signa; 
those of the cavalry, vexilla; the bearers, signiferi, or vexillarii. 

The vexillum, a flag or banner, was a square piece of cloth, hung from a bar 
fixed across a spear near its upper end. It was used sometimes for footsoldiers, 
especially for veterans, who were retained after their term of service ; these 
were by distinction called vexillarii, as they fought under this peculiar standard 
{sub vexillo) ; they were also called subsignani. On the flag were commonly 
seen the abbreviations for Senatus Populusque Romanus, or the name of the em- 
peror, in golden or purple letters. — The signum was originally a handful of hay, 
expressed by the word ?nanipidus, and it was from this circumstance that a divi- 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. STANDARDS. ARMOR. 535 

• 

sion of soldiers came to be so called. Afterwards it was a spear or staff with a 
crosspiece of wood, sometimes with the figure of a hand above it, in allusion per- 
haps to the word manipulus; having below the crosspiece a small shield, round 
or oval, sometimes two, bearing images of the gods, or emperors. Augustus in-^ 
troduced an ensign formed by fixing a globe on the head of a spear, or staff, de- 
noting the dominion of the world. — The standards and colors were regarded 
with superstitious .veneration by all classes of the army. 

Near the standard was usually the station of the musicians. — ' The Romans 
used only wind-musik in their army ; the instruments which served for that pur- 
pose may be distinguished into the tuba, the cornua, the buccjma, and the litui.-- 
The tuba is supposed to have been exactly like our trumpet, running on wider 
and wider in a direct line to the orifice. — The cornua were bent almost round; 
they owe their name and original to the horns of beasts, put to the same use in 
the ruder ages. — The buccina seem to have had the same rise, and may derive 
their name from bos and cano. It is hard to distinguish these from the cornua, 
unless they were something less, and not quite so crooked. — The litui were a 
middle kind between the cornua and tubce, being almost straight, only a little 
turning in at the top like the liiuus, or sacred rod of the augurs, whence they 
borrowed their uarne. — These instruments being all made of brass, the players 
on them went under the name of anealores, besides the particular terms of tubi- 
cines, comicines, buccinatores, &c. ; and there seems to have been a set number 
assigned to every manipulus and turma ; besides several of higher order, and 
common to the whole legion. In a battle, the former took the station by the en- 
sign and colours of their particular company or troop; the others stood near the 
chief eagle in a ring, hard by the general and prime officers ; and when the 
alarm was to be given, at the word of the general, these latter began it, and were 
followed by the common sound of the rest, dispersed through the several parts of 
the army. — Besides this classicum, or alarm, the soldiers gave a general shout 
at the first encounter, which in later ages they called barritus, from a German 
original.' {Kennet.) 

§ 283. The weapons of the soldiers differed according to the class, 
to which they belonged. The velites had a round shield (parma), 
three feet long, a spear for hurling (hasta velitaris), a helmet of ox- 
hide (cudo), or of the skin of a wild beast (galerus), and in later times 
a sword. — The hastati bore a large shield {scutum), three and a, half 
and four feet long and over, of thin boards covered with leather and 
iron-plate : a short, but stiff and pointed sword (gladius) on the right 
hip; two javelins of wood with iron points (pila), one longer and the 
other shorter; an iron or brazen helmet (galea) with a crest adorned 
with plumes (crista) ; greaves for the legs, plated with iron (ocrece), 
used in later times only for the right leg ; a coat of mail (lorica), 
formed of metal or hide, worked over with little hooks of iron, and 
reaching from the breast to the loins, or a breast-plate merely (tho- 
rax). — The pri?icipes and triarii used weapons of the same kind; 
excepting that the triarii had longer spears, called hasta longa, in 
later times lancets, and long swords, called spathte, or when of smaller 
size, semi-spatha. — The shield was marked by the name of the soldier, 
and the number of the legion and maniple, to which he belonged. 
Whoever returned from battle without his shield, forfeited his life. — 
The weapons of the cavalry were similar to the Grecian (§ 138), a 
war cap (cassis), a coat of mail, an oblong shield, greaves or boots, a 



53G ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

lance or javelin, and sword and dagger, which last was used only in 
close fight. 

§ 284. According to the common accounts the Roman soldiery- 
received no pay during the first three hundred years of the city, and 
■wages (slipendiuni) were first given to foot-soldiers B. C. 405, and'to 
horsemen three years after. Each soldier had a monthly allowance 
(dimensum) of 4 bushels of corn, and a stipend of 3 asses per day. 
The stipend was afterwards greater ; Julius Caesar doubled it, and 
under the emperors it sometimes rose still higher. The wages were 
sometimes doubled to particular soldiers or bodies of them as a re- 
ward ; such were called duplicarii. Certain days were fixed for the 
distribution of the allowance of corn. Whatever any one saved of 
his pay, was called peculium castrense ; half of which was always 
deposited with the standards, until the term of service expired. 

1." Various extraordinary rewards were given to those who distinguished 
themselves in war, called dona militaria. Donatives, donaliva, on the other 
hand, were gifts or largesses, distributed to the whole army on particular occa- 
sions, as e.g. in cases of success, when also sacrifices and games were celebrated. 
Among the rewards, golden and gilded crowns were particularly common ; as, 
the corona castrensis otvallaris to him who first entered the enemy's entrench- 
ments ; corona muralis to him who first scaled the enemy's walls ; and corona na~ 
valis for seizing a vessel of the enemy in a sea-fight ; also wreaths and crowns 
formed of leaves and blossoms; as the corona civica, of oak-leaves, conferred 
for freeing a citizen from death or captivity at the hands of the enemy; the coro- 
na obsidionalis, of grass, for delivering a besieged city, and the corona triumpha- 
lis, of laurel, worn by a triumphing general. 

2. 'There were smaller rewards (premia minora) of various kinds ; as, aspear 
without any iron on it (hastapura), a flag or banner, i. e. a streamer on the end 
of a lance or spear (vexillum) of different colours, with or without embroidery, 
trappings (phalerce), ornaments for horses, and for men, golden chains (aurem 
torques), which went round the neck, whereas the phalcrce hung down on the 
breast, bracelets (armillfB), ornaments for the arms; comicula, ornaments for the 
helmet in the form of horns, calellm or catenula, chains composed of rings ; 
whereas the torqueswere twisted (torta) like a rope ; fibula, clasps, or buckles for 
fastening a belt or garment.' (Adam.) 

§ 285. The punishments inflicted for misdemeanors and crimes 
were very severe, both in garrison and in camp. Theft, false testi- 
mony, neglect of watch, leaving a post assigned, or cowardly flight, 
was visited with the punishment, called fustuarium, in which, on a 
signal from a tribune, the whole legion fell to beating the offender 
with sticks, usually until his death ; if he escaped, his disgrace was 
scarcely preferable to death. When a whole maniple had fled, this 
punishment was inflicted on every tenth man, being taken by lot, and 
the rest were chased from the camps, and received only barley in- 
stead of wheat for their allowance. — Often disgrace was inflicted in 
other ways, as by loss of pay (stipendio privari), or loss of rank, e. g. 
when a soldier of the triarii was degraded into the hastali. — The 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. ORDER OF BATTLE. 537 

tribunes could inflict punishments only after investigation of the case ; 
the general, on the other hand, could immediately and absolutely pro- 
nounce sentence, even to death. The latter was the sentence for wil- 
ful disobedience of orders, for insurrection, and desertion. The mode 
of inflicting death was not uniform. 

§ 286. Of the Roman order of battle (acies) a general idea may 
be given here ; a minute detail would belong rather to a system of 
tactics. The legions were commonly ranged in three lines, the fore- 
most occupied by the hastati, the next by the principes, and the last 
by the triarii. Between each two maniples a space was left, so that 
the maniples of the second line stood against the spaces of the first, 
and the maniples of the third against the spaces of the second. These 
spaces were termed recta via, and were as broad as the maniples 
themselves. 

l. w This arrangement was called quincunx. It had the advantage both, of 
stability and of being easily changed; it avoided all confusion and interrup- 
tion, and was especially put in opposition to the Grecian phalanx (§ 142), 
which it easily could penetrate and roule. Against a violent attack it was 
therefore often, in the anticipation of an onset of the enemy, changed so as to 
close up the spaces. But in this form of arrangement the soldiers were mutually 
sustained and relieved by being in different lines, and by means of their sep- 
arate maniples could easily change the positions for attack and defence. Orig- 
inally the lines were ranged six feet apart, and the men in the maniples three 
feet from each other; in later times the space was diminished till the soldier 
had scarcely more than room for his shield. 

2. There were, other methods (§ 295) of drawing up the army for battle, 
occasionally used ; we mention here the cuneus, in which the army was arranged 
in the form of a wedge in order to pierce and break the enemy's lines; the 
globus in which the troops were collected into a close firm round body, usu- 
ally adopted in case of extremity ; the for/ex, in which the army took a form 
somewhat like that of an open pair of sheers or the letter V, in order to re- 
ceive the enemy when coming in the shape of a wedge ; the serra, in which 
the lines were extended, and in making the engagement some parts of the 
front advanced before the other parts, thus presenting an appearance a little 
like the teeth of a saw. 

§ 287. The first attack in a battle was customarily made by the 
light-armed troops, which in earlier times were ranged in front of 
the first line ; but afterwards Avere stationed in the intervals between 
the maniples, behind them, or on the wings, and made attack in con- 
nection with the hastati. A considerable part of the light-armed 
were stationed behind the triarii, to support them. The attack com- 
menced when the legion was at the distance of an arrow-shot from 
the enemy. As the light-armed now discharged their arrows, the 
hastati advanced, hurled their javelins, and fought with their swords. 
If their enemy were not forced to give way, or they were themselves 
pressed hard, the signal was given for retreat ; on which the light- 
armed and the hastati drew back through the intervals of the second 
line, and the principes advanced to the fight. In the mean while the 
68 



538 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

triarii continued in a stooping posture, leaning on their right knee 
with the left foot advanced, covering themselves with their shields, 
and having their spears stuck in the ground with the points upwards; 
the line thus presented the appearance of a sort of wall. If the prin- 
cipes were compelled to retreat, the triarii then rose, and both the 
principes and the hastati being received into their intervals, renewed 
the action with close ranks (compressis ordinibus) and all three in a 
body [uno continente agmine). This united attack was then sustain- 
ed by the light-armed troops in the rear of the whole. » 

§ 288. Of the light-armed troops a few things further may be no- 
ticed. They were commonly called velites, in early times, however, 
rorarii and accensi, sometimes also adscriptitii, optiones and feren- 
tarii. They carried no shields, but slings, arrows, javelins, and 
swords. They were usually divided into fifteen companies (expediti 
manipuli, or expedites- cohortes), and besides these there were 300 
usually distributed among the hastati of the old legions. The light- 
armed often sat behind the horsemen, and when these approached the 
enemy, sprang off and sought to wound and push them by the javelin 
and sword. 

1." They were sometimes distributed among the maniples of the three lines, 
about forty being joined to each maniple. — They were of three different classes, 
designated by their principal weapon ; jaculatores, who hurled the javelin ; sa- 
gittarii, who shot the arrow ; and funditores, who cast stones or balls with the 
sling. There were also afterwards tragularii and balistarii, who threw stones 
by the aid of machines. 

2. M Those called antesignani were not "the light-armed, but probably were 
the soldiers of the first or the first and second line. — The position of the 
light-armed during battle was often changed; but it would seem that most 
commonly they stood in three lines behind the hastati, the principes, and the 
triarii, and rushed forward to their attacks through the intervals between 
the maniples. 

§ 289. The Roman cavalry was the most respected part of their 
army, especially as long as it was composed wholly of knights, and 
this class of citizens enjoyed a high estimation and rank already no- 
ticed (§ 255). Even before the regular establishment of this order 
in its full privileges, B. C. 124, the cavalry consisted chiefly of the 
noble and respectable young Romans; such indeed was the case 
on the first creation of the cavalry by Romulus, who received the 
most noble youth among his 300 horsemen called celeres ; the same 
was true under the following kings, who increased their number. 
Towards the end of the republic the Roman knights began to leave 
the military service, and thus the cavalry of the later armies was 
made up almost wholly of foreigners, who were taken into pay in the 
provinces, where the legions were stationed. The knights of later 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. CAVALRY. COHORTS. 



539 



times served only among the Praetorians, or the imperial body-guard 
($ 308). 

§ 290. At that period also, the cavalry was often separated from 
the legions, while previously they had been regarded as the same 
army, and been stationed especially on the wing. — The forces, com- 
monly called aim were different from the legionary cavalry; they 
were bodies of light horse, composed of foreigners and employed to 
guard the flanks of the army. — The usual number of horsemen com- 
monly connected with a legion has already been named (§ 281); 
in the first periods of the republic it was 200, afterwards commonly 
300, sometimes also 400. The legions of the auxiliaries (§ 292) 
had the same number of foot-soldiers as the Roman legions, but a 
greater number of horsemen ; although the ratio was not always 
the same. 

1.™ The cavalry was divided by the tribunes into 10 turma corresponding 
to the number of cohorts in each legion, and 30 decurice, corresponding to 
the number of maniples. For every maniple there were therefore ten horse- 
men. Each turma had three Decuriones, the first of whom was commander 
of the whole turma ; three urdgi {ovqayoi) were under them. In how many 
lines the cavalry used to be drawn up for battle is not known. In an attack, 
the first line of turma endeavored to break the ranks of the enemy, and were 
supported therein by the second. If the enemy were arranged in the wedge- 
form, the cavalry dashed upon them at full speed. 

2." The horses were protected by leather on their bodies and plates of iron 
on their heads and breasts. In general, the Roman cavalry were of principal 
service in protecting the flanks of the infantry, reconnoitring the enemy, col- 
lecting forage, occupying remote defiles, covering retreats, and pursuing the 
routed foe. Where the ground was uneven, the horsemen dismounted and 
fought on foot. 

§. 291. In early times, when the line in battle was not yet three- 
fold, but the foot were ranged in a single line, the. horse were 
placed in a second to support them. In the year of the city 500, 
B. C. 274, the three-fold arrangement of the legion seems to have 
been adopted. The cohorts have already been mentioned (§ 281); 
these also had their particular arrangement, which probably was 
formed originally by uniting the maniples, a thing not common un- 
til later times, since in the second Punic war the separate position 
of the maniples was still practiced. Towards the end of the republic, 
the three-fold division of the legionaries was abolished; and the legion 
now consisted of ten cohorts, each of which contained 400 or 500 
men. After the time of Csesar, the more frequent order of battle was 
to place four cohorts in the front line and three in each of the two 
others. — Generally the Roman tactics became gradually more and 
more like the Greek. Under Trajan the arrangement for battle was 



540 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

a single compact line. Under later emperors, the use of the Mace- 
donian phalanx was adopted, but it was soon renounced. 

$ 292. Of the legions of auxiliaries we only remark further, that 
these consisted chiefly of inhabitants of the Italian states, which at an 
early period, either of choice or after subjection, entered into treaty with 
the Romans, and bound themselves to furnish for the field as many 
foot-soldiers as the Romans, with more than the Roman proportion of 
cavalry. The auxiliary legions occupied the two wings when drawn 
up in battle array. 

1." A complete consular army, comprising the full quota from the allied 
states, contained eight legions, although the number of allies was not always 
exactly the same. When in process of time the allies (socii) were admitted 
to Roman citizenship, the distinction made between them and the Romans 
ceased. 

2. The forces of the allies were termed alee from the circumstance of being 
usually placed on the flanks. They were under command of officers appoint- 
ed for the purpose, called prcefecli. A portion of the foot and horse of the 
allies, called extraordinarii, were stationed near the consul, and one troop, 
called ablecli, served him as a special guard, 

The number of legions enrolled and assembled for service was different at 
different times. ' During the free state, four legions were commonly fitted up 
every year, and divided between the two consuls ; yet, in cases of necessity 
we sometimes meet with no less than sixteen or eighteen in Livy. — Augustus 
maintained a standing army of 23 or (according to some) of 25 legions.' 
(Kennett.) — Respecting the military establishment of the emperors, see Gib- 
bon, Ch. i. 

§ 293. Besides its proper members, each legion had its train of 
attendants, and baggage and machines of war. Among the numer- 
ous attendants were the following ; the fabri, mechanics, workers in 
wood and metal ; lixce, sutlers, holding a sort of market ; chirur- 
gi, field-surgeons, of which Augustus allowed ten to a legion; mela- 
tores, whose business was to mark out and fix the ground for en- 
campments ; frumentarii, who had the care of furnishing provisions ; 
librarii and scribce, who were charged with duties such as fall under 
the care of a quarter-master. — The proper baggage of the army (im- 
pedimenta) consisted partly of the bundles or knapsacks of the sol- 
diers (sarcince), partly of weapons, military engines, stores, provi- 
sions and the like, which were carried in wagons and on beasts of 
burden. Each person in the cavalry had a horse and a servant 
(agaso) to carry his baggage. The servants and waiting boys of 
the legions were termed calones. Originally there were but few 
persons of this class, but in later times they were often so many as 
to surpass the number of proper soldiers. 

$ 294. The order of march, when a Roman army moved to the 
field or into the camp, was usually as follows. The light-armed 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. ORDER OF MARCH. CAMPS. 541 

went in advance ; then followed the heavy-armed, both foot and horse ; 
then the persons needed to pitch and prepare the camps, to level the 
grounds and perform other necessary work ; then the baggage of the 
general {dux) and of his lieutenants (legati), guarded by horsemen ; 
then the general himself under his usual escort; then 124 horsemen; 
after which came the military tribunes and other officers. After 
these followed first the standards, next the choice men of the army, 
and last the servants and muleteers, or managers of the beasts. This 
seems to have been the usual order of march ; but it was of course 
changed and modified in different cases in reference to the nature 
of the ground, the country, and other circumstances. The order in 
marching out of camp was also somewhat different, And in order 
to equalize the exposure to danger, both the wings and the legions 
also were required to relieve each other in position. 

§ 295. Besides the most common arrangement for battle men- 
tioned already (§ 286) there were some others, which should be men- 
tioned. The triplex aci.es was not the division into three lines that 
has been described, but, as an order for battle, was one which con- 
tained three times as many men as usual ; and, as an order of march- 
ing, was a sort of side-march (Seitenmarsch). The agmen quadra- 
turn was when the army was disposed in a compact form, usually 
that of a square, with the baggage in the centre, either in expecta- 
tion of the enemy, or on a retreat ; the agmen pilatum, or justum, 
was a close array in marching. Orbis signified not a circular form, 
but such a four-sided arrangement as presented a front on every 
side. The testudo was also an arrangement of the soldiers, in which 
they stood close together raising their shields so as t& form a com- 
pact covering over them (like the shell over the tortoise), and in 
which they approached the walls of the enemy, or waited to receive 
the enemy at a certain distance. The twrris was an oblong quadran- 
gular form, with the end or narrow side presented to the foe; later- 
culus was the same, considered only in its breadth. 

§ 296. The camp of the Romans resembled in many particulars 
the Grecian, but had several peculiar advantages. A camp occupied 
only for a short time during a march was called castra and in later 
ages mansio ; castra stativa signified a more permanent camp, in 
which the army remained for a length of time, e. g. over a winter, 
therefore termed castra hiberna, or through summer, castra cestiva. 
The tents of such a camp were covered with hides, boards, straw and 
rushes. The most convenient site possible was selected for the camp. 
The highest and freest part of it was selected for the head-quarters of 



542 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

the general; this was called the pralorium, and occupied a space of 
400 feet square. Here the council of war was held; a particular 
spot in it was appropriated for taking the auspices (angurale), and 
another for the erection of the tribunal, whence the commander some- 
times addressed the army. Within this space the contubemales of 
the general, or the young Patricians who attended upon him as vol- 
unteers, had their tents, and a multitude of others, belonging td his 
train. Near the prcctorium were the tents of the officers, and body- 
guards. The entrance to the head-quarters was always next to the 
enemy. 

§ 297.' On the right of the Praatorium was the Forum, an open place for a 
market, and for martial courts ; and on the left the Quastorium, where the stores, 
money, arms, and the like were kept. A select portion of the cavalry, equites 
ablecti et evocati, were also stationed on each side of the Pratorium, and behind 
them the pedites ablecti et evocati. Next were the tents of the tribunes and the 
prefects. Then was a passage, or free way, called principia, 100 feet wide, ex- 
tending through the whole camp from one of the side gates to the other. The 
rest of the camp was what was called the lower part. Through the centre of 
this lower part ran another passage 50 feet wide, extending in the opposite direc- 
tion. On each side of this last passage, the tents of the cavalry and the triarii 
were cast; then beyond these tents, on each side, 'was another passage 50 feet 
wide, and then the tents of the principes and hastaii l and after another similar 
passage beyond these on each side, the tents of the auxiliaries. These five pas- 
sages were crossed at right angles, in the centre, by another of the same width, 
termed Via quinlana, because five maniples were encamped on each side of it. 
In each tent, there were eleven men, which formed a contubernium, one of them 
having the oversight of the other ten. Around the tents was a free space 
200 feet wide, which was the place ot assembling to march out of camp, and ser- 
ved also for defence in case of an attack from an enemy. 

Around the whole camp was a ditch, fossa, and wall or rampart, vallum. The 
ditch or fosse was ordinarily nine feet wide and seven deep ; the rampart three 
feet high ; these measures, however, varied with circumstances. The rampart 
was formed of the earth thrown (agger) from the ditch, with sharp stakes (sudes) 
fixed in them. On each of the four sides was an opening or gate, porta, guarded 
by a whole cohort. These gates were called porta prceloria, being near the head- 
quarters towards the enemy, porta decumana, on the opposite side of the camp, 
called also quaestoria as in earlier times the quoestorium was near it, porta princi- 
palis tdexra, and sinistra, being near the principia. 

§ 298. The watches, which were maintained by night, were term- 
ed vigilicz; excubice also signifies properly night-watches, but is used 
in a more general sense ; statio was the name for each single post- 
Two tribunes had constantly the oversight of the whole camp, which 
the same two retained, at the longest, for two months. At their tents 
all the officers and leaders were required to assemble at day-break and 
with them go to the general to receive his commands. The watch- 
word {symboluni) was called tessera, from the four sides or corners of 
the little wooden block, on which it was written. 

\. u The watch-word was given by the general to the tribunes, and by them to 
the centurions, and by them to the soldiersr Those who carried it from the tri- 
bunes to the centurions were called tesserarii. Short commands were often 
written on similar tablets, and in like manner rapidly circulated through the 
army. Before the head-quarters a whole maniple kept guard, particularly by 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. CAMP EXERCISES. SIEGES. ENGINES. 543 

night. The outworks of the camp were occupied by the light armed. Every 
maniple was obliged to place four men upon guard, so that 240 men were always 
on the watch in a camp of two legions. The night was divided into four parts, 
of three hours each, also called watches, at the end of which the guards (vigiles) 
were relieved by a new set. The legions of the auxiliaries had also their guards 
and watchmen. It belonged to the cavalry to inspect the watch on duty, and 
make the formal round (circuitio vigilium) or visit to the several posts or stations. 

2. In the discipline of the Roman camp the soldiers were employed in vari- 
ous exercises, whence the army in fact took its name, ezercilus. These exercises 
included walking and running completely armed, leaping, swimming, vaulting 
upon horses of wood, shooting the arrow, hurling the javelin, carrying weights, 
attacking a wooden image of a man as an enemy &c. — It was essential to the 
comfort of the soldier that he should be able to walk or run in his full armor with 
perfect ease ; in common marching he was obliged to carry, in addition to his 
arms, a load consisting of his provisions and customary utensils, amounting in 
weight, it is supposed, at least to 60 pounds. — The exercises were performed un- 
der the training of the campidoctores. 

The winter quarters (castra hiberna) of the Romans were strongly fortified, 
and, under the emperors particularly, were furnished with every accommodation 
like a city, as storehouses, workshops (fabricce), an infirmary (valetudinariurp,) 
&c. Many European towns are supposed to have had their origin in such estab- 
lishments; in England, particularly those, whose names end in Chester or 
cester. — Adam. 

§ 299. The siege of a city was commenced by completely encir- 
cling it with troops, and the encircling lines (corona) were, in case of 
populous cities, sometimes double or triple. In the attacks upon the 
city, they employed various methods and engines of various sorts. 
The testudo before mentioned (§ 295) was frequently used; upon the 
shields thus arranged other soldiers mounted, and so attempted to 
scale the walls. Higher walls they mounted by the help of scaling- 
ladders (scalce). — The crates, hurdles, were a kind of basket-work of 
willow ; they were attached as a sort of roof to stakes, borne in the 
hands of those, who used this shelter over their heads, in advancing 
to make an attack ; they were also employed by the besieged as a 
breast-work on their walls, and on marches they served as fascines to 
fill or cover soft and miry places.' — Vinecc were portable sheds or 
mantlets of light boards, eight feet high, seven feet broad, and sixteen 
long. They were filled out and covered with wicker-work or hides, 
and served to protect from the arrows of the enemy the soldiers while 
undermining the walls. — For a similar purpose were the plutei, 
wooden shelters, covered with hides, and moved upon wheels or roll- 
ers. Under these the slingers and archers especially placed them- 
selves, and sought to force the defenders forom their walls, in order 
that the scaling ladders might be the more easily and effectually ap- 
plied. Of the same kind, yet stronger were the musculi, and also the 
testudines (wooden shelters, to be distinguished from testudo before 
mentioned) ; these were most commonly used to protect the workmen 
in erecting a fortification, filling up the ditch, or the like. With some 
of these shelters they often covered the battering ram. 



544 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

§ 300. One of the most ordinary operations of a siege was to 
construct mounds (aggeres) as high as the walls of the city, or higher. 
On these mounds were placed the military engines, also moveable tow- 
ers, and other shelters of the soldiers. By means of boards, palisades 
and wooden grapnels, they were made capable of sustaining such 
vast weights. On account of the great quantity of wood-work in 
them, the besieged generally strove to destroy them by fire, which 
was often applied by mining under ground. - 

1." These towers (turres) were of various size and structure, often 120 feet 
high, and of ten or twenty stories. They were moved upon wheels or rollers. 
From the upper stories were generally east arrows, javelins and stones ; from the 
middle a bridge or passage was sometimes thrown over to the walls, and in the 
lower one the battering ram was brought forward. When they reached the 
slope of the mound, they were taken to pieces by stories, and reconstructed on 
its.summit. To protect them from fire, they were guarded by plates of iron, or 
coverings of hides, or moistened with a solution of alum. 

2. M A long iron javelin fixed to a shaft of fir, wound with tow, smeared with 
pitch and resin, then set on fire and hurled upon the enemy from a tower, was 
called falarica, which name was also applied to the tower itself from which 
they were thrown. The malleoli were similar, a sort of burning arrows, or 
bunches of tow attached to javelins, designed to set on fire the works of the 
enemy. 

§ 301. The battering-ram was a large beam employed to break in 
the walls of the besieged city, in order to enter it. Originally it was 
managed immediately by the hands of certain soldiers without protec- 
tion, but was afterwards usually placed under the shelters just des- 
cribed, which covered the men, who thrust it against the walls. Its 
name, aries, was derived from its front end, which was covered with 
iron in a form resembling a ram's head. Sometimes it was composed 
of several pieces united, and so large, that 125 men were required to 
work it. 

One of the most common and largest engines was the catapulta, 
by which arrows, javelins and particularly stones were hurled a great 
distance. In a siege there were usually a multitude of these machines. 
Their construction is not well understood ; we only know that ropes 
and cords or sinews were used in order to shoot the arrows and other 
weapons, which they threw with fatal efficacy. Of a similar kind 
was the bcolista, called also in later times onager, and designed 
chiefly for throwing tire javelin. 

\. u For shooting arrows, sometimes poisoned, the Romans made use of an en- 
gine termed the scorpio, which could be managed by a single man. For opening 
a hole in the walls they also employed the machine called terebra. 

2." Among the instruments employed, we should mention also the falces mu- 
rales, and asseres falcati, which were beams with iron hooks, to break and tear 
down the uppet breast work of the walls ; they were managed by the aid of 
ropes. Two other instruments, which were probably of a similar use, were 
termed the grus and the corvus. The aclidcs, or sudes missiles, were stakes sharp 
pointed and hardened in the fire, which were thrown against the enemy from the 
catapvlkc. 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. DEFENCE IN SIEGES. WAR SHIPS. 545 

§ 302. The modes of defence on the part of the besieged were va- 
rious. They hurled rocks, often of more than a hundred pounds in 
weight, upon the besiegers, poured upon them boiling pitch or oil, and 
endeavored to thrust down the scaling ladder by means of iron hooks, 
and to kill, force back, or pull up to themselves the soldiers attempting 
to mount. The thrusts of the battering-ram they sought to baffle or 
weaken by hanging sacks before it, and in various other ways, and even 
to seize and draw it up by their ropes and springs. They .likewise 
cast burning torches upon the wooden engines of the besiegers, and 
in other ways attempted to set them on fire. 

' Where they apprehended a breach would be made, they reared new walls be- 
hind, with a deep ditch before them. They employed various methods to defend 
themselves against the engines and darts of the besiegers. {Liv. xlii. 63). But 
these, and every thing else belonging to this subject, will be best understood by 
reading the accounts preserved to us of ancient sieges, particularly of Syracuse 
by Marcellus (Liv. xxiv. 33), of Ambracia by Fulvius(W. xxxviii. 4), of Ale- 
sia by Julius Csesar {de Bell. Gall, vii.), of Marseilles by his lieutenants {Cas. B. 
Civ. ii.), and of Jerusalem by Titus Vespasian {Joseph, de Bell. Jud.).' 

§ 303. In early times the Romans seldom hazarded a sea-fight, 
and only in special cases. Afterwards, however, they acquired a per- 
manent naval power, and always kept two fleets ready for sail, each 
manned with a legion, at the two harbors of Misenum and Ravenna. 
We cannot go into a minute description of a Roman ship, or of their 
war-ships in particular. The warriors engaged therein were called 
classiarii, and were enlisted in the same way as the legions of the 
land-forces, but often taken from among them. The highest officers 
or commanders of the fleet (classis) were originally the Duumviri 
navales, afterwards a Consul or a Praetor, who was called preefectus 
classis, and stationed in the most distinguished vessel (navis pratoria) 
known by its flag (yexillum purpureum). Every other ship had a 
tribune or centurion for its particular commander (navarchus). In 
the first attack upon the hostile vessel, they made use of the rostra, or 
two strong beams at the fore part of the ship, covered with iron at 
the points, and made fast below to both sides of the keel, designed to 
pierce the ship of the enemy under water. Upon the upper deck 
(stega, constratum navis) stood the fighting men. War-towers were 
often placed on board the vessels, commonly two, one in the fore part, 
the other in the hinder part. For seizing and boarding a vessel of 
the enemy the ferrea manus, harpagones, and corvi were employed ; 
there were also other instruments of this sort ; combustible materials 
and the like were used in order to fire the ships of the enemy. 

See J. Howell, Essay on the War Gallies of the Ancients. Lond. 1806. 8. with 
plates. 

69 



54G ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

§ 304. On engaging in'a fight, the sails (vela) were usually furl- 
ed, because they would easily take fire, and the vessel was managed 
by the rudder alone. The fleet was arranged by the commander in a 
sort of battle array, and each vessel was assigned its place, which it 
must maintain. A position as far as possible from land was usually 
desired. The larger vessels were usually placed in front, although 
the order of arrangement for naval combat was by no means uniform, 
but very various. The following forms are mentioned, acies simplex, 
cuneata, lunala, falcata. Before the battle commenced, the omens 
were examined, sacrifices and vows were offered. Then upon all the 
ships was hung out a red flag, or a gilded shield, and the signal for 
attack was given by a trumpet (classicum). The contest consisted 
partly in the rapid and violent rushing of the vessels against each 
other, partly in throwing darts, spears, grappling irons and the like, 
and partly in actual close combat. 

1. A few particulars respecting the naval affairs of the Romans should be 
added. Besides the commander (navarchus, or magister navis) mentioned above, 
each ship had a pilot (gubernalor, or rector) and sometimes two, who had a sort 
of assistant (proreta) to watch at the prow. Besides the marines or lighting men 
{classiarii, epibatre), there were also the rowers (remiges), who were more or less 
numerous according to the size of the galley; they were under a leader or di- 
rector (hortator, xilevci-c'^c § 158), who with his voice and a little mallet (portiscu- 
lus) guided their motions. 

2. The chief parts of a Roman ship were similarto those of a Grecian (§ 154). 
The following were some of the terms; prora, prow; puppis, stern; cilveus, belly; 
statumina, ribs ; sentina,pnmp to draw off the bilge-water (nautea); foramina, 
holes to put out the oars \remi) ,■ sedilia, transtra, seats of the rowers; scalmus, 
the piece of wood to which the oar was tied by thongs (stroppi) ; gubernaculum, 
clavus, rudder ; insigne,the image at the prow; tutela, the image at the stern; 
apluslria, ornamental parts at the stern, sometimes the prow, having a sort of 
staff with a streamer (tania) ; mains, mast ; modius, the place in which the mast 
was fixed; antenna, brachia, yards for the sails (vela); cornua, extremities of 
the yards ; pedes, the ropes fastened to the cornua. The rigging and^taekling in 
general was called armamenta, ; the ropes, rudentes or Junes ; the anchor, anchora ; 
sounding lead, molybdis ; the ballast, saburra. 

3. The Roman ships were divided into three principal kinds, the war-galley, 
the transport, and the ship of burden ; the first was propelled chiefly by oars ; the 
second was often towed by ropes; the third depended mostly on sails. These 
classes were called by various names. Ships of burden had the general name of 
naves onerarim ; they were commonly much inferior in size to modern trading 
vessels ; although some ships are mentioned of vast bulk, as that which brought 
from Egypt the great obelisk in the time of Caligula, said to be about 1138 tons. 
Ships of war were often termed naves longts, being longer than others; also ros- 
tratce, ceratm, from their beaks; and particularly triremes, quadriremes &c. from 
the number of benches of rowers in them severally. The question how the 
benches were arranged has occasioned much perplexity; for as many as ten 
banks are mentioned ; Livy (xl v. 35) speaks of a ship with 16 banks, and Ptolemy 
Philopator is said to have built one with 40 banks. In the treatise of Holwell 
(cited § 303), it is maintained, that what was termed a bank extended not horizon- 
tally, as has been generally supposed, but obliquely on the side of the galley, and 
that in no case more than five oars were in one bank ; so that a galley with 16 
banks, or even 40, would have no oar higher above the water than a galley with 
only two banks, but would be a much longer vessel; and any number of banks 
could be had by merely increasing its length. 

The naves Liburnicce were light, fast-sailing ships, made after the model of the 
galley used by the Liburni, a people of Dalmatia addicted to piracy.— The Co- 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. REWARDS OF VICTORY. THE TRIUMPH. 547 

inarm were of a peculiar construction, with two prows' and rudders, one at each 
end, so that they could at pleasure be propelled either way without turning; they 
could be covered with boards like the vaulted roof of a house. ( Tac. Mor. Germ. 
44). — It was recently announced that the port of Pompeii had been discovered, 
presenting its vessels thrown upon their sides, and covered and preserved by the 
volcanic matter. (Downf. of Babylon, Sept. 22, 1835, citing Loncl. Lit. Gaz.) 

§ 305. The great public reward of a Roman commander, who 
had gained an important victory by sea or by land, was the triumph, 
a pompous show, which was practiced even in the time of the kings. 
This honor, however, could be acquired only by those, who were or 
had been Consuls, Dictators or Prastors ; it was not awarded to Pro- 
consuls. Yet in later times there were some exceptions to this. He 
who claimed the honor of a triumph must have been also, not merely 
commander, but chief commander of the army, and the victory must 
have been gained in the province assigned to the consul or praetor. 
The importance of the campaign and the victory, and its advantage to 
the state also came into consideration, and the general must have 
brought back his army to share with him in the glory of the triumph 
and accompany him in procession. If the victory consisted only in 
the recovery of a lost province, it was not honored with a triumph. 

§ 306. The first solemnity which took place at Rome after a vic- 
tory, was a thanksgiving or supplicatio (§ 220). Then the general 
must apply to the senate in order to obtain a triumph. Permission, 
however, was often given by the people, contrary to the will of the 
senate. A law or vote was always passed by the people permitting 
the general to retain his command (imperiurn) in the city, on the day 
of his triumph, because in other circumstances he was required to lay 
down his command before entering the city. The abuse of the ho- 
nors of a triumph occasioned the enactment, B. C. 63, of the law called 
lex triumphalis Porcia, which prohibited a triumph, unless at least 
5000 of the enemy had fallen in battle. 

§ 307. A general, enjoying this honor, was not to enter the city 
until the day of his triumph, and his previous request to the senate 
must be made out of the city, in the temple of Bellona. The ex- 
penses were usually defrayed from the public, treasury, except in cases 
where a conqueror held a triumphal procession, without public author- 
ity, as was sometimes done on the Alban mountain. The expenses 
were commonly very great. Before a triumph, the general usually 
distributed presents to his soldiers and to others. — The Senate went to 
meet the triumphing general, as far as the gate, by which he entered 
the city. 

1." The order of the triumphal procession was as follows. First in the line 
ordinarily, were the lictors and magistrates in a body. They were followed by 



548 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

the trumpeters and musicians of various kinds, the animals to be offered in sacri- 
fice, the spoils and booty taken from the enemy, the weapons and chariots of the 
conquered, pictures and emblems of the country reduced, the captive princes or 
generals, and other prisoners. Then came the conqueror himself, seated in a 
high chariot, drawn by four white horses, robed in purple, and wearing a wreath 
of laurel. He was followed by his numerous train, consisting partly of his rela- 
tives, but chiefly of his army drawn out in regular order. — The procession 
marched, amid constant acclamations, through the whole city to the Capitol, 
where the victims "were sacrificed, and a portion of the spoils of the victory were 
consecrated to the gods. Afterwards were feasting, merriment, spectacles and 
games. Often the scenes of the triumph lasted several days. The pomp, ex- 
pense and luxury attending them became constantly greater and greater, and the 
whole custom, on account of its frequent occurrence, and the great abuse of it 
by some of the emperors, was reduced at last to a common and contemptible af- 
fair.-The first triumph fora victory at sea (triumphus navalis) was obtained by the 
Consul C. Duillius, after his memorable defeat of the Carthaginians, B. C. 261. 

2. Respecting the pillar and inscription in honor of Duillius see P. I. § 133. — 
For a fuller view of a triumphal display read Plutarch's description of the tri- 
umph of Paulus iEmilius, after the capture of Perseus king of Macedonia. — 
See also the account of Aurelian's triumph in his Life by Vopiscus (cf. Gibbon, 
ch. xi). The last triumph recorded is that of Belisarius, at Constantinople, re- 
lated by Procopius (cf. P. II. § 256— Gibbon, Ch. xli). 

§ 308. There was an honor lower than that of a triumph, fre- 
quently bestowed on victorious generals, the ovatio. This did not 
differ very much in form from the former; the essential peculiarities 
were, that the general entered the city not in a chariot, but on foot or 
on horseback, robed not in the irabea, but the prcetexta only, and at 
the Capitol did not offer bullocks in sacrifice, but a sheep (ovis). From 
the last circumstance the name of the whole scene was probably taken. 
The triumph on the Alban mount already alluded to (§ 307) was less 
pompous. It was held- only by those, to whom the senate had refused 
a triumph in the city, and to whom an ovation only had been awarded. 
The ceremonies were similar to those of a triumph in the city. The 
procession, it is supposed, marched to the temple of Jupiter Latiaris, 
situated on the mount. 

§ 309. The Roman military system underwent various changes 
under the emperors. By Augustus a standing army was established ; 
he also created an officer called Prcefectus prcetorio, who was placed 
over the troops constituting the imperial body guard and the praetorian 
cohorts distributed in Italy. The Roman military service suffered 
by the new establishme*. It soon became merely a system to sup- 
port the authority of the emperors, not to promote the welfare of the 
country ; and to forward this end, many disorders and abuses on the 
part of the soldiers were overlooked. From the same cause, like- 
wise, an unhappy line of distinction was drawn between the military 
and the other classes of citizens. 

Another and still greater change was made by Constantine, who ap- 
pointed two general commanders for the whole army, called Magistri 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. SYSTEM UNDER THE EMPERORS. 549 

militia, one of whom had command of all the cavalry, Magister equi- 
tum, the other of the whole infantry, Magister peditum. Under The- 
odosius the Great, there were five of these general officers. Subor- 
dinate to them were the comitcs and duces ret militaria. 

l. u The praetorian soldiers were, under the first emperors, divided equally into 
ten cohorts, containing 1000 men each. Under the later emperors they were en- 
tirely abolished, and 3500 Armenians enrolled in their stead ; these were divided 
into nine schola, and commanded by the officer styled Magister officiorum. 

The legions, not including the auxiliaries, were under Augustus twenty-five, 
•distributed among the provinces. Besides these he had the ten praetorian 
cohorts just named, six city cohorts of one thousand each, and seven cohorts, 
styled cohortes vigilum, which altogether amounted to 20,000 men. In after 
times, the number of troops was greatly increased, as well as the naval force. 
On the division of the empire, the western comprised sixty-two legions, and 
the eastern seventy. 

2. The epithet praetorian, in the republic, was applied to the cohort which 
guarded the pavilion of the general. After the time of Augustus, the prsefect 
•of the praetorian bands was usually a mere instrument of the emperor, and the 
office was conferred only on such as the emperors could implicitly trust. The 
appointment was made or the commission conferred by the emperor's deliver- 
ing a sword to the person selected. Sometimes there were two praetorian pre- 
fects. Their power was at first only military and small ; but it became very 
great, and finally trials were brought before them, and there was no appeal but by 
a supplication to the emperor. Marcus Aurelius committed this judicial honor 
to them, and increased their number to three.— The praetorian cohorts had a 
fortified camp at the city, without the wall, between the gates Viminalis and 
Esquilina. Under Vitellius, 16 praetorian cohorts were raised, and four to guard 
the city. Severus new modeled the body and increased them to four times the 
ancient number. Constantine the Great finally suppressed them and destroyed 
their camp. (Boyd's Adam, p. 123, 485.) 

Constantine did not abolish the title of prafectus pratorio along with the co- 
horts previously commanded by them; but he changed the nature of the office, 
making it wholly a civil one, and dividing the care of the whole empire be- 
tween four officers with this title ; Prafectus preetorio Orientis, Praf. prat, per 
Illyricum, Praf. prat, per Italias, Prof. prat. Galliarum. The city of Rome 
also retained her special overseer, Prafectus urbis Roma ; and a similar officer, 
with greater authority, was appointed over Constantinople, which now became 
the seat of the empire, Prafectus urbis Constantinopolis. Under the four prae- 
fects were subordinate officers, whose authority was limited to particular dio- 
ceses, of which there were 13 ; one of them governed by the officer, styled 
Count of the diocese of the East (Comes diaceseos Orientis) ; another consisting 
of Egypt, by an officer, styled Prafectus JEgypH ; and the other 11 by officers, 
styled vicarii or vice praefects. The dioceses were subdivided into a great 
number of provinces, whose governors were of four different grades, termed pro- 
consules, consulares, correctors, and pi asides. 

3. The empire was divided into eastern and western between the two sons 
of Constantine. In the western the military jurisdiction continued to be vested 
in two commanders, styled Magister equilum and Magister peditum. In the 
eastern it, was vested in officers, styled Magistri militum, and the number of 
them was five in the time of Theodosius the Great, who, shortly before his 
death A. D. 395, united the empire in one ; it was divided again after his 
death and so continued until the final overthrow of the western, A. D. 476. 
The five Masters-general of the military each had command of several squadrons 
(vexillationes) of horse, and several legions of soldiers (palatines comitatenses) 
and several corps of auxiliaries (auzilia) ■ two of them had also under their 
command a naval force, consisting of 12 distinct armaments or fleets, 6 being 
assigned to each. There was likewise included under this military establish- 
ment, in addition to the forces mentioned, a large body of troops designed par- 
ticularly to defend the frontiers, called sometimes borderers, and commanded 
by comites and duces, who seem to have been responsible to the officer, termed 
<±u,aslor sacripalatii,— The Masters-general of \he West had under their command 



550 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

forces of a similar description, including also troops designated specially for 
the defence of the frontier. There was a Magister militum in Gaul, but sub- 
ordinate to the two Masters-general. — For a general view of the civil and mil- 
itary arrangements of the empire under Constantine and later emperors, see 
Gibbon, Ch. xvii. — For more minute details, cf. Tableau Systlmatique des Dig- 
nitds des Empires d" Orient el d' 'Occident &c. in 3d vol. of SchalVs Hist. Lilt. 
Romaine. 



(4) Affairs of Private Life. 

§ 310. In order to form a correct idea of the more private civil 
and social relations of the ancient Romans, it is important to notice 
the essential distinction, which existed between the freemen and the 
slaves. There were two classes of freemen, the free-born (ingenui) t 
whose fathers were Roman citizens, and the free-made (liberli) or 
freed men who had been enfranchised from servitude, and who did 
not always enjoy the rights of Roman citizens. The children of 
the latter class were termed libertini and their grand-children in- 
genui, in early times ; at a later period, the freed men were called 
liberli only with reference to their former master, receiving when 
spoken of otherwise the name libertini themselves, while their sons, 
if born after the father's manumission, were called ingenui. — The 
slaves were such by birth, vernce, or by captivity in war, or by pur- 
chase, mancipia. Of their different services, their treatment, and the 
ceremonies of their manumission we will speak below (§ 322). 

On the subjects belonging to the branch of Roman Antiquities upon which 
we now enter, we may refer to d'Arnay de la vie privee des Romains. Lau- 
sanne 1760. 12. (Consisting chiefly of treatises in the Memoires de V Academic 
des Inscriptions^) — Trans. Germ. Leipz. 1761.8. Also, Sketches of the Domestic 
Manners of the Romans. Reprinted, Phil. 1822. 12. Cf. N. Am. Rev. xvi. 163. 

§ 311. The Romans commonly had three names; the first was 
called the pranomen, and had reference simply to the individual who 
bore it ; the second was called the nomen, and was the name of the 
race or clan {gens) ; the third was the cognomen, which designated' 
the family (familia)] thus in Publius Cornelius Scipio, Scipio is 
the cognomen indicating the family name, Cornelius the nomen point- 
ing out the clan or gens, to which the family belonged, and Publius 
the prcenomen marking the particular man. The distinction between 
gens and familia was, that the former was more general denoting 
a whole tribe or race, the latter more limited, confined to a single branch 
of it. — The daughter commonly received the, name of the tribe or 
race, e. g. Cornelia, and retained it, after her marriage. Sisters were 
distinguished by adding to this name the epithets major and minor, 
or prima, secunda, tertia &c. Even from the first establishment of 
the city, some among its heterogeneous inhabitants were of noble 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FAMILY AND PROPER NAMES. MARRIAGES. 551 

descent, and the number of noble families was increased by the adop- 
tion of plebeians among the patricians. The following were some 
of the most distinguished races ; Fabia (gens), Junia, Antonia, Ju- 
lia, Emilia, Pompeia, Tullia, Horatia, Octavia, Valeria, Posihu- 
mia, Sulpicia, Claudia,, Papiria, Cornelia, Manlia, Bempronia, 
Hortensia. 

Sometimes the Romans had a fourth name, which has been styled the ag- 
nomen ; this however was only an addition to the cognomen, and may be proper- 
ly included under it. — The order of the names was not invariably the same, 
although they usually stood as above stated. Under the emperors the proper 
name of the individual was frequently put last. Port Royal Lat. Gram. B. 
viii. (Jh. 1. — On the Roman names, and illustrious families, see Schcell's Hist. 
Litt. Rom. vol. iv. p. 367, and references there given. 

§ 312. The increase of these races was much promoted by mar- 
riages, in regard to which the Romans aimed to preserve a com- 
plete separation between plebeians and patricians, until B. C. 445. 
Marriage was held to be a duty of every Roman, and those who 
neglected it were obliged to pay a fine or tax. Citizens were for- 
bidden to marry strangers, except by permission specially granted. 
The jus Quirilium conferred only on Roman citizens the right of 
marrying a free-born woman. To freed men this was prohibited, 
until the enactment of the Poppsean law (A. D. 9) ; by -this law 
the free-born, excepting senators and their sons, were allowed to 
marry the daughters of freed men. Certain degrees of consanguini- 
ty were considered as interdicting marriage. Between slaves there 
was no proper marriage (connubium), but only what was called con- 
iubemium. Marriage took place at an early age among the Ro- 
mans, the male being sometimes but fourteen and the female only 
in the twelfth year. 

The Lex Papia Poppcea was an enlarging and enforcement of the Lex Julia, 
' de maritandis ordinibus ;' by it whoever in the city had three children, in other 
parts of Italy four, and in the provinces Jive, was entitled to certain privileges • 
while certain disabilities were imposed on those who lived in celibacy. This 
subject is alluded to by Horace, Carm. Sasc. vs. 20. 

§ 313. The marriage was always preceded by a solemn affiance 
or betrothment, in which the father of the bride gave his assent (sti- 
pulatio) to the request (sponsio) of the bridegroom. This compact 
and the ceremonies attending it were called sponsalia , it often took 
place many years before the marriage, even in the childhood of the 
parties betrothed. The bridegroom was not always present at the be- 
trothing, which was sometimes effected by means of letters, or by an 
empowered substitute. In early times the father's consent was neces- 
sary only for the daughter, but afterwards also for the son. The 
mutual consent of the parties was the most essential. Friends and 



552 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

relations were usually present as witnesses ; the marriage contract 
was written and sealed {legitim.ee. tabella) ; the bride received from 
her betrothed a ring as a pledge of his fidelity ; and the whole cere- 
mony was concluded with a feast. 

§ 314. In fixing the day of marriage care was taken to select one 
of those esteemed lucky or fortunate. The transference of the bride 
from her father's power to the hands of the husband was called con- 
ventio in manum, and was accompanied by a religious ceremony, and 
a sort of consecration by a priest (confarreatio). Marriages con- 
tracted in this form were the most solemn and could not be dissolved 
so easily as in other cases. Two other forms or modes are men- 
tioned; one was by prescription (usus), the bride being taken home 
and living with the bridegroom for a year (usucapio) ; the other by a 
purchase (coemptio), in which each party gave to the other a portion 
of money, repeating certain words. 

§ 315." On the day of marriage, the bride was adorned with a sort of veil 
or peculiar ornament of the head (luteum flammeum), and a robe prepared for 
the occasion, which was bound with the marriage girdle (cingulum laneurri). 
The sacrifice offered on the marriage day was a sheep of two years age, pre- 
sented especially to Juno as the goddess of marriage. 

The conducting of the bride to the residence of the husband, which took: 
place in the evening, was attended likewise with ceremonies. She was taken, 
as it were forcibly, from the arms of her mother, or if the mother was not 
living, of the next near relative. She went with a distaff (colus) in her hand r 
and was careful to step over or was lifted over the threshold of both houses, 
as it was ominous to touch it with the feet. She was supported by two youth, 
one on each side ; a third preceded her with a lighted torch or flambeau, and 
sometimes a fourth fallowed carrying in a covered vase (cumerum) the bride's 
utensils (nubentis utensilia) and also various toys (crepundia). She bound the 
door posts of her new residence with white woollen fillets, and anointed them 
with the fat of wolves (hence uxor, quasi unzor). She then stepped upon a 
sheepskin spread before the entrance, and called aloud for the bridegroom, 
who immediately came and offered her the key of the house, which she deliv- 
ered over to the chief servant. Both now touched fire and water, as a sym- 
bol of purity and nuptial fidelity. The house was already adorned with gar- 
lands of flowers, the work of the preceding day. After their arrival the mar- 
riage banquet (ccena nuptialis) was held, which was accompanied with music 
and song. The husband after supper scattered nuts among the youth and boys 
present. Finally the pair were conducted to the bed-chamber, by the door of 
which the nuptial hymns (epilkalamia) were sung by young men and maids. 
The next day the bride presented a thank-offering to the gods, and the hus- 
band gave an evening entertainment {repotia), and distributed presents to the 
guests on their departure. 

§ 316. Divorces (divortia) were, especially in latter times, quite 
common. When the espousals and the marriage had been solemnized 
in full formality, especially with the confarreatio just described, par- 
ticular solemnities were requisite for a divorce, and these were called 
diffarrealio. In case of a less formal marriage contract, the divorce 
was called remancipatio or usurpatio. On account of the frequent 
abuses of divorce, it was restrained by law ; and properly the men 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. DIVORCES. TREATMENT OF CHILDREN. 553 

only enjoyed the right. The formula, with which one dismissed his 
wife, was iuas res tibi habeto. Sometimes the separation took place 
before marriage, after the espousals, and then it was called repudium ; 
the customary formula was as follows ; . condilione tua non utor. If a 
woman was divorced without having been guilty of adultery, her por- 
tion or dowry was returned with her. 

§ 317. Among the Roman customs connected with the birth of 
children, that was the most remarkable, which left it to the arbitrary 
will of the father, whether to preserve his new-born child or leave it 
to perish. In reference to his decision of this point, the mid-wife al- 
ways placed it on the ground; if the father chose to preserve it, he 
raised it from the ground, and was said tollere infantem ; this was 
an intimation of his purpose to educate and acknowledge it as his 
own. If the father did not chose to do this, he left the child on the 
ground, and thus expressed his wish to expose it (exponere) ; this ex- 
posing was an unnatural custom borrowed from the Greeks, by which 
children were left in the streets, particularly at the columna lactaria, 
and abandoned to their fate. Generally the power of the father was 
very great, but the mother had no share therein. This power ex- 
tended not only over the life of his children, but the father could three 
times sell his son and three times reclaim him, and appropriate all 
his gains as his own. Under the emperors, this power lost much of 
its rigor, by the regulation allowing the children to hold the inherit- 
ance left by their mothers. 

§ 318." The freeing of a son from the power of the father was effected by 
what was called emancipation, or a fictitious thrice repeated selling of the son ; the 
freedom consequent upon this was termed manumissio legitima per vin&iclam. 
The father and the son appeared together with the pretended purchaser, a friend 
of the first, and with a body of witnesses, before the tribunal of the praetor, and 
here the imaginary thrice repeated sale and thrice repeated manumission was 
completed with certain established usages, sometimes by only a double sale with 
a delay of the third. On the third sale, the purchaser was called pater fid/acia- 
rius ; in the two first, dominus. 

The power of the father over his son was otherwise rarely terminated except 
by the death or banishment of the father ; it belonged to the peculiar rights of a 
Roman citizen (§ 260). By emancipation the son became his own master, and 
possessor of his own property, of which however he must give the father half 
as an acknowledgement for his freedom. 

§ 319. Another custom among the Romans in respect to children 
was that of adoption (adoptio). In this, the actual father of a child 
renounced his own rights and claims, and committed them to another, 
who received the child as his own. 

1." The ceremony was performed before a magistrate, usually the praetor. 
The formalities were in part the same as in emancipation, which was always 
presupposed in adoption, and previously executed. Only in such a case, the son 

70 



554 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

was sold to the adopting father but twice, and did not revert the third time to 
the real father. There was also sometimes a kind of adoption by will or tes- 
tament {adoptio per tcstamentum), in order to preserve a family from extinction. 
In such case the person adopted received a considerable part of the estate left 
by the person adopting him, and bore his name after his death. 

2. u That, which was called arrogatio, differed from adoption only in the 
formalities connected. The former was not transacted as was the latter before 
the prstor, but before the assembled people, in the Comitia curiata, and by the 
aid of the High priest ; neither was it limited to individuals, but often included 
a whole family. Upon the consent of the people to the arrangement, the person 
or persons adopted into a family took a solemn oath, that they would remain 
faithful to the religion and worship of the family ; this was called detestatio 
sacrorum. 

§ 320. By what was called legitimation, a natural (naturalis) or 
spurious (spurius) child was declared to be legitimate (legitimus), and 
instated in all the rights of such. This affected, however, only the 
relation of the child to the father, not to other relatives, or to the whole 
family of the father. Such a child shared in the inheritance an equal 
portion with the lawful children. But this custom was not known to 
the early Romans ; it came first into practice in the fifth century un- 
der Theodosius the second, and then scarcely at all in Rome itself, 
hut in the municipal towns, where it was introduced to supply the 
want of the dccuriones or members of the senate (§ 260. 3). For, as 
this office could be received only by sons of decuriones, and was also 
very burdensome, the fathers were allowed to transmit it to their 
natural sons, by them legitimated. 

$ 321. Respecting the education of the Roman youth we have al- 
ready spoken, in treating of the Archaeology of Roman Literature 
(P. I. §§ 123 — 125). Here we only remark, that for a long time 
there were no public schools, but the youth received the necessary in- 
struction from private or family teachers (padagogi). There were 
however those, who in their houses gave instruction to a number of 
youth together. The corporeal exercises, especially in the early times, 
were viewed by the Romans as a more essential object in education 
than the study of literature and science. They did not neglect how- 
ever an early cultivation of the. manners, and of noble feelings, espe- 
cially patriotism, love of liberty, and heroic courage. 

§ 322.* The household of a Roman was collectively termed fami- 
lia, but by this word was especially meant the body of slaves, of 
of which there was often a large number. Persons in opulent circum- 
stances had them sometimes to the amount of several thousands. The 
Roman women of rank usually had a numerous body of servants of 
both sexes. — The slaves of a family were divided into different classes 
or decurice, according to their employments, and a particular registry 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. SLAVES. SLAVE-TRADE. 555 

of them was kept, which was, in some instances, read over every 
morning. Their condition was very hard, and they were treated as 
mere chattels, rather than persons. 

' Slaves in Rome, occupied every conceivable station, from the delegate super- 
intending the rich man's villa, to the meanest office of menial labor or obsequious 
vice ; from the foster mother of the rich man's child, to the lowest degradation, 
to which woman can be reduced. The public slaves handled the oar in the gal- 
leys, or labored on the public works. Some were lictors; some were jailors. 
Executioners were slaves ; slaves were watchmen, watermen and scavengers. 
Slaves regulated the rich palace in the city ; and slaves performed all drudgery 
of the farm. Nor was it unusual to teach slaves the arts. Virgil made one of 
his a poet, and Horace himself was the son of an emancipated slave. — The merry 
Andrew was a slave. The physician, the surgeon, were often slaves. So too 
the preceptor and pedagogue ; the reader and the stage player ; the clerk and 
the amanuensis ; the architect and the smith; the weaver and the shoemaker; 
the undertaker and the bearer of the bier ; the pantomime and the singer ; the 
rope dancer and the wrestler, all were bondmen. The armiger or squire was a 
slave. You cannot name an occupation connected with agriculture, manufac- 
turing industry or public amusements, but it was a patrimony of slaves. Slaves 
engaged in commerce ; slaves were wholesale merchants ; slaves were retailers ; 
slaves shaved notes ; and the managers of banks were slaves.'— The following is 
a specification of some of the principal servants, such as are most frequently 
mentioned. 1. Of those employed in the house. The servus admissionalis re- 
ceived the persons, who visited the master of the house, announced their names 
and conducted them in ; the servi cubicularii were a sort of valet or chamber- 
servants, often enjoying the particular confidence of the master ; the ionsores 
and cinerarii were such as paid attention to the beard and hair of the master ; 
the amanuenses and librarii were secretaries and copyists ; the anagnostce were 
readers ; the vesliarii attended to the wardrobe ; the balncatores waited upon the 
master at the bath ; the medici performed the duties of surgeons and physicians ; 
the nutritii and padagogi took care of the children. — A multitude of servants 
were employed in waiting upon table at meals, and were designated from their 
several functions. Among these were, e. g. the seruus lectisterniator, couch- 
spreader ; structor, arranger of dishes ; carptor or scissor, carver ; diribitor, dis- 
tributer; prcegustabor, taster; pocillator, cup-bearer; detersor, table-wiper &c. — 
There were others performing another kind of house service ; e. g. the servus 
ostiarius, door-keeper ; atriensis, hall-slave ; dispensator or arcarius, keeper of 
the stores ; ccllarius, pantry-keeper ; pulmentarius, pottage-maker ; dulciarius, 
confectioner; tcediger, torch-bearer; cunaria, cradle-rocker ; cosmeta, perfumer ; 
JlabeUifer, fan-carrier &c. — 2. Others were employed out of doors ; the servus 
insularis had the oversight over his master's buildings; the servus a pedibus 
went with errands ; the lecticarii, who carried the sedan or litter, &c. — A large 
number of slaves were kept at the manors or country seats, to see to the hus- 
bandry and fruits; among these. were the villici, stewards or superintend- 
ents; aratores, plough-men; runcatores, weed-pullers; occatores, clod-breakers; 
fccnisectores, hay-cutters; vindemiatores, vintagers ; jugarii, ox-drivers; opillo- 
nes, sheep-tenders ; piscatores, fish-catchers ; muliones, mule-drivers; gallinarii, 
hen-keepers &c. — For a full list, see Blair's State of Slavery among the Romans. 
Edinb. 1833. 8. Cf. Am. Quart. Rev vol. xv. 71. 

§ 323. The slave trade formed among the Romans, as with most 
of the ancient nations, an important part of business. Slave merchants 
(venalitiarii) were always found attached to the Roman armies, and 
importers of slaves {mangones) often came to Rome from Greece and 
Asia. There were various laws regulating this traffic ; which, how- 
ever, were often left unexecuted, or were evaded by the arts of those 
engaged in it. For exposing to view slaves offered for sale, scaffolds 
{catasta) were erected in the market, and commonly small tablets 



556 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

were suspended from the necks of the slaves, stating their country, 
age, character, &c. The price varied very much ; it was sometimes 
above a thousand denarii. Of still greater value were such as pos- 
sessed intellectual cultivation, and could he employed as teachers, 
readers, accountants, musicians and the like. 

§ 324. M The liberating of slaves took place in several ways. The most an- 
cient mode seems to have been by will, manwmissio per testamentwm, on the de- 
cease of the master. There were two other modes ; censu, and per vindictam ; 
the former was when the slave, with the master's consent, was enrolled in the 
taxation list as a freed man ; the latter was a formal and public enfranchise- 
ment before the prsetor. In the last case, the master appeared, with his slave, 
before the tribunal, and commenced the ceremony, by striking him with a rod 
(vt7idicta) • thus treating him as still his slave. Then a protector or defender 
(assertor liberlatls) steps forward, and requests the liberation of the slave, by 
saying hunc hominem liberum esse aio, jure Quiritium ; upon which the master, 
who has hitherto kept hold of the slave, lets him go (e manu emittebat), and gives 
up his right over him, with the words, hunc hominem liberum esse volo. A de- 
claration by the praetor, that the "slave should be free, formed the conclusion. 
To confirm this manumission, the freed slave sometimes went to Terracina and 
received in the temple of Feronia (P. III. § 91) a cap or ha.1 (pileus), as a badge 
of liberty. The slave to be freed must not be under twenty years of age, nor the 
person setting him free under thirty. 

On the subject of Roman Slavery, see an able and interesting article, in the 
Biblical Repository and Quart. Observer, No. xx. Oct. 1635. 

§ 325. The dwellings of the Romans were at first mere huts (c&- 
so?) and during the first three centuries, even to the capture and plun- 
der of the city by the Gauls, the houses were very insignificant. On 
its being rebuilt, they were larger and more respectable. As luxury 
increased, especially after the second Punic war, so the private dwel- 
lings became more and more costly and splendid, both within and 
without; although this was not universally the case. Among the 
principal ornaments of the larger houses and palaces were the follow- 
ing ; the covering of the outer and inner walls with marble ; the use 
of phengites (<peyyiTrjq) or transparent marble, in the place of the lapis 
specularis, which was commonly employed for windows ; mosaic work 
on the ■ floors (pavimenta tesselata), arid various ornaments, in ivory, 
marble, costly wood and precious stones, attached to the walls, ceiling, 
and door posts. 

The phengites, according to Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 22, 46), was discovered 
in Cappadocia in the time of Nero, and took this name from its translucency. — 
The lapis specularis was found in Spain, Cyprus, Cappadocia, Sicily, and Africa; 
it could be split into thin leaves, like slate, not above five feet long each. Win- 
dows ispecularia) were formed of this substance, yet chiefly, it is supposed in 
the belter sort of houses. Boyd remarks, quoting the French translation of 
Adam, ' it appears that this stone is nothing else than the talc of Muscovy.' 
Launay (cited P. I. § 195), after comparing various allusions to it in Pliny and 
others,^ concludes ' que le lapis specularis des Anciens etoit notre gypse feuillete, 
appelle Se'lenite' (vol. i, 314). Horn is said to have been used by the Romans 
for the windows (conieum speculare) ; also paper and linen cloth ; originally 
they were mere openings {fenestra). It has not been generally supposed, that 
glass was manufactured at Rome before the time of Tiberius, nor that it was 
used for windows, until a much later period ; the first distinct mention of glass 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. HOUSES. USE OF GLASS. 557 

windows (vitrea spccularia) is said lo be by Jerome in the middle of the 4th cen- 
tury {Beckmann' s Hist, of Invent.) ; although mirrors (specula) of glass were 
much earlier. But glass windows are said to have been discovered in the 
buildings at Pompeii. ' In the vaulted roof (of a room of the therma or baths) 
is a window, two feet eight inches high and three feet eight inches broad, closed 
by a single large pane of cast glass, two fifths of an inch thick, fixed into the 
wall, and ground on one side to prevent persons on the roof from looking into 
the bath : of this glass many fragments were found in the ruins. This is an 
evident proof, that glass windows were in use among the ancients. The learned 
seem to nave been generally mistaken on the subject of glass making among the 
ancients. The vast collection of bottles, vases, glasses and other utensils dis- 
covered at Pompeii, is sufficient to show that the ancients were well acquainted 
with the act of glass blowing.' {Pompeii, p. 162.) It has been suggested, that 
these vessels may not have been manufactured in Italy, but imported from the 
East, especially from Tyre, the place where glass is supposed to have been first 
made. Another room, belonging to the same baths, 'was lighted by a window 
2 feet 6 inches high and 3 feel wide, in the bronze frame of which were found 
set four very beautiful panes of glass fastened by small nuts and screws, very in- 
geniously contrived, with a view to remove the glass at pleasure.' 

On the mosaic work of the ancients, cf. P. I. §§ 167, 189, 220. A very beauti- 
ful specimen has been found in a house in Pompeii, representing a Choragus, 
or master of the chorus, instructing his actors in their parts. Pompeii, p. 243. 

§ 326. In the time of Augustus there was great magnificence and 
extravagance in the building and ornamenting of houses. In general 
almost all the apartments of a Roman house were on the lower floor. 
Such houses, as stood alone not joined to others by common walls', 
{insula) were higher and had more stories, but were mostly occupied * 
by tenants on lease. — The names of the various parts of a Roman 
house are known to us much better than their exact design and 
use are. 

1." The following were the principal parts. 1. The vestibulum or fore-court, 
an open space between the house door and the street. From this, one entered 
through the door or gate (janua) of the house into 2. the atrium, aula or hall, 
in which on both sides were placed the images of ancestors in niches or cases 
{armaria). From this, one passed directly through into 3. the impluvium ; 
called also compluvium and cavadium, which was a court, commonly uncovered 
{subdivale), where the rain water fell. In this was the proper dwelling house, 
which had two wings with a covered colonnade or portico in front, in order to 
pass unexposed from one apartment to another of these side-buildings. Of these 
apartments the principal was 4. the triclinium or dining room ; the others were 
termed cella, having distinctive names drawn from their use, as cella vinaria, 
coquinaria, penuaria &c. Besides these, there were attached to the larger houses 
various other appendages, colonnades, baths, gardens, and the like. 

2. The gate or door {janua) was sometimes made of iron or brass, often highly 
ornamented, and usually raised above the ground, so that steps were necessary 
to ascend to it. On festival occasions it was hung with green branches and 
garlands. It turned on hinges {cardines) and was secured by bars {obices, clau- 
stra), locks {sera) and keys (claves). Knockers {marcull, mallei) or bells {tin- 
tinnabula) were attached to it. — In the atrium was anciently the kitchen {cu- 
lina). Here also the mistress of the house and servants -carried on the spin- 
ning and weaving. In this was the family hearth {focus), near the door, with 
a constant fire of coals and the lares (cf. P. III. § 111) around it. The Ro- 
man houses, as well as the Greek, seem to have had no chimneys, but merely 
an opening in the roof to let off the smoke ; hence the epithet fumosce applied 
to the images in the atrium ; to avoid smoke as much as possible, the wood 
was carefully dried and anointed with lees of oil. Portable hearths or fur- 
naces were used for warming the different apartments. In later periods, houses 
were warmed by a furnace below with pipes passing from it to the rooms. 



rr a ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

.„ 7 , '• nut nf Inventions )— The atrium was some times divided, in 
(Beckmmns Hist of »Y»™J^ arated by curt ains.-In the open court or 
later times, into difleient pa ^ sepa y apartments around it, 

implnvivm, was often, If not ^ually, a oun»ra. c P ons , ruct ed, and pro- 

ext*pUn« me dining «o ^ - t* 1 ,S termed flfttafal The «,- 
per y called csMs. inose aesi iicu iu ^ & _The covering or roof 

Li was a room on *e pomco for tokiBg tte sun 1 Je c g^ form 

was protected by large .tiles {tegu *), and ^ s ^ ne ^/ l0 desi te the whole 
So'f^S ffi^oPS^^irt.Sats were adorned with frettings 
i7J5, and otherwise, and the walls with painting. , » jggo (c £ P. L • 
W). The ornaments were ftequ ejly of a char* cter ««edi ^y ^^ 
, purity "Under the be stter cla& ot « * e y P^ ^ win Stair . 



1506. 4. 



included several parts. 1. TAe ml f™? a J ia .*["= f lhe lord . g/ThewKa 
courts, baths, porticos and terraces, for the ^ d » c « m ° mo X te 10 the steward {M . 
rustic* was the name applied to the build ngs to acc01 ^™™ d th varioas 

tos); ^.^^^^^SrhL^Si^ioTbeeB-, suite, for 

swine &c. o. ine ouu* jiw* „,„j„„ tc „r the farm- as wine, corn, oil, and 
designed for storing the , variou <P]$nc^te 1**^ »T™ ^ ^ > d 
fruits, often comprehended under mlla ustica t tree 

upon 'which in later times great care ^ as bestowed . ^ P e | 

shrubs and flowers, which were often trained into lama j cts / ado rned 

called toviaru; watered sometimes by me^n, rf Fpes and a^ , 

with walks and statues. &• lce ^ e w tkeriotrophmm, in which 

acres, chiefly designed lor deer _or ouiei wi ' _ Many of t h ese vil- 

was the fish-pond fo*ri an j^g^^HS'diLi! Cicero had 
las gowned by distiagu .shed J' a" « ^ oiher laces fart her from the 

a beautiful one at Tusculum, oesioes .eve Hortensius possessed sumpt- 

city. (C(. Middleton's Life of Cicero sect xuO ^°^™ P Wra Jito, a sub- 
nous villas at Tusculum, Bauli and Laurent m h e ^ »«»w _ 

terraneous edifice, ^^KlKKlieS^ pf this W 
montory of Bauli is supposed by some to have been tne n p Tuscu]an ^ 

tinguished P^^S^f^ZsM^iafi Grecian artist, for which 
he had a single painting, ™f*8°™r" ' y xv j 2) 144 00 sesterces, i.e. above 
he paid, according to Pliny (Nat. Hist xxxv. uji* , splendid, 

$5,000. Horace is supposed to have owned a v a a t libor no P ,. 

yet affording a retreat delightfu to he , poet • (^*s ^himself at Lau- 
feorace.) Pliny ^p™***™* ^^(§1^ Dictionary of Architecture.) 
rentum, of great extent and g r *™eur. k o was probably the most magm- 

But the villa of the emperor idnMnealivoi, W ( f ^ red J area , it is said, 
ficent ever elected; its buildings and planta ^^^^^ t0 raoder n time, 
of at least six miles in circumference, its ruins nave suiyio 
and haTf furnished many of the finest remains of ^ancient art (C f P. I. ^ ; 
_S^'s Diet.) The excavations at Pompe " ^ ^J 1 t0 \ a ve belonged 
men of a villa just with ,ut the wa Istf lb e P la j^Sfphilos. afT&r. 

%^FTf!^T^rol^%^ T fe™ las of the AQCients ri " 

lustrated. Lond. 1728. iol-Sulzer's Theorie, 1. 305. 

& 307 The manner of life among the Romans underwent many 
changes, in the course, of their history. In the early periods these 
were favorable to their morals, but in later times highly injurious^ 
Their constant prosperity exerted its influence on their feelings, and 
these affected their private life and manners, their pursuits, social char- 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. ROUTINE OF DAILY EMPLOYMENT. 559 

acter, and amusements. At first, and even down to the first Punic 
war, their domestic manners were characterised by simplicity in thought 
and action, and united with this there was moderation in the gratifi- 
cation of the senses, which they but seldom and sparingly indulged. 
From their primitive rudeness, they gradually advanced in refine- 
ment and urbanity, and ere long passed into an opposite extreme. The 
more they became acquainted with the conveniences and pleasures of 
the people they conquered, especially the Greeks and Asiatics, and the 
more their riches and abundance increased in consequence of these con- 
quests, the more prevalent became pride and luxury in private life. 
In place of their former heroic virtues, their bravery and self-denial, 
now appeared effeminacy, vanity and idleness. Magnificence in 
buildings, luxurious indulgence in food and liquors, fondness for 
dress and entertainments followed of course. 

§ 328. It is not easy to decide, what was certainly a uniform 
course of daily avocations, among a people presenting a great variety 
in pursuits, conduct and manner of life. There was, however, a sort 
of regular routine in the succession of daily employments among the 
Romans, particularly with the more respectable and orderly citizens. 
The morning hours were appropriated to religious worship in the 
temples, or their own houses. In the morning, also, persons of the 
lower class were accustomed to call upon their superiors with saluta- 
tions, especially clients upon their patrons. About the third hour 
(§ 228) the business of the courts, comitia, and other assemblies was 
commenced. Between this hour and noon were the promenades for 
pleasure or conversation in the porticos, the forum, and other public 
places. About the sixth hour or mid-day, they had a slight repast, 
after which it was customary to take a little rest or sleep. The af- 
ternoon was spent mostly in amusements and recreation, in visiting, 
bathing, and attending public- spectacles. About the ninth or tenth 
hour was the usual time for the evening meal. 

The following caustic remarks are from the work of Johnson, before named 
§326. — 'The private houses in Pompeii, and the house of Diomede, par excel- 
lence, show us at once how the people lived. Each family met, when they did 
meet, in the open court of the house— while the masters assembled, and might 
be said to live, in the public porticos and public hotels of the city! Such was 
the state of society among the ancients ; and if we examine the cafes and other 
public places of resort, some of them not the most moral or edifying, in Italy and 
France, at the present day, we shall find that the slate of society in this respect, 
has not essentially changed. How the women and children contrived to pass 
their time at home, while the husbands and fathers were lounging in the porti- 
cos, the forums, the temples, and hotels, it is not easy to say; but if 'we may 
judge by the figures and devices on their work-boxes, vases, flower-pots, lamps, 
amulets, and walls, we may safely conclude that, in their narrow and. darksome 
cells, the pruriency (I dare not use the proper term) of their minds was at least 



560 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

commensurate with the inactivity of their bodies and the enervating influence 
of the climate.' 

$ 329. The dinner of the Romans, or mid-day meal (prandium) 
was very frugal ; indeed it was not customary to prepare a table for it, 
and in the better times of the republic, those who took a formal meal 
at noon, were regarded as effeminate. The fifth hour, from 1 1 o'clock 
to 12 in modern reckoning, was the time assigned for it. 

The principal meal was held at evening (cosna), and for this partic- 
ularly, the guest-chambers or eating-halls (triclinia) were constructed, 
which in the palaces and manors of the rich were very splendid. 
These apartments were also called, from the use made of them, caena- 
tiones, and among the lower classes canacula. 

\. u The table.'being either quadrangular or rounded, had on three sides 
couches, each with three pillows, on which to support the arm in reclining. 
Nine persons were therefore accommodated at a table. The right of the middle 
couch or sofa was called locus cansularis. Often, seven places only were pre- 
pared, the whole of the middle couch being appropriated to some stranger or 
guest, by way of especial honor. Women were not accustomed to recline at ta- 
ble, but to sit. 

2. The couch on the right hand was called summits lectus, the one placed at 
the head of the table was called medius lectus, while the remaining couch on the 
left was termed imus lectus. The post of honor on each was the central place, 
those who occupied the middle of each of the three couches being styled respec- 
tively, primus summi lecli, primus medii lecli, and primus imi lecti. The most 
honorable of these three places, and consequently of the whole entertainment, 
usually was the primus medii lecti. The least honorable was at the end of the 
left couch farthest from that called medius. As the guests all reclined on the 
same the left arm, the bodies of those on the opposite couches were extended in 
opposite directions ; on the right towards, on the left from, the middle couch. — 
The rounded table, or semicircular, was used under the emperors, accommodat- 
ing usually seven persons, and called Sigma, from the form C, and also Stibadi- 
um. The tables (mensa) were often highly ornamented. The monopodium was 
circular, with one foot, chiefly used by the sick; the tripes of the poorer people 
had three feet. The frames {spondee) and their supports {fulcra,) were of wood, 
ivory, or sometimes metal; on these was a sort of cushion which had in it stuff- 
ing (tomentum) of wool, feathers or the like; and this was sometimes covered 
with a cloth (stragula) often of rich embroidery and purple dye. Before eating, 
the guests always washed their hands and used towels {mantilia) for drying 
them. They were usually furnished each with a napkin {mappa) for wiping the 
hands while at the table. For bringing on and using the lood {cibwm) there were 
various articles of furniture, as dishes {lances, patrince) and the like; but nothing 
like our fork, it is supposed ; although the excavations at Pompeii have shown, 
that the Romans were acquainted with many things, which have been considered 
as modern inventions. 

3. ' The surprise which is excited by a survey of the various implements of domestic economy and 
luxury, employed by the ancients, as disinterred from the tomb of Pompeii, where they slept since 
the beginning of the Christian era, and as compared with those now in use, must be natural, else it 
would not be so universal. This surprise is not solely occasioned by the almost miraculous preserva- 
tion of these objects during so many centuries. We are astonished (though 1 know not why) that the 
bakers of Pompeii had ovens for their bread, and could stamp their names on the loaves— that the 
cooks had pots, stewpans, cullenders, moulds for Christmas-pies and twelfth-cakes— that the aldermen 
and gourmands stowed their wines at the greatest distance from the kitchen and hot-bath— that the 
cafes had stoves fur supplyin',- mulled wine to their guests— that the apothecary's shop abounded in 
all kinds of ' Doctor's stuff,' a box of pills remaining to this day gilt, for the squeamish palate of some 
Pompeian fine lady— that the surgeon's room displayed a terrific ' armamentum chirurgicvmi ' of 
torturing instruments ; among others, ' Weiss's Dilator,' the boast of modern invention in the Strand— 



DOMESTIC AFFAIKS. FOOD. BANQUETS. SOCIAL GAMES. 561 

that the female toilets disclosed rouge, carmine, and other cosmetics, with the hare's-foot to lay them 
gracefully on the pallid cheek— that the masters and mistresses had little hells to summon the slaves 
(for servants .there were none) and that the asses, mules, and oxen had the same noisy instruments, to 
warn carts and wheelbarrows from entering the streets, who 1 e two vehicles could not pass at the same 
time— that play -bills, quack advertisements, notices of sights, shows, &c. were pasted up at the cor- 
ners of the streets, in monstrous bad Latin— that opera-tickets were carved in ivory, though at a lower 
price than 8s. ed.— that dice were ingeniously loaded to cheat the unwary Calabrian, who came v> ithin 
the vortex of the Pompeian gaming-table— that horses had bits in their mouths, stirrups at their sides, 
and cruppers on their rumps, though the two latter are omitted in statues, for the benefit of antiquari- 
an disquisitions— that windows were glazed when light was preferred to air, which was rarely the 
case— that the Pompeians, like the Irish, had their wakes, their howlings, and their whiskey drink - 
ings at funerals— that the public-houses had checquers painted on their walls, as at present— that the 
chemist's shop nad for its sign a serpent devouring a pine-apple, symbolical of prudence defeating 
death— that the Pompeian ladies employed male accoucheurs, who had all the implements of their art 
nearly similar to those of the modern men-midwives— that the houses were numbered, and the names 
of the occupants painted on the walls— that, in the public tribunals, the magistrates protested to Heav- 
en that they would decide conscientiously, while the w itnesses swore most solemnly that they would 
speak nothing but truth— that the men occupied all the good seats in the theatre, leaving the gallery for 
the women, where officers were appointed to preserve order — that, in short, men and women had their 
passions and their propensities— their cares and their erjoyments, long before Vesuvius burst into 
fiame! ' (Johnson, before cited.) 

§ 330. At the suppers of the rich, there were commonly three 
courses. The first was termed gustus or gustatio, designed to sharpen 
rather than to satisfy appetite ; it consisted of eggs, salad, radishes and 
the like. With this they drank usually, not wine, but mead, or a mix- 
ture of honey. The second course formed the essential part of the 
meal, and the principal dish was called caput cmnce. The dishes 
were brought on by slaves in baskets or vases fitted for the purpose 
(repositoria). The third course was the dessert (bellaria), and consist- 
ed of choice fruits, pastry and confectionary. A great number of ser- 
vants were employed about the evening meal in one way and another; 
some of them have already been named (§ 322), e. g. the structor, who 
arranged the tables, the carptor, who divided the food, &c. In the 
times of Roman luxury there was much demand for skilful cooks 
(c.oqui, archimagiri). 

§. 331. In social banquets, held at evening, it was customary to 
choose a master of the feast, rex or magister convivii, or arbiter biben- 
di ; he seems to have been chosen by a throw of dice (Hor. Od. ii. 7, 
25). To his direction every thing connected with the banquet was 
submitted, particularly all that related to drinking, and the social inter- 
course for the time. After the completion of the meal, the drinking 
was continued late in the night It was customary to drink healths, 
the memory of the gods and heroes being usually honored in the first 
p] aC e. — Not only after the meal, but also during it, between the differ- 
ent courses and dishes, social games or plays were practiced, especial- 
ly playing with dice. 

1". There were two kinds of dice, tali and tessera. The former were oblong, 
with two sides or ends rounded, having therefore four sides, on which they might 
fall and which were numbered successively one (mip), six (senio), three (ternio), 
71 



562 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

and four (quaternio). Four tali wero used in playing; the most fortunate throw, 
called Jaclus Venereus or Venus, was when a different number was uppermost 
on each of the four, and the worst throw, called Canis, was when the same num- 
ber was uppermost on all. The tessera had six sides, numbered like modern 
dice. Three only were used in playing ; and the best throw was three sixes, and 
the poorest three aces or ones. The vessel, from which the dice were thrown, 
was called fritillus or turricula, a box in the form of a tower ; the board or table, 
on which they were received, was termed forus, alveus, tabula lusoria. — Another 
game not so often played was called Duodena scripta, and was a kind of trick- 
track or backgammon. It was played with fifteen counters or stones (calculi) of 
different colors, upon a table marked with twelve lines. — In the general corrup- 
tion of Roman manners the love of playing at games was carried to the highest 
extreme. 

2. As wine was the beverage chiefly used by the Romans, especially at their 
social evening banquets and games, we will introduce here some remarks on the 
subject. Scarcely anything else seems to have been so important to the rich Ro- 
man in all his arrangements for domestic comfort as to be well furnished with 
choice and approved wines. — 1. Hence there was great attention to the cultiva- 
tion of the vine ; even to the neglect of other branches of agriculture. The soil 
of Campania was considered as perhaps the most desirable in Italy for vineyards. 
Many varieties of grape were cultivated ; about fifty sorts are mentioned by Co- 
lumella and Pliny ; no expense was spared to obtain the best kinds for the vine- 
yards. It was common to rear the vines by attaching them to certain trees (ar- 
busta), particularly the elm and poplar; and the vines and trees were said thus 
to be married ; the vines were allowed usually to reach the height of 30 or 40 
feet, sometimes a still greater, in the richer soils ; in soils less favorable, the usu- 
al height was only from 8 to 12 feet. — 2. The vintage or gathering of the grapes 
was about the last of September, or in October. They were picked in osier bas- 
kets (fiscina, corbes) and carried directly to the room for pressing (torcularium), 
where they were first trodden (calcabantur), and then subjected to the press ; 
sometimes in order to obtain a richer wine, the grape was exposed to the sun a 
few days after gathering. The common wine-press (torcular) seems to have 
been simply an upright frame, in which was fixed a beam {prelum) loaded with 
weights, and having ropes attached so as to work it more easily. The juice 
(mustum) passed through a sort of strainer (colum) into a vat (lacus), in which it 
remained in order to undergo fermentation about 9 days, or was put into large 
vessels (dolia) for the same purpose. The juice, which ran from the grapes with- 
out pressing (mustum lixivium), was usually preserved separately, and often with 
much pains to avoid its fermentation ; one mode of doing which was to secure 
it in a close vessel and sink it in a pond for the space of a month or more. Some- 
times the juice obtained by pressing vvasboiied down, instead of being allowed to 
ferment, in a place fitted up for this process and called defrularium ; the must 
thus inspissated and reduced to one half its original quantity was termed defru- 
tum ; the carenum was such as had been reduced only to two thirds ; sapa was the 
name when reduced to one third. — 3. Various means were employed for clarify- 
ing the fermented must; eggs particularly were used for the purpose. Various 
methods were devised also for modifying or preserving the flavor both of the fer- 
mented and the inspissated juice ; aromatic herbs and drugs of different kinds 
were introduced to effect the obj'ect. — In order to hasten the maturity of wines, to 
ripen and mellow them, they were often subjected to the action of artificial 
heat and smoke by placing the vessels containing them in the flues of the fur- 
naces, or some room prepared for the purpose (fumarium), where the smoke for a 
time passed around them. These forced wines are said to have been in great 
request at Rome. It is probable that the process tended to give the wines a thick- 
er consistency ; it is stated that they sometimes became consolidated to such a de- 
gree, that it was necessary to dissolve them in hot water.— 4. The vessel most 
commonly used by the Romans, for keeping their wine, was the amphora, cal- 
led also quadrantal ; the terms testa, cadus, and diota are applied to the same or 
a similar vessel. It was made of a sort of clay baked, and held about 6 gallons ; 
generally of an elegant form, having a narrow neck with two handles, and taper- 
ing towards the bottom, so that they might easily be fixed in the ground or sand 
l r y m . e cel 'ar, and kept in an upright position. The amphora was common- 
ly lined with some preparation of pitch or wax and aromatic substances, and 
was covered also with a coating madeof pitch and the ashes of the vine. When 
the wine had been in the vessel a suitable time, the cover or stopper was confined 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. WINES. DRINKING CUPS. DRESS. 563 

and made perfectly close by a coating of the same kind or of plaster. Skins 
(utres), which were originally the only kind of vessel used for the purpose, seem 
also to have remained until later times. For the richer sorts of wine, glass ves- 
sels appear also to have been employed ; but probably of a much smaller size 
than the earthen amphora {Martial, Ep. ii. 40). For carrying wine from place to 
place, very large vessels made of leather or hide, supported and guarded by a 
frame and hoops, seem to have been used. A painting found in a wine-shop at 
Pompeii exhibits a vessel of this kind occupying the whole of a waggon or car 
with four wheels and drawn by two horses (Pompeii, p. 132). — 5. The better 
kinds of wine were usually valued more highly in proportion to their age. None 
of the more generous wines were reckoned fit lor drinking before the fifth year, and 
the majority of them were kept for a much longer period. The most pleasant and 
grateful for drinking, however, was that of a middle age ; although the older 
might command a higher price. The opulent Roman, as has been mentioned, at- 
tached vast importance to his wine establishment. Hence to the house and villa 
of every such person was attached the wine cellar (cella vinaria). This was 
commonly in part, if not wholly, under ground, and was frequently very spa- 
cious. Here the wine was kept, usually, in amphora, which were ranged along 
the walls, sunk to a greater or less depth in the sand ; each one having a mark 
(nota) indicating' the name of the Consul in office when the wine was made; 
hence the phrase interior nota, signifying the oldest and choicest ; because such, 
being placed first in the cellar, would naturally ba at the remote end of thecellar, 
or because, on account of these qualities, it was lodged in an inner cell or apart- 
ment. The cellar of Diomede's villa (9 326. 3) is very large, extending round and 
under the whole garden, and lighted and ventilated by port-holes irom above; 
' some of the amphorae still stand as they were packed and labelled 17 centuries 
ago.' Among the amphorae found, some not many years since, at Leptis (Cf. 
Beechi/s Travels), was one with the following inscription in vermillion, l. cassto 
c. mario cos. (forming three lines on the vessel). — 6. Of the Italian wines, the 
most celebrated was the Falemian or Massic ( Vinum Falemum, Massicum), 
which seem to have been the product of the same region, in the vicinity of Sinu- 
essa. Others in much repute were the vinum Cacubum, Setinum, Surrentinum, 
Calenum ; of a third rank were the Albanum and Sabinum ; the Sicilian wines 
were rated generally after these. Of foreign wines, the Romans seem to have 
placed the Lesbiap,, Chian and Thasian among the first ; cf. § 161. Different 
kinds of wine were used at the same banquet ; and sometimes the guests were 
treated withdifferentsorts according to their rank. — 7. From the fact that the 
wines were so often inspissated, it was common to dilute them for actual use, 
among the Romans as well as among the Greeks; for this purpose warm or hot 
water seems to have been frequently used. The mixture was made in a large 
vase called Crater. From this it was poured into cups {pocula), of which there 
were almost countless varieties, as calices, phialae, scyphi, cymbia, batiolae, &c. ; 
made sometimes of wood, as fagina pocula, or of earth fictilia; glass, viirea ; 
amber, succina ; also of brass, silver or gold, with various ornaments (torcumata, 
vasa sculpta); of gems or precious stones, and the substance called murrha (P. I. 
§ 195). The specimens of these articles still remaining show great skill in work- 
manship.— See Henderson's History of Ancient and Modern Wines, cited § 161. 

§ 332. The fashion of clress among the Romans underwent chan- 
ges in different periods, hut less in respect to form than the quality and 
expensiveness of the materials, and the ornaments. The most general 
and peculiar garment of the Romans was the toga, a national charac- 
teristic, whence the Romans were termed Gens togata and Togati, 
while the Greeks were termed Palliali. It was a loose robe or sort of 
cloak.extending from the neck to the feet, close below up to the breast, 
but open above the breast, and without sleeves. It was therefore not 
put on, properly speaking, but thrown over the body. It was com 
monly of wool, and white in color ; black, toga pulla, being used only 
on funeral occasions. The toga worn in the house was less loose and 



564 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

ample (toga restricta) ; that used ingoing out, commonly larger and 
flowing with many folds (fusa). Some of the priests and magistrates 
wore it bordered with purple (toga pratexta) ; this was also worn by 
freeborn youth, who, at the age of seventeen, exchanged it for the toga 
virilis or pura, which was assumed in a very formal manner before 
the Preetor, in the Forum. 

A statue of one Marcus Tullius, by some supposed to be a descendant of the 
great Cicero,was found at Pompeii ; 'he is represented clothed in the logaprcctex- 
2a, the robe of office of the Roman magistrates ; and, which adds value and sin- 
gularity to the statue, this robe is entirely painted with a deeppurple violet color. 
This seems to give reason for believing, that the praetexta, instead of being a 
garment with only a purple hem, as it is usually explained, was entirely dyed with 
this precious color ; at least in the later times of the republic. The price of this 
purple was enormous ; the violet, though the less costly sort, is said by Pliny to 
have been worth 100 denarii (about L3 4s.7d.) the pound ; the red is valued by 
the same authority at 1000 denarii. It was obtained from the murex, a shell fish 
foundin various parts oi the Mediterranean.' Pompeii p. 205. 

§ 333. The garment, which the Romans wore under the robe, 
was the tunic (tunica). It was worn close to the body, without sleeves 
and extending almost to the knees. It was entirely open, and fastened 
hy means of a girdle above the hips. It was commonly, like the toga, 
white. Senators and their sons wore a tunic bordered in front on the 
right side with a stripe of purple, called clavus ; knights (equites) had 
two such stripes, but narrower; whence the tunic of the senators was 
called laticlavia, that of the knights angusticlavia. In later times 
the tunic was worn with sleeves. With slaves, and the poorer class 
of citizens generally, this was the only clothing, except the linen un- 
der garment or shirt (indusium, subucula) which had small sleeves. 
The higher classes never appeared abroad without the addition of the 
toga. In winter the latter often wore another garment under it, called 
tunica interior or interula. 

§ 334 f . The women used the tunic, with Jgirdles as well as the 
men; only that of the women reached down to the feet. They wore 
also an over-garment extending to the feet, called stola, having a broad 
"border or fringe (limbus) called instita. Some consider the palla to 
he a robe worn over the stola, others think them both the same gar- 
ment. The women sometimes wore a fine robe of a circular form 
called cyclas. The mourning robe of women was called ricinium 
or rica, covering the head and shoulders. The amiculum was a'short 
mantle, of veil, worn by the women. 

' A female statue, the size of life, was found within the cella ot the temple of 
Fortune at Pompeii, clothed in a tunic falling to her feet and above it a toga. 
The border of the former is gilt ; the latter is edged with a red purple bandeau, 
an inch and a quarter wide ; the right arm is pressed upon the bosom with the 
hand elevated to the chin, while the left hand holds up the toga.' 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. DRESS. PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. 565 

§ 335. There were other kinds of outer garments more or less 
in use. The Icena was a thick woollen over-coat, used in journeying ; 
this name was also given to the purple robe of the Flamines (§ 214), 
which was fastened about the neck with a buckle or clasp. The pa- 
ludamentum, or chlamys, was a long Grecian cloak of scarlet color 
bordered with purple, used specially by generals and high military 
officers. The sagum was a soldier's cloak of red color, covering 
only the back and shoulders, fastened by a clasp. The lacerna was 
akin d of rain-cloak, very broad and usually with a hood or covering 
for the head (cucullus, capitium). The panula was a robe similar to 
the toga, and more frequently used under the emperors. 

The materials, of which the Roman garments were made, were chiefly linen 
and woollen. Silk was unknown to them until the close of the republic. The 
Romans seem to have remained ignorant, how silk was produced, for a long 
time after the article was introduced among them by importation from the coun- 
try of the Seres. Nor did they at first use it without intermixing linen or wool- 
len in texture with it ; for which purpose,even the silk stuffs, which were brought 
from the east in a woven state, were unraveled ; cloth of this mixed texture is 
said to have been first fabricated in the island of Cos. The Coan vestments 
(vesbes Coes) appear to have been of a very loose texture, almost like muslin or 
gauze; hence called venus tezlilis, woven wind. The Seric vestments {Vtstes 
Serica.) are supposed to mean such as consisted of pure silk. The term bomby- 
cina was sometimes applied to both, although it seems to have been considered as 
more appropriate for the Coan article ; as that wasat length known to come from 
a worm (|ScJ/<|Si4, bombyx), while the Seric was still imagined to be gathered from 
the leaves of trees ( Virgil Georg. ii. 121). Silk was considered as proper chief- 
ly for the garments of females. The emperor Heliogabalusis severely condemn- 
ed, as being the first, who wore a robe of pure silk. — Cf. Article Seres in An- 
thon's Lempnere.— On the Roman costume, see Maillot and Martin, cited § 197. 

§ 336. The Romans usually went with the head uncovered, or 
drew over it a part of the toga ; except at sacred rites and festivals, on 
journeys and in war. At the festival of the Saturnalia, particularly, 
they wore a sort of bonnet or woollen cap (pileus), which, however, 
was allowed only to the free by birth or manumission, but forbidden 
to slaves. The petasus was a sort of broad brimmed hat, used in 
journeying. 

There were various coverings for the feet. The calcei were some- 
what like our shoes, and covered the whole foot, and often with their 
lacings (r.orrigia, ligula) covered the ancles and the lower part of 
the leg. Shoes of strong untanned leather were termed per ones. The 
caligce were a kind of half-boot, worn by soldiers. The solece and 
crepidce were sandals, covering only the bottom of the feet, and were 
fastened by leather thongs and bands {vinculo) passing above. 

The shoe of senators came up to the middle of the leg, and had on the top 
of the foot a golden or silver crescent, or letter C (hence lunata pellis, palricia 
lima). The shoes of the men were usually black; those of women commonly 
white, sometimes of a red, yellow, or other color. The mullei were of a red- 
,dish dye; worn first by the kings, afterwards by those, who had borne any 
curule office. Sometimes the Romans used socks made of wool or goat's hair, 



5GG ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

udones. The thighs and legs were sometimes bound around with a sort of 
scarfs (fascia:), which were ail in the Roman dress that corresponded to mod- 
ern pantaloons or breeches (femoralia) and stockings (tibialia). — The shoes of 
comedians were termed socci ; those of tragedians cothurni (cf. § 89, 169). 

$ 337. The hair, both of the head and beard, was allowed by the 
more ancient Romans to grow freely, and was but seldom cut. In 
the fifth century after the building of the city, it first became a com- 
mon custom to cut the hair more frequently, and also to frizzle and 
anoint it. Young persons were accustomed to draw the hair back- 
wards and bind it together in a knot, for a sort of ornament. 

1." When the toga virilis was assumed, the hair of the youth was shorn 
and a part of it cast into the fire in honor of Apollo, and a part of it into the 
water in honor of Neptune. It was also customary, on the first shaving of the 
beard, to consecrate it to some deity. Under the emperors false hair began 
to be used, in a contrivance like a peruke or periwig (capillamentum, galeri- 
culum). 

2. Among the ornaments of the youth was the bulla, a sort of ball, which 
hung from the neck on the breast. The boys, who were sons of citizens of the 
higher ranks, wore one of gold (bulla aurea); it was usually a hollow sphere; 
but other forms, and particularly the image of a heart, were introduced. The 
sons of freed men and poorer citizens used only a leathern ball (bulla scortea). 
This ornament was laid aside when the toga virilis was assumed (§ 332), on 
which occasion the bulla was consecrated to the lares or other divinities. 

§ 338. Still greater care was bestowed by the women upon the 
dress of their hair, which they frizzled, plaited in locks and curls, and 
adorned with golden chains, with pearls, rings, and ribands. The 
most modest fashion was the use of a broad riband or fillet (vitla), by 
which they gathered and bound the hair in a bunch or knot. Besides 
the ointments, by which they made their hair more glossy, it became 
fashionable in later times to color it, and even to scatter gold dust 
upon it. 

The Roman women often used paint (fucus) to improve the color of the face 
as well as the hair ; both white (cerussa or creia) and red (minium). Various 
cosmetics and washes (mcdicamina, smegmala) were likewise used for a similar 
purpose. Effeminate men did the same. — Among the personal ornaments of the 
Roman ladies were ear-rings, necklaces and finger-rings. The ear-rings (in- 
jures) were of gold, pearls and gems, sometimes of immense value. Necklaces 
(monilia) were often of gold set with gems. The men also used an ornament for 
the neck, which was a sort of twisted chain (torques), or a circular plate (circu- 
lus auri). Finger-rings (annuli) were of various forms and devices, commonly 
set with engraved gems (cf. P. 1. §§ 205, 206), and used not merely for ornament, 
but for sealing papers, caskets, and even large packages or vessels; hence per- 
haps they obtained the name of symbola. The ring was a very common orna- 
ment among the men ; originally only senators and equites (§ 255) were allowed 
to wear gold rings; plebeians could wear only iron rings except by special al- 
lowance; those, who triumphed, also wore an iron ring (ferreus sine gemma). 
Specimens of most of these ornaments have been found at Pompeii. A gold ring, 
with an engraved gem set in it, was found near a temple, in a box along with 41 
silver coins and above 1,000 of brass. In several of the houses were found skel- 
etons wich rings, bracelets (armilla,), necklaces and other ornaments. Of these 
specimens we only mention further an ear-ring of gold, which had two pearl 
pendants, and a breast pin, to which was attached a Bacchanalian figure, with a 
patera in one hand and a glass in the other, having bat's wings joined to his 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FUNERAL CUSTOMS. 567 

shoulders and two belts of grapes passing across his body. (Boyd's Adam). — See 
R. A. BOttiger's Sabina, oder Morgenscenen im Putzzitnmer einer reichen Rce- 
merinn. Leipz. 1806. 2 Th. 8. 

§ 339. It remains yet to mention some of the more remarkable 
features in the funeral customs of the Romans. The dying received 
from their relatives and friends present the last tokens of love by em- 
braces and kisses. As soon as they were dead, the nearest relatives 
closed their eyes and mouth, and drew the rings from their fingers. 
The corpse was then washed in hot water, and anointed by the slaves 
{pollinctores) of the person taking charge of funerals (libitinarius). 
It was then covered with clothing suitable to the rank of the deceased, 
which, like that of the mourners sometimes, was white. Such as had 
been distinguished by a victory were adorned with a crown of palm- 
leaf. The corpse was then brought into the vestibulum of the house, 
placed on a bier, and there left for some days. This exposure was 
termed collocatio, and the couch or bier, lectus fetalis. During the 
time of this exposure, there were frequent and loud outcries (concla- 
matio) accompanied by the strongest expressions of grief and sorrow. 
A branch of cypress or pine was usually fixed before the door of the 
house. — Children and youth of both sexes were interred by night, with 
lighted torches, without attendants ; but adults on the other hand by 
day, and with more or less ceremony according to their rank. 

§ 340. Among the Romans, both interring and burning were 
practiced from the earliest times. The ceremonies connected with the 
funeral (elatio, exsequia) were the following, chiefly. The funeral 
of a distinguished person was previously announced in the city by a 
herald, and therefore called funus indictivum, and, if the expenses 
were defrayed by the city, funus publicum. In the procession, the 
musicians and women hired as mourners {prcefica) proceeded first, 
uttering lamentations and singing the funeral songs {ncenia) ; then 
came those, who bore the images of the ancestors, next the relatives, 
all in black, with other indications of grief; then followed players, 
mimics, and dancers (ludii, histriones), one of them [archimimus) 
imitating the words and actions of the deceased, and others quoting 
pertinent passages from dramatic writings; after them followed the 
corpse, borne by the freed men of the deceased, often, in case of high 
rank, by senators and the most distinguished citizens, in a couch 
(lectica) upon their shoulders; and lastly a train, frequently very 
numerous of both sexes. 

\. u In the case of the poorer and lower classes, the corpse was borne on a 
small bier (sandapila), by ordinary coffin-bearers (vespillenes, sandapilarii). — 
The procession, when formally conducted, passed through the forum, where, if 



5G8 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

the deceased had been a. person of distinction, the body was laid before the place 
of harangue (rostra), and an eulogy {laudatiu) was delivered by some relative 
or friend, or a magistrate, sometimes by appointment of the senate. 

2. The images of ancestors, which were used at the funeral, were the basts, 
which the higher class of Romans kept in their halls (P. I. § 164). In Anthon's 
Horace, in a note on Sat. vi. 17, is the following remark; ' One particular rela- 
tive to the mode, in which these images were exhibited, deserves attention. 
They were not carried before the deceased at funerals, as Dr. Adam (Rom. Ant.) 
states, but actors were employed to personate the individual ancestors, and these 
busts or images formed a part of the disguise.' On this topic consult Polybius 
vi. 51, 52. 

Women were sometimes honored with the funeral eulogy as well as men. For 
example, Junta, the sister of Brutus and widow of Cassius, received the honor 
of a public funeral and a panegyric spoken from the rostrum. The images of 
not less than twenty illustrious families were seen in the procession; viginti 
clarissimarum familiarum imagines antelata sunt. ( Tac. Ann. iii. 76.) 

3. ' As to the mourning habits, it has been already observed that the senators 
sometimes on the occasions went attired like knights, the magistrates like sena- 
tors, &c. and that the common wear for mourners was black. But we may 
further remark, that though this was the ordinary color to express their grief, 
used alike by both sexes; yet after the establishment of the empire when abun- 
dance of party colors came in fashion, the old primitive white grew so much into 
contempt, that at last it became proper to the women for their mourning clothes. 
— The matter of fact is evident from the authority of Plutarch ; who states this 
as the subject of one of his problems [cf. P. II. §248. 1], and gives several reasons 
for the practice.' Kennett. 

§ 341. The place of burning, as also of interring, was without the 

city. In case of the former, the procession finds the funeral pile (ro- 

gus, pyra) already prepared, its height being in. proportion to the 

rank and wealth of the deceased. Upon this they lay the corpse, 

having sprinkled it over with spices or anointed it with oil ; it is then 

kindled with a torch by the nearest relatives, who do it with averted 

face (aver si). Weapons, garments, and other articles possessed by 

the deceased, were thrown upon the pile ; also various things, which 

were presented as offerings to the dead (munera, dona). When 

the whole was consumed, the embers were quenched with wine, then 

followed the collecting of the bones (ossilegium) ; these were placed 

in an urn (feralis urna) of clay, stone, or metals, along with some 

of the ashes, also spices and perfumes and sometimes a small viol 

of tears ; and the urn was solemnly deposited in the earth (tumulus) 

or tomb (sepulc/irum, conditorium, cinerarium). 

\. w Corpses which were not to be burned, but merely interred, which was 
altogether the most common practice among the Romans, were placed in a 
marble coffin, called area or so/rcophagus — The erection of monuments to the 
dead (monumenta) was a very common, almost universal practice. They were 
not always raised over the spot of burial. 

2. There were public and private places of burial. The public were com- 
monly in the Campus Martius or Campus Esquilinus, for great men, on whom 
the honor of such a burial place was conferred by vote of the senate. Those 
for the poor were without the Esquiline gate, and called puticutm. The private 
burial places were usually in gardens or fields near the high-ways. 

A femily tomb was excavated at Pompeii, which maybe considered a fair representation of such 
structures among the Romans generally. ' It consists of a square building, containing a small chamber, 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. TOMBS. FUNERAL GAMES. CONSECRATION. 569 

by the side of which is a door giving admission to a small court surrounded by a high wall. The 
entrance to the chamber is at the back. From the level of the outer wall there rise two steps, sup- 
porting a marble cippus richly ornamented. Its front is occupied by a basrelief and inscription.— A 
sort of solid bench for the reception of arms runs round the funeral chamber, and several niches for 
the same purpose are hollowed in the wall, called columbaria from their resemblance to the holes 
of a pigeon house. Some lamps were found here, and many urns, three of glass, the rest of common 
earth. The glass urns were of large size, one of them 15 inches in height by 10 in diameter, and were 
protected by leaden cases. They contained burnt bones, and a liquid which has been analyzed and 
found to consist of mingled water, wine and oil.' This.liquid, there can be littte doubt, was the liba- 
tion poured upon the ashes. 

3. Common tombs are said to have been usually built under ground, called 
Aypogaa. Such are those discovered at Volterra (Of. P. I, § 173.)— Over the 
grave of one buried in the ground, it was customary to raise at last a mound 
of earth (tumulus). When a monumental structure was erected, it usually re- 
ceived an inscription (titulus, epitapkium) , with the name of the deceased, and 
something of his life and character. Columns or pillars, particularly small 
cippi, for sepulchral inscriptions, appear to have been common among the Ro- 
mans, as well as the Greeks (cf. § 187). Sometimes an inscription was put 
on the coffin, when the body was buried in the earth. — Monuments not on the 
spot of burial (tumuli inanes or cenotaphia) were erected among the Romans 
for the same reasons as among the Greeks.— Roman sepulchres have been found 
in England, containing urns with ashes, and sarcophagi with skeletons. (Stuart's 
Diet, of Architecture.) 

§ 342. A period of mourning was also observed in memory of 
the deceased ; its duration in each particular case was fixed by 
law; in the case of widows it continued for ten months. In the 
time of the emperors, a general mourning (luctus publicus) was 
appointed at their decease or that of their sons ; a thing previous- 
ly not practiced, except on occasions of great public calamity. — 
Immediately after the funeral obsequies, it was also customary to 
slay the victims offered in sacrifice to the departed (called inferia), 
and to connect therewith a solemn funeral repast. 

1." When the deceased was of distinguished character, this repast or en- 
tertainment was publicly given, and meat was sometimes distributed among 
the people (visceratio). These funeral sacrifices were annually repeated at the 
graves or spot of interment. On such occasions, public games (ludi funebres) 
were appointed, especially gladitorial sports. 

2. Gladitorial shows probably had their origin, as has been observed (§ 235), 
in funeral celebrations. And, although they were exhibited on many other 
occasions, 'yet the primitive custom of presenting them at the funerals of great 
men, all along prevailed in the city and Roman provinces; nor was it con- 
fined only to persons of quality, but almost every rich man was honored with 
this solemnity after his death ; and this they very commonly provided for in 
their wills, defining the number of gladiators, as their due by long custom. 
Suetonius to this purpose tells us of a funeral, in which the common people 
extorted money by force from the deceased person's heirs, to be expended 
on this account.' (Kennett.) — J. Kirchmann, De Funeribus Rom. Libri iv. 
1672. 12. 

3. A very vivid picture of the funeral sacrifices and games annually repeated 
at the graves of the deceased is given by Virgil in the 5th Book of the iEneid, 
where he describes the honors rendered by iEneas to the manes of his father An- 
chises. He mentions particularly a contest in rowing galleys, a foot-race, a 
boxing-match, a trial of skill in shooting arrows, and a mock equestrian battle 
(pugruz simulacra). Cf. § 187. 

§ 343. The greatest funeral solemnity among the Romans was 
the deification (consecratio) of the emperors ; something like the apo- 
72 



570 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

theosis of Grecian heroes. It took place in the Campus Martius, 
where the image of the person to be deified was placed upon a lofty 
funeral pile. From this pile, whenever it was set on fire, an eagle, 
previously bound alive upon it, flew aloft in the air; which, according 
to the ideas of the people, bore the soul to Olympus. The deified 
person then received the surname or appellation Divus. This solem- 
nity was accompanied also with religious rites, public games and 
banquets. The custom did not wholly cease under the first Christian 
emperors. 

This ceremony was wholly distinct from the funeral. The true body was 
burned and the ashes buried in the usual manner, and with a splendid show, 
before these riles performed with the image of wax. The whole ceremony is 
well described by Herodian (cf. P. II. § 253), in the fourth book of his history. 



PART V. 



CLASSICAL 
GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY- 



PREFATORY NOTICE. 



The completeness of this manual seemed to the translator to require some 
notice of ancient Geography and Chronology. But the proper limits of the 
work allowed only a brief view of the subjects. The following Epitome of 
Classical Geography is chiefly taken from an English treatise under this title, 
by W. C. Taylor ; yet the arrangement and divisions are considerably changed 
and improved ; and the topography of Rome, Athens, and Sparta, a very im- 
portant part, is drawn from other sources. — In the Introduction to Classical 
Chronology, a prime object was to explain the division of time and the mo- 
des of reckoning adopted among the Greeks and Romans ; but it was thought 
highly desirable to present here, in a condensed general view, all, that the 
student would need, preparatory to a full study of the Classical historians 
and of ancient history. 



EPITOME OF CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY 



Introduction. 

§ 1. The earlier Greeks must have been very ignorant of the neighboring 
countries, for the scenes of some of the wildest fictions of the Odyssey were 
within a few hours sail of Greece. The account of the Argonautic expedition 
furnishes a still stronger proof of this, for these adventurers are described as 
having departed by the Hellespont and Euxine sea, &c, and having returned 
through the straits of Hercules; whence it manifestly appears, that at that 
time the Greeks believed that there was a connexion between the Palus Mffiotis 
(sea of Azof) and the Ocean. 

§ 2. In later .times, however, the commercial enterprize*of the Athenians 
corrected these errors. Their ships sailed through the seas to the east of 
Europe and brought home such accurate information, that we find the descrip- 
tion of these seas and the neighboring coasts nearly as perfect in ancient as 
in modern writers. — The expedition of Clearchus into Asia, and still more that 
of Alexander, gave the Greeks opportunities of becoming acquainted with the 
distant regions of the east, which they eagerly embraced. — The west of Europe 
was visited and described by the Phoenicians, who had penetrated even to the 
British Islands. 

From these different descriptions several geographical treatises were com- 
piled, all of which were in a great measure superseded by the work of Pto- 
lemy, styled Syntaxis, or, as the Arabians called it, Almagest (P. II. § 218). 
This embraced all the astronomical and geographical knowledge of the ancients, 
and from it we are enabled to trace with precision the limits of the ancient 
world. (Cf. P. II. § 206 ss.) 

§ 3. The northern parts of Europe and Asia were known by name ; an 
imperfect sketch of India limits their progress eastwards ; the dry and parched 
deserts of Africa, prevented their advance southwards ; and the Atlantic ocean 
limited the known world to the west. It must not be supposed that all the 
countries within these limits were perfectly known ; we find, that even within 
these narrow boundaries, there were several nations, of whom the ancient geo- 
graphers knew nothing but the name. 

Let us attempt to trace a line, which would form a boundary including the whole of the earth, that 
was known in the time of Ptolemy. We will begin at Ferro.one of the Insula Portunatce (Canary Is- 
lands), which, because it was the most westerly land known, was taken "by Ptolemy for his fixed 
meridian. Our line extending hence northerly would include the British Isles, .and the Shetland Isles ; 
the latter are probably designated by the Thule of the ancients, according to d'Anville, although some 
have supposed it was applied to Iceland. From the Shetland Isles the line would pass through Sweden 
and Norway probably ; perhaps around the North cape, as it has been thought that this must be the 
Rubeas Promontorium of Ptolemy. The line would, in eilher case, be continued to the White Sea at 
the mouth of the river Dwina, which seems to be described by Ptolemy under the name Carambucis. 
Thence it would extend to the Ural Mountains, which were partially known by the name of Hyper- 
borei; near which. the poets located a people of the same name (Virg. Georg. i. 240) said to live in all 
possible felicity. From these mountains the line would pass along through Scythia to the northern 
part of the Belur Tag Mountains, the ancient Imaus. Crossing these, it enters the region of Kash- 
gar (in Chinese Tartary), called by Ptolemy Casta Regio; a region of which, however, he evidently 
knew little. Our line would be continued thence to the place called by the ancients Sera ; which 
is most probably the modern Kan or Kan-tcheou, near the north-west comer'of China and the termi- 
nation of the immense wall separating China and Tartary. From Sera or Kan, it must be carried 
over a region, probably wholly unknown to the ancients, to a place called Thynee in the country of 
the Since; this place was on the Cotiarls, a river uniting with the Senus, which is supposed to be 
modern Gamboge. The most eastern point on the coast, which we now approach with our line, the 
most easterly point, that is particularly mentioned, is thought to be Point Condor, the southern ex- 
tremity of Cambodia; this was called Promontorium Satyrorum, and some small isles adjacent In- 
sula Satyr.orum, because monkies were found here, whose appearance resembled the fabled Satyr* 



574 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

The general ignorance respecting this region is obvious from the fact, that Is was imagined, that 
beyond the Promontory of Satyrs the coast turned first to the south and then completely to the west, 
and thus proceeded fcntil it joined Africa. From the point or cape just named, the boundary we are 
tracing would run aroiuid the Aurea Chcrsonesus, or peninsula of Malayaor Malacca, take in the coast 
of Sumatra, anciently called Jabudii Insula, and pass to Taprobana or Salice, the modern Ceylon. 
Thence sweeping around the Maldives, called by Ptolemy Insula ante Taprobanant, and crossing the 
equator it would strike Africa at Cape Delgrado, supposed to correspond to the Prasum Promonto- 
rium, being about 10 degrees S. Latitude. The boundary would exclude Madagascar, as the ancient 
Menuthias designates not Madagascar as has been conjectured, but most probably the modem Zan- 
zibar. It may be impossible to trace the line across Africa ; of the interior of which the ancients knew 
more, than one would suppose judging from the ignorance of the moderns on the subject. The line 
would pass south of the Mountains of the Moon, Luna. Montes, which are mentioned by Ptolemy, and 
also, in part, of the river Niger, which, as d'Anville remarks, was known even in the time of Herodo- 
tus. On the Atlantic coast the line would come out a little south of Sierra Leone at Cape St. Anns 
about 10 degrees N. Latitude; this point answering to the ancient Noti Cornu, Southern Horn, off 
against which lay the islands called Insula Hesperidum. From this cape our line passes up the shore 
of the Atlantic to the Insula Fortunatcc. 

From this it is obvious, that the portion of the earth known to the ancients was small in proportion 
to the whole. It has been said with probable accuracy, that it was scarcely one third of the land, now 
known, which has been estimated as 42 or 44 millions of square miles ; and of the 155 millions of 
square miles of water, covering the rest of the globe, they knew almost nothing —For the principal 
helps in studying Classical Geography, corftult the references given P. II. § 7. 7 (6) ; see also P. II. 
§§ 202 ss., 371 ss. 

§ 4. The 'division of the earth into the large portions, Europe, Asia, and 
Africa, is of very ancient date; but though the names have been preserved, the 
boundaries in several particulars differed, Egypt was formerly reckoned among 
the Asiatic kingdoms; at present it is esteemed part of Africa: Sarmatiawas 
esteemed part of Europe ; a great part of it now forms one of the divisions 
of Asia. 

§ 5. The division of the earth into zones has remained unaltered ; but the 
ancients believed that the temperate alone were habitable, supposing that the 
extreme heat of the Torrid and extreme cold of the Frigid zones, were destruc- 
tive of animal life. 

Another division, introduced by Hipparchus, was that of climates. A climate 
is a space included between two parallels of latitude, so that the longest day of 
the inhabitants at one extremity exceeds that of the inhabitants at the other by 
half an hour. Of these, eight were known. The parallels pass successively 
through Meroe on the Nile, Siene, Alexandria in Egypt, Carthage, Alexandria 
in the Troas, the middle of the Euxine sea, Mount Caucasus, and the British 
Islands. 



I. Of Europe. 

4 6, Europe though the smallest, is, and has been for many ages, the most 
important division of the earth. It has attained this rank from the superiority 
in arts and sciences, as well as in government and religion, that its inhabitants 
have ever possessed over degraded Asia and barbarous Africa. — It derives its 
name from Europa, the daughter of Agenor a Phoenician king, who being car- 
ried away by Jupiter, under the disguise of a bull, gave her name to this quarter 
of the globe. 

§ 7. The boundaries of ancient and modern Europe were nearly similar, but 
we learn from Sallust that some geographers reckoned Africa a part of Europe. 
The northern ocean, called by the ancients the Icy, or Saturnian, bounds it on 
the north; the north-eastern part of Europe joins Asia, but no boundary line is 
traced by ancient writers ; the remainder of its eastern boundaries are the Palus 
Masotis, Cimmerian Bosphorus, Euxine sea, Thracian Bosphorus, Propontis, Hel- 
lespont, and iEgean sea; the Mediterranean sea is the southern and the Atlantic 
ocean the western boundary. 

§ 8. The countries of the mainland of Europe may be arranged, for con- 
venience in the present geographical sketch, in three divisions ; the northern, 
middle, and southern. The islands may be considered in a separate division. 



EUROPE. NORTHERN COUNTRIES. 575 

The north of Europe can scarcely be said to have been known to the ancients, 
until the unwearied ambition of the Romans stimulated them to seek for new 
conquests in lands previously unnoticed. From these countries, in after times, 
came the barbarian hordes who overran Europe, and punished severely the ex- 
cesses of Roman ambition. — The southern division contains the countries, 
which, in ancient times, were the most distinguished in Europe for their civili- 
zation and refinement. 

The Northern countries, with their ancient and modern names, were the 
following; Scandinavia, Norway and Sweden ; Chersonesus Cimbrica, Jutland 
or Denmark ; Sarmatia, Russia; Germania, Germany; — The Middle coun- 
tries were the following : Gallia, France and Switzerland ; Vindelicia, Suabia; 
Rhastia, country of the Grisons ; Noricum, Austria; Pannonia, Hungary; Illy- 
ricum, Croatia and Dalmatic ; Moesia, Bosnia, Servia and Bulgaria; Dacia, 
Transylvania and Walachia. — In the Southern division we include Hispa- 
nia, Spain and Portugal ; Italia, Italy ; Thracia, Macedonia and Grascia, all 
lately comprehended under the Turkish Empire. 

(a) The Northern Countries of Europe. 

§ 9. Scandinavia, or Scandia, by the Celts called Lochlin, was falsely sup- 
posed to be a large island. The inhabitants were remarkable for their number 
and ferocity ; they subsisted chiefly by piracy and plunder. From this country 
came the Goths, the Heruli, the Vandals, and at a later period, the Normans, 
who subjugated the south of Europe. 

§ 10. The Chersonesus Cimbrica, a large peninsula at the entrance of the 
Baltic, was the native country of the Cimbri and Teutones, who after devastating 
Gaul invaded the northern part of Italy, and made the Romans tremble for the 
safety of their capital. They defeated the consuls Manlius and Servilius with 
dreadful slaughter, but were eventually destroyed by Marius, 

§ 11. Sarmatia included the greater part of Russia and Poland, and is fre- 
quently confounded with Scythia. This immense territory was possessed by 
several independent tribes, who led a wandering life like the present savages of 
North America. The names of the principal tribes were the Sauromatae, near 
the mouth of the Tanais, and the Geloni and Agathyrsi, between the Tanais and 
Borysthenes. The latter were called Hamaxobii from their living in waggons. 
Virgil gives them the epithet picti because they, like the savages of America, 
painted their bodies to give themselves a formidable appearance. From these 
districts came the Huns, the Alans and Roxolanians, who aided the barbarians 
formerly mentioned in overthrowing the Roman empire. 

The peninsula, now known by the name of the Crimea, or Crim Tartary, was 
anciently called the Chersonesus Taurica. Its inhabitants, called Tauri, were 
remarkable for their cruelty to strangers, whom they sacrificed on the altar of 
Diana. From their cruelty the Euxine sea received its name ; it was called 
Euxine (favorable to strangers) by Antiphrasis. 

The principal towns of the Tauric Chersonese were Panticapseum, Kerchh, 
where Mithridates the Great died; Saphrae, Procop, and Theodosia, Kaffa ; at 
the south of this peninsula was a large promontory, called from its shape Criu 
Metopon, or the Ram's Forehead. 

§ 12. Aneient Germany, Germania, is, in many respects, the most singular 
and interesting of the northern nations. In the remains of its early language, 
and the accounts of its civil government, that have been handed down to us, 
the origin of the English language and constitution may be distinctly traced. 
The inhabitants called themselves Ger-men, which in their language signifies 
War-men, and from this boasting designation the Romans named the country. 

The boundaries of ancient Germany were not accurately ascertained, but the 
name is generally applied to the territories lying between the Rhine and the 
Vistula, the Baltic Sea and the Danube. 

§ 13. These countries were, like Sarmatia, possessed by several tribes, of 
whom the principal were the Hermiones and Suevi, who possessed the mid- 
dle of Germany. 

The tribes on the banks of the Rhine were most known to the Romans. 
The chief of these were the Frisii, through whose country a canal was cut by 



576 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Drusus, which being increased in the coarse of time formed the present Zuyder 
Zee ; the Cherusci, who under the command of Arminius destroyed the legions 
of Gtuintilius Varus ; the Sicambri, who were driven across the Rhine by the 
Catti, in the time of Augustus ; the Catti, the most warlike of the German 
nations, and most irreconcilable to Rome j the Marcomanni, who were driven 
afterwards into Bohemia by the Allemanni, from which latter people Germany 
is, by the French, called Allemagne. 

Near the Elbe were the Angli and Saxones, progenitors of the English, 
and the Longobardi, who founded the kingdom of Lombardy, in the north 
of Italy. 

The nations on the Danube were the Hermundurii, steadfast allies of the 
Romans; the Marcomanni, who retired hither after their expulsion from the 
Rhine ; the Narisci and CLuadi, who waged a dreadful war with the Romans 
during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. 

§ 14. The Germans had no regular towns, and indeed, a continuity of houses 
was forbidden by their laws. The only places of note were, consequently, 
forts, built by the Romans, to repress the incursions of the natives. 

A great part of Germany was occupied by the Hercynian forest, which ex- 
tended nine days journey from south to north, and more than sixty from west 
to east. 

§ 15. The largest river of the northern division of Europe was the Rha, now 
Wolga. It was called Atei or Etel by the Byzantine writers (P. II. § 239) and 
others in the middle ages. It had 70 mouths discharging, and with more water 
formerly than now, into the Mare Caspium. It was in part the eastern boundary 
of Europe, separating Sarmatia from Scythia. — The river next in size was the 
Borysthenes, called in the middle ages Danapris, whence its modern name 
Dnieper. Just at its entrance into the Pontus Euzinus, it was joined by the Hy- 
panis, called in the middle ages Bogus and now the Bog. The long narrow 
beach at the mouth of the Borysthenes was called Dromus Achillei. — Between 
the Borysthenes and the Rha was the Tanais, the present Don, which separated 
Sarmatia Europea from Sarmatia Asiatica, and flowed into the Palus Mceotis or 
modern Sea of Azof; near its mouth was a city of extensive commerce, called 
Tanais Emporium. The strait connecting the Palus Masotis with the Euxine 
was called Bosphorus Cimmerius. — Another river, discharging into the Pontus 
Euxinus was the Tyras, the modern Dniester : it flowed between Sarmatia 
and Dacia, and formed in part the southern boundary of what is included in our 
northern division of Europe. — Two rivers, from sources near those of the Ty- 
ras, flowed in a northerly course to the Baltic, the ancient Sinus Codanus; 
they were the Vistula, still so called, and the Viader or Oder. The principal 
streams discharging into the Oceanns Germanicus were the Albis, Elbe, and the 
Rhenus, Rhine, which formed the western boundary of the division of Europe 
now under notice, dividing Germania and Gallia. 

(b) The Countries of the Middle of Europe. 

§ 16. We will begin with Gallu, which is at the western extremity of the 
division. The Romans called this extensive country Gallia Transalpina, to 
distinguish it from the province of Gallia Cisalpina in the north of Italy. The 
Greeks gave it the name of Galatia, and subsequently western Galatia, to 
distinguish it from Galatia in Asia minor, where the Gauls had planted a 
colony. 

Ancient Gaul comprehended, in addition to France, the territories of Flan- 
ders, Holland, Switzerland, and part of the south-west of Germany. Its boun- 
daries were the Atlantic ocean, the British sea, the Rhine, the Alps, the Medi- 
terranean, and the Pyrenees. — The country, in the time of Julius Caesar, was 
possessed by three great nations, divided into a number of subordinate tribes ; of 
these the Celtas were the most numerous and powerful ; their territory reached 
from the S^quana, Seine, to the Garumna, Garonne; the Belgae lay between the 
Sequana and. Lower Rhine, where they united with the German tribes ; the 
Aquitani possessed the country between the Garurnna and the Pyrenees. 

§ 17. Augustus Caesar divided Gaul into four provinces; Gallia Narbonen- 
sis, Aqnitania, Gallia Ccltica, and Belgica. 



EUROPE. MIDDLE COUNTRIES. GALLIA. 577 

Gallia Narbonensis, called also the Roman province, extended along the 
sea-coast from the Pyrenees to the Alps. It contained several nations, the princi- 
pal of which were the Allobroges, Salyes, and Volcse. The principal cities 
were Narbo Martius, the capital, Narbonne; Massilias, Marseilles ; founded by 
an Ionian colony, from Phocsea, in Asia Minor ; Forum Julii, Frejus ; and Aquae 
Sextias, Aix.— Narbonensis contained the modern Provinces, Languedoc, Pro- 
vence, Dauphine, and Savoy. 

Aquitania extended from the Pyrenees to the Liger, Loire ; the principal 
nations were the Tarbelli, south of the Garumna, and the Santones, Pictones, 
and Lemovices, north of that river; the chief towns were Mediolanum, Saintes; 
Portus Santonum, Rochelle ; and Uxellodunum. 

Gallia C e 1 1 i c a, or Lugdunensis, lay between the Liger and Sequana ; the 
principal nations were the Segusiani, iEdui, Mandubii, Parisii, and Rhedones ; 
the principal cities were Lugdunum, Lyons, founded by Munatius Plancus after 
the death of Julius Cassar; Bibracte, called afterwards Augustodunum, Autun; 
Alesia, Alise, the last city of Gaul, that resisted the arms of Cassar ; and Por- 
tus Brivates, Brest, near the Promontorium Gobaeum, Cape St. Malo.—The 
country along the coast, from the Liger to the Sequana, was called Armo- 
rica, the inhabitants of which were very fierce and warlike. 

The remainder of Gaul was included in the province Belgica, which con- 
tained a great number of powerful states ; the Helvetii occupying'that part 
of modern Switzerland included between Lacus Lemanus, the lake of Geneva, 
and Lacus Brigantinus, the lake of Constance ; the Sequani, possessing the 
present province of Franche Comte, and the Batavi, who inhabited Holland. 
— That part of Belgic Gaul adjoining the Rhine below Helvetia was called 
Ger mania, from the number of German tribes who had settled there, and 
was divided into Superior or Upper, nearer the sources of the Rhine, and 
Inferior or Lower, the part nearer its mouth. The principal of these were 
the Treveri, Ubii, Menapii, and Nervii. In the country of the Treveri was 
the extensive forest Arduenna, Ardennes, traces of which still remain. 

§ 18. The principal mountains of Gaul were Cebenna, the Cevennes, in 
Languedoc ; Vogesus, the Vauge, in Lorraine ; and Alpes. the Alps. — The Alps 
were subdivided into Alpes Maritimse, joining the Etruscan sea; Cottiae, over 
which Hannibal is supposed to have passed; Graecae, so called from the pas- 
sage of Hercules ; Penninae, so called from the appearance of their tops, (from 
penna, awing); Rhaeticae, joining Rhaetia; Noricas, bordering Noricum; Pan- 
nonicae ; and Juliae, the eastern extremity, terminating in the Sinus Flanati- 
eus, Bay of Carnero, in Liburnia. 

The chief rivers of Gaul were Rhenus, the Rhine ; this river, near its mouth, 
at present divides itself into three streams, the Waal, the Leek, and the New 
Issel ; the last was formed by a great ditch cut by the army of Drusus ; the 
ancient mouth of the Rhine, which passed by Leyden, has been chocked up by 
some concussion of nature not mentioned in history; Rhodanus, the Rhone, 
joined by the Arar, Saone ; Garumna, Garonne, which united with the Dura- 
nius, Dordogne ; Liger, the Loire, joined by the Elaver, AUier ; and Sequana, 
the Seine. 

The principal islands on the coast of Gaul were Uxantos, Vshant; Uliarus, 
Oleron ; Caesarea, Jersey; Sarmia, Guernsey; and Rid una, Alderney ; on the 
south coast were the Stoechades or Ligustides insulae, isles ol Hieres. 

§ 19. The government of ancient Gaul, previous to the Roman invasion, 
was aristocratical, and so great was their hatred of royalty that those, who 
where even suspected of aiming at sovereign power, were instantly put to death. 
The priests and nobles, whom they called druids and knights, possessed the 
whole authority of the state ; the peasantry were esteemed as slaves ; in most 
of the states an annual magistrate was elected with powers similar to those 
of the Roman consul, but it was ordained that both the magistrate and the 
electors should be of noble birth. — In person, the Gauls are said to have been 
generally fair-complexioned, with long and ruddy hair, whence their country is 
sometimes called Gallia Comata, or "Hairy Gaul. In disposition, they are de- 
scribed as irascible, and of ungovernable fury when provoked; their first on- 
set was very impetuous, but if vigorously resisted they did not sustain the fight 
with equal steadiness. 

§ 20. The history of the Gauls before the invasion of the Romans is in- 

73 



578 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

volved in obscurity; we only know that it must have been very populous from 
the numerous hordes who at different times emigrated from Gaul in search of 
new settlements. They seized on the north of Italy, which was from them 
called Cisalpine Gaul, they colonized part of Germany, they invaded Greece, 
and one tribe penetrated even to Asia, where mingling with the Greeks, they 
seized on a province, from thence called Galatia or Gallo-graecia. — Another 
body of Gauls, under the command of Biennus, seized and burned Rome it- 
self; and though they were subsequently routed by Camillus, the Romans ever 
looked on the Gauls as their most formidable opponents, and called a Gallic 
war, Tumultus, implying that it was as dangerous as a civil war. 

§ 21. The alliance between the people of Massilia?, Marseilles, and the Ro- 
mans furnished the latter people with a pretext for intermeddling in the affairs 
of Gaul, which they eagerly embraced. The first nation whom they attacked 
was the Salyes, who had refused them a passage into Spain ; the Salyes were 
subdued by Caius Sextius, who planted a colony called after his name, Aqua? 
Sextiae ; about four vears after, the greater part of Gallia Narbonensis was sub- 
dued by Guintus Martius Rex, who founded the colony Narbo Martius, and, 
made it the capital of the Roman province. — After the subjugation of Gallia 
Narbonensis, the Gauls remained unmolested until the time of Caesar, who after 
innumerable difficulties conquered the entire country, and annexed it to the Ro- 
man dominions. 

Th^gh grievously oppressed by the Roman governors, the Gauls under the 
emperers made rapid advances in civilization ; they are particularly noticed for 
their success in eloquence and law. A curious circumstance of the mode in 
which these studies were pursued is recorded by many historians: an annual 
contest in eloquence took place at Lugdunum, and the vanquished were com- 
pelled to blot out their own compositions, and write new orations in praise of 
the victors, or else be whipped and plunged into the Arar. 

§ 22. The country called Vindelicia was situated between the sources 
of the Rhine and the Danube. Its chief town was Augusta Vindelicorum, 
Augsburg, celebrated for the confession of the protestant faith, presented by Me- 
lanchton to the Diet assembled there at the commencement of the Reformation. 
— Between Vindelicia and the Alps was Rh^tia, containing rather more than 
the present territory of the Grisons ; its chief towns were Curia, Coire, and 
Tridentum, Trent, where' the last general council was assembled. — Vindelicia 
and Rhaetia were originally colonized by the Tuscans, and for a long time brave- 
ly maintained their independence. They were eventually subdued during the 
reign of Augustus Caasar, by Drusus, the brother of Tiberius. 

§ 23. Noricum lay to the east of Vindelicia, from which it is separated by 
the river iEnus, Inn. Its savage inhabitants made frequent incursions upon the 
Roman territories, and were, after a severe struggle, reduced by Tiberius Caesar. 
The iron of Noricum was very celebrated, and swords made in that country 
"were highly valued. 

East of Noricum was Pannonia, also subdued by Tiberius. It was divided 
into superior, the chief town of which was Vindebona, Vienna, and inferior,, 
whose capital was Sirmium, a town of great importance in the later ages of the 
.empire. .Noricum is now called Austria, and Pannonia, Hungary. 

§ 24. The boundaries of Illyricum have not been precisely ascertained ; it 
occupied the north-eastern shores of the Adriatic, and was sub-divided into the 
three provinces of Istria, Liburnia, and Dalmatia. It included the modern prov- 
inces, Croatia, Bosnia, and Sclavonia. — The chief towns were Salona near 
Spalatro, where the emperor Dioclesian retired after his resignation of the im- 
perial power; Epidaurus or Dioclea, Ragusi Vecchio, and Ragusa. 

The Illyrians were infamous for their piracy and the cruelty with which they 
treated their captives; they possessed great skill in ship-building, and the light 
gallies of the Liburnians contributed not a little to Augustus's victory at Actium. 
— The Romans declared war against the Illyrians, in consequence of the mur- 
der of their ambassadors, who had been basely massacred by Teuta, queen of 
that country. The Illyrians were obliged to beg a peace on the most humiliat- 
ing conditions, but having again attempted to recover their former power, they 
were finally subdued by the prater Anicius, who slew their king Gentius, and 
made the country a Roman province. 

§ 25, Mcesia lay between the Danube and Mount Haemus. It was divided into 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. HISPANIA. 579 

Superior, the present province of Servia, and Inferior, now called Bulgaria: 
Part of Moesia Superior was possessed by the Scordisci, a Thraeian Tribe; next 
to which was a district called Dardania; that part of Mossia Inferior near the 
mouth of the Danube was called Pontus, which is frequently confounded with 
Pontus, a division of Asia Minor. 

The principal cities in Moesia Superior were Singidunum, Belgrade, at the 
confluence of the Save and Danube ; Nicopolis built by Trajan to commemorate 
his victory over the Dacians ; and Naissus, Nissa, the birth-place of Constantine 
the Great. — In Moesia Inferior were Marcianopolis, the capital ; Tomi, the place 
of Ovid's banishment; Odessus south of Tomi, and iEgissus, near which was 
the bridge built by Darius in his expedition against the Scythiaus. 

§ 2G, Dacia lay between the Danube and Carpathian mountains. It was possess- 
ed by two Scythian tribes, ihe Daci and Getse, who for a long time resisted every 
effort to deprive them of their freedom ; they were at length subdued by Trajan. 
After having conquered the country, Trajan joined it to Moesia by a manificent 
bridge over ihe Danube, traces of which still exist. His successor, Adrian, in- 
fluenced either by jealousy of his predecessor's glory, or believing it more expe- 
dient to contract than to extend the bounds of the empire, broke down the bridge, 
and left Dacia to its fate. — Dacia included the modern provinces Transylvania, 
Moldavia, and Wallachia. 

A people has been found among the Wallachians, that now speak a language 
very similar to the Latin, and are therefore, supposed to be descended from Ro- 
man colonists. See Walsh's Journey from Constantinople. 

The celebrated Hercynian Forest,Sylva. Hercynia, stretched over the north and 
west part of Dacia (§ 14). 

(c) The Countries included in the Southern Division of Europe. 

§ 27. In treating of this division we will also commence with the most west- 
ern country, which was Hispania. This name included the modern kingdoms of 
Spain and Portugal. The country was also called Iberia, Hesperia, and, to dis- 
tinguish it from Italy sometimes termed Hesperia from its western situation, 
Hesperia ultima. The Romans at first divided it into Hispania citerior or 
Spain at the eastern side of the Iberus, and Hispania ulterior, at the western side ; 
but by Augustus Caasar, the country was divided into three provinces; Tarra- 
conensis, Bastica, andLusitania. Like the provinces of Gaul, these were inhab- 
ited by several distinct tribes. 

§28. Tarraconensis exceeded the other two provinces together,both in size 
and importance ; it extended from the Pyrenees to the mouth of the Durius, and 
received its name from its capital, Tarraco, Tarragona, in the district of the 
Cositani. 

The other principal towns were Saguntum, on the Mediterranean, whose siege 
by Hannibal caused the second Punic war; some remains of this city still exist, 
aud are called Murviedro, a corruption of Muri veteres, old walls; Carthago 
Nova, Carthagena, built by Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, also on the Med- 
iterranean; in the interior, north-east of the capital, Ilerda, Lerida, the capi- 
tal of the Ilergetes, where Casar defeated Pompey's lieutenants, Afranius and 
Petreius; Numantia, near the sources of the Durius, whose inhabitants made a 
desperate resistance to the Roman invaders, and when unable to hold out longer, 
burned themselves and the city sooner than yield to the conquerors ; Bilbilisthe 
birth-place of Martial, among the Celtiberi ; Csesarea Augusta, Saragassa, capital 
of the Edetani; Toletum, Toledo, Complutum, Alcala, and Libora, Talavera, in 
the same district ; Caligunis, in the territory of the Vascones, whose inhabit- 
ants suffered dreadfully from famine in the Sertorian war. Juvenal says that 
they were reduced to such straits, that the inhabitants actually devoured each, 
other. In this part of Spain, near the town of Segovia, are the remains of a 
splendid aqueduct, built by Trajan. Calle, Oporto, at the mouth of the Durius, 
was also called Portus Gallorum, from some Gauls who settled there, and hence 
the name of the present kingdom of Portugal. 

The north of Tarraconensis was possessed by the Cantabri, a fierce tribe, who 
for a long time resisted the utmost efforts of. the Romans ; their territory is the 
modern province of Biscay. 

§ 29. The southern part of Spain, between the Anas and Mediterranean, 



580 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

■was called B ce t i c a, from the river Baetis ; its chief towns were Corduba, Cordova, 
the birth-place of the two Senecas, and the poet Lucan ; in this town are the re- 
mains of a splendid mosque, built by the Moorish king, Almanzor; it is more 
than 500 feet long, and 400 wide; the roof is richly ornamented, and supported 
by 800 columns of alabaster, jasper, and black marble: Hispalis, Seville ; Italica, 
the native city of Trajan, Adrian, and the poet Silius Italicus; Custulo, called 
also Parnassia, because it was founded by a Phocian colony ; allon the fisetis. — 
The south-western extremity of Ba?iica was possessed by a Phoenician colony, 
called the Bastuli Pceni, todistinguish them from the Libyan Posni, or Cartha- 
ginians ; their capital was Gades, Cadiz, on an island at the mouth of the Baetis ; 
near it were the little island Tartessus, now part of the continent, and Juno- 
nis promontorium, Cape 'ilrafalgar. 

At the entrance of the straits of Hercules, or Gades, stood Carteia, on mount 
Calpe, now called Gibraltar a corruption of Gebel Tarik, i. e. the mountain of 
Tarik, the first Moorish invader of Spain. Mount Calpe and mount Abyla, 
on the opposite coast of Africa, were named the pillars of Hercules, and suppos- 
ed to have been the boundaries of that hero's western conquests. North of this 
was Munda, where Caesar fought his last battle with Labienus, and the sons of 
Pompey. 

§ 30. L u s i t a n i a, which occupied the greater part of the present kingdom of 
Portugal, contained but few places of note ; the most remarkable were Augusta 
Emerita, Merida, and Olisippo, Lisbon, said to have been founded by Ulysses. 

The names of the principal Spanish rivers, were : Iberus, Ebro ; Tagus, 
Tap; Durius, Douro ; Beetis, Gaudalquiver ; Anas, Gaudiana. 

The promontory at the north-western extremity of the peninsula was named 
Artabrum or Cehicam, Finisterre ; that at the south-western, Sacrum, because 
the chariot of the sun was supposed to rest there ; it was now called Cape St. 
Vincent. 

§ 31. Spain was first made known to the ancients by the conquests of Hercu- 
les. In later times the Carthaginians became masters of the greater part of the 
country; they were in their turn expelled by the Romans, who kept possession 
of the peninsula for several centuries. — During the civil wars of Rome, Spain 
was frequently devastated by the contending parties. Here Sertorius, after the 
death of Marius, assembled the fugitives of the popular party, and for a long 
time resisted the arms of Sylla; here, Afranius and Petreius, the lieutenants of 
Pompey, made a gallant stand against Julius Caesar ; and here, after the death 
of Pompey, his sons made a fruitless effort to vindicate their own rights, and 
avenge their father's misfortunes. — Upon the overthrow of the Roman empire, 
Spain was conquered by the "Vandals, who gave the name Vandalusia to one of 
the provinces now corrupted into Andalusia. 

§ 32. Italy, Italia, has been justly denominated the garden of Europe both by 
a ncient and modern writers, from the beauty of its climate and the fertility of 
its soil. The Italian boundaries, like those of Spain, have remained unaltered ; 
on the north are the Alps, on the east the Adriatic, or upper sea, on the south 
the Sicilian strait, and on the west the Tuscan, or lower sea. By the poets the 
country was called Saturnia, Ausonia, and CEnotria ; by the Greeks it was nam- 
ed Hesperia, because it lay to the west of their country. 

Italy has always been subdivided into a number of petty states, more or less 
independent of each other. We shall treat it as comprehended in two parts de- 
nominated the northern and southern ; and as the chief city and capital of the 
country is of such celebrity shall enter into a more particular description of 
Rome; adopting the following arrangement, 1. the Geography of the north- 
ern portion of Italy; 2. the Geography of the southern portion; 3. the Topog- 
raphy of the city of Rome. 

§33. (1) Geography of the northern portion. The principal ancient divisions 
of this part were Gallia Cisalpina, Etruria, Umbria, Picenum, and Latium. 

Gallia Cisalpina, called also Tdgata, from the inhabitants adopting 
after the Social war the toga, or distinctive dress of the Romans, lay between the 
Alps and the river Rubicon. It was divided by the river Eridanus, or Padus, 
into Transpadana, at the north side of the river, and Cispadana at the south ; 
these were subdivided into several smaller districts. 

North of the Padus, or Po, was the territory of the Taurini, whose chief 
town, Augusta Taurinorum, is now called Turin; next to these were the Insu- 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 581 

bres, whose principal towns were Mediolanum, Milan, and Ticinum, Pavia, on the 
river Ticinus, where Hannibal first defeated the Romans, after his passage over 
the Alps; the Cenomanni, possessing the towns of Brixia, Brescia, Cremona, 
and Mantua, the birth-place of Virgil; and the Euganei, whose chief towns 
were Tridentum, Trent, and Verona, the birth-place of Catullus. — Next to these 
were the Veneti and Carni; their chief towns were Patavium, Padua, the birth- 
blace of Livy, built by the Trojan Antenor, after the destruction of Troy, and 
Aquileia, retaining its former name but not its former consequence ; it is cele- 
pratedforits desperate resistance to Attila king of the Huns. Next to these 
was the province Histria > or Istria, chief town Tergeste, Trieste. 

South of the Po were the territories of the Ligures; chief towns, Genua, Ge- 
noa, on the Sinus Ligusticus, Gulf of Genoa; Portus Herculis Monasci, Mona- 
co, andNicaea, Nice ; the territory of the Boii, containing Bononia, Bologna ; 
Mulina. Modena, where Brutus was besieged by Antony ; Parma and Placentia ; 
and the country of the Ligones, whose chief town was Ravenna, where the em- 
perors of the west held their court, when Rome was possessed by the barbarians. 

§ 34. Cisa'pine Gaul contained the beautiful lakes Verbanus, Maggiore ; La- 
rius, the celebrated lake of Como, deriving its modern name from the village Co- 
mum, near Pliny's villa; and Benacus, Di Gardi. calle 

The rivers of this province were the Eridanus.or Padus, Po, d by Virgil 
the king of rivers ; it rises in the Cottian Alps, and receiving several tributary 
streams, especially the Ticinus, Teslno, and Mincius, Mincio, falls into the Adri- 
atic ; the Athesis, Adige, rising in the Rhsetian Alps, and the Rubicon, Rugone, 
deriving its source from the Apennines, and falling into the Adriatic. 

§ 35. The inhabitants of Cisalpine Gaul were, of all the Italian states, the 
most hostile to the power of Rome; they joined Hannibal with alacrity when he 
invaded Italy, and in the Social war they were the most inveterate of the allied 
stales in their hostility. — When the empire of the west fell before the northern 
tribes, this province was seized by the Longobardi, from whom the greater part 
of it is now called Lombardy. In the middle ages it was divided into a number 
of independent republics, which preserved some sparks of liberty, when freedom 
was banished from the rest of Europe. 

§ 36. Etruria extended along the coast of the lower or Tuscan sea,' from 
the small river Macra, to the mouth of the Tiber. 

The most remarkable towns and places in Etruria, were the town and port of 
Luna, at the mouth of the river Macra; Pisse, Pisa; Florentia, Florence; Por- 
tus Herculis Leburni, Leghorn; Pisloria, near which Catiline was defeated; Pe- 
rusia, near the lake Thrasymene, where Hannibal obtained his third victory over 
the Romans; Clusium, the city of Porsenna; Volsinii, Bolsena, where Sejanus, 
the infamous minister of Tiberius, was born; Falerii, Palari, near mount So- 
racte, the capital of the Falisci, memorable for the generous conduct of Camil- 
lus while besieging it; Veii, the ancient rival of Rome, captured by Camillus 
after a siege of ten years ; Caere, or Agylla, Cer Veleri, whose inhabitants hospi- 
tably received the Vestal virgins, when they fled from the Gauls, in reward for 
which they were made Roman citizens, but not allowed the privilege of voting, 
whence any Roman citizen who lost the privilege of voting was said to be en- 
rolled among the Capites; and Centum Cellae, Civita Vecchia, at the mouth of 
the Tiber, the port of modern Rome. 

§ 37. The principal rivers of Etruria, were Arnus, Arno, rising in the Apen- 
nines and falling into the sea near Pisa, and the Tiber, which issuing from the 
Umbrian Apennines, and joined by the Nar, Nera, and Anio, Teverone, running 
in a south-westerly direction, falls into the sea below Rome. 

The Etrurians were called by the Greeks, Tyrrheni; they are said to 
have come originally from Lydia in Asia Minor, and to have preserved traces 
of their eastern origin, to a very late period. From them the Romans borrowed 
their ensigns of regal dignity, and many of their superstitious observances, for 
this people were remaikably addicted to auguries and soothsaying. Cf. P. I. § 109. 

§38. Umbria was situated east of Etruria, and south of Cisalpine Gaul, 
from which it was separated by the Rubicon. Its chief towns were Ariminum,' 
Rimini, the first town taken by Cssar, at the commencement of the civil war; 
Pesaurum, Pesaro ; Senna Gallica, Senigaglia, built by the Galli Senones; Ca- 
merinum, Spoletium, Spoletto, where Hannibal was repulsed after his victory 



582 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

at Thrasymene : the memory of this repulse isstill preserved in an inscription over 
one ot'the gates, thence called Porta di Fuga ; a splendid aqueduct remains 
in this town, which in one part is of the amazing height of two hundred and 
thirty yards. The principal river of Umbria was the Metaurus, Metro, where 
Asdrubal was cut off by the consuls Livius and Nero, while advancing to the^ 
support of his brother Hannibal. 

§39. Picenum lay to the east of Umbria, on the coast of the Adriatic ; its 
principal towns were Asculum, Ascoli, the capital of the province, which must 
not be confounded with Asculum in Apulia, near which Pyrrhus was defeated ; 
Ancona, retaining its ancient name, founded by a Grecian colony; close to the 
harbor of this town is a beautiful triumphal arch erected in honor of Trajan ; 
the pillars are of Parian marble, and still retain their pure whiteness and ex- 
quisite polish, as if fresh from the workmen's hands; the celebrated chapel of 
Loretto is near Ancona: Confinium, San Ferino, the chief town of the Pelig- 
ni; and Sulmo, the birth-place of Ovid. 

South of Picenum and Umbria, were the territories of the Marsi and Sabines. 
The former were a rude and warlike people; their capital was Marrubium on 
the Lacus Fucinus, Celano: Julius Caesar vainly attempted to drain this lakej 
it was afterwards partially effected by Claudius Cassar, who employed thirty 
thousand men for eleven years, in cutting a passage for the waters through the 
mountains, from the lake to the river Liris. "When every thing was prepared 
for letting off the waters, he exhibited several splendid naval games, shows, &c; 
but the work did not answer his expectations, and the canal, being neglected, 
■was soon choked up, and the lake recovered its ancient dimensions. The Sa- 
bine towns were Cures, whence the Roman People were called Gtuirites; Reate, 
near which Vespasian was born ; Amiternum, the birth-place of Sallust ; Crus- 
tumerium and Fidenee. Mons Sacer, whither the plebeians of Rome retired in 
their contest with the patricians, was in the territory of the Sabines. In these 
countries were the first enemies of the Romans, but about the time of Camillus 
the several small states in this part of Italy were subjugated. 

§ 40. Latium, the most important division of Italy, lay on the coast of the 
Tuscan sea, between the river Tiber and Liris; it was called Latium, fromlateo, 
to lie hid, because Saturn is said to have concealed himself there, when dethron- 
ed by Jupiter. 

The chief towns were Romb (see § 51 ss.), above which on the Tiber, stood 
Tibur, Tivoli, built by an Argive colony, a favorite summer residence of the 
Roman nobility, near which was Horace's favorite country-seat ; south of Rome, 
Tusculum, Frescati, remarkable both in ancient and modern times, for the salu- 
brity of the air and beauty of the surrounding scenery; it is said to have been 
built by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses; near it was Cicero's celebrated Tuscu- 
lan villa; east of Tusculum, Preeneste, Palestrina, a place of great strength 
both by nature and art, where the younger Marius perished in a subterranean 
passage, while attempting to escape, when the town was besieged by Sylla ; 
south of Tusculum, Longa Alba, the parent of Rome, and near it the small 
towns Algidum, Pasdum, and Gabii, betrayed to the Romans by the well-known 
artifice of the younger Tarquin. 

On the coast, at the mouth of the Tiber, stood Ostia, the port of ancient Rome, 
built by Ancus Martins ; south of this were Laurentum and Lavinium, built by 
iEneas, and called after his wife Lavinia, and Ardea the capital of the Rutuli, 
where Camillus resided during his exile. South of these were the territories of 
the Volsci, early opponents of the Roman power; their chief cities were Anti- 
urn, where there was a celebrated temple of Fortune ; Suessa Pometia, the capi- 
tal of the Volsci, totally destroyed by the Romans, and Corioli, from the capture 
of which Caius Marcius was named Coriolanus. 

South of the Volsci, were the town and promontory of Circeii, the fabled resi- 
dence of Circe; Anxur, Terracina, on the Appian way; the town and promon- 
tory Caieta, deriving its name from the nurse of iEneas who was there inter- 
red ; Formise, near which Cicero was assassinated by command of Antony, and, 
at the mouth of the Liris, Minturns, near which are the Pontine or Pomptine 
Marshes, in which the elder Marius endeavored to conceal himself when pur- 
sued by his enemies. The Pontine marshes extended through a great part of 
Latium, and several ineffectual efforts have been made to drain them. The ex- 
halations from the stagnant water have always made the surrounding country 
very unhealthy. — On the confines of Campania were Arpinum, the birth-place 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES- ITALIA. 583 

■of Marius and Cicero, the rude soldier, and the polished statesman; Aquinum, 
the birth-place of Juvenal, and Sinnessa celebrated for its mineral waters, orig- 
inally called Sinope. ' 

§ 41. The principal rivers of Latium were the Anio, Teverone the Allia, on 
the banks of which the Gauls defeated the Romans with dreadful slaughter, and 
the Cremera. where the family of the Fabii, to the number of three hundred, 
were destroyed by an ambuscade, while carrying on war at their own expense 
against the Veientes; these three rivers fall into the Tiber ; the Liris, Garigli- 
ano, which divided Latium from Campania, falls into the Tuscan sea. — The 
principal lakes were named Lacus Albulus, Solfatara, remarkable for its sulphu- 
rous exhalations, and for the adjoining grove and oracle of Faun us; Lacus Re- 
gillus, near which Posthumius defeated the Latins, by the assistance of Castor 
and Pollux as the Romans believed; and Lacus Albanus, near which was mount 
Albanus where the solemn sacrifices called Feriae Latina? were celebrated. 

The capital of Latium, in the reign of king Latinus, was Laurentum; in the 
reign of jEneas, Lavinium; in the reign of Ascanius, Longa Alba-; but all 
these were eclipsed by the superior grandeur of Rome. The several indepen- 
dent states were subdued by the Romans in the earlier ages of the republic. 

§ 42. (2) Geography of the southern portion. The southern part of Italy 
■Was named Magna Grsecia, from the number of Greek colonies that at different 
periods settled there. It was divided into Campania, Samnium, Apulia, Ca- 
labria, Lucania, and Bruttium: 

Campania, the richest and most fertile of the divisions of Italy, extended 
along the shores of the Tuscan sea, from the river Liris, to the river Salarus, 
which divided it from Lucania. 

The chief city was Capua, so named from its founder, Capys, celebrated for 
its riches and luxury, by which the veteran soldiers of Hannibal were enervated 
and corrupted. North of it were Teanum, celebrated for the mineral waters in 
its vicinity, and Venafrum, famous for olives.— South of Capua was Casilinum, 
where a garrison of Prenestines, after having made a most gallant resistance, 
and protracted the siege till they had endured the utmost extremity of famine, 
were at last compelled to surrender ; next to this was Liternum, at the mouth of 
the little river Clanius, where Scipio Africanus for a long time lived in volun- 
tary exile.-Farther south was Cumae founded by a colony from Chalcis in Eubcea, 
the residence of the celebrated Cumean Sibyl, and near it the town and promon- 
tory Misenum, so named from Misenus, the trumpeter of iEneas, who was buried 
there. — Below this cape were Baiae, famous for its mineral waters; Puteoli, Puz- 
zoli, near which were the Phlegraei-campi, where Jupiter is said to have van- 
quished the giants; Cimmerium, whose early inhabitants are said, by Homer, to 
have lived in caves. After these, we come to Parthenope, or Neapolis, Naples, 
This beautiful city was founded by a colony fromCumae, and for a long time re- 
tained the traces of a Grecian original ; it was called Parthenope, from one of 
the Sirens said to have been buried there. Close to the town is the mountain 
Pausilypus, Pausilippo, through which a subterranean passage has been cut, half 
a mile in length and twenty-two feet wide; neither the time of making nor the 
maker is known ; a tomb, said to be that of Virgil, is shown on the hill Pausi- 
lippo. — Between Naples and Mount Vesuvius were Herculaneum and Pompeii, 
destroyed by a tremendous eruption of that volcano, A. D. 79. The remains of 
these towns were accidentally discovered in the beginning of the last century, 
and the numerous and valuable remains of antiquity give us a greater insight 
into the domestic habits of the Romans than could previously be obtained. See 
Preferences P. I. § 242. 2. At the southern extremity of the Sinus Puteolanus, 
bay of Naples, were Stabias, remarkable for its mineral waters, and Surrentum , 
celebrated for its wines; near the latter was the Promontorium Surrentinum, or 
Athenaeum, Capo delta Minerva ; eastof Naples was Nola, where Hannibal was 
first defeated, and where Augustus died ; in the south of Campania was Saler- 
num, Salerno, the capital of the Picentini. 

9 43. The principal Campanian rivers were the Vulturnus, Vulturno ; Se- 
bethus, Sebeto, now an inconsiderable stream, its springs being dried up by the 
eruptions of Mount Vesuvius ; and the Sarnus, Sarno. 

The principal lakes were the Lucrine, which by a violent earthquake, A. D. 
1538, was changed into a muddy marsh, with a volcanic mountain, Monte Novo 
de Cinere, in the centre; and the lake Avernus, near which is a cave which Vir- 



584 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

\ 

gil declares to have been the entrance of the infernal regions. It was said tfoal 
no birds couhl pass over this lake on account of the poisonous exhalations, whence 
its name, from a, not, and $i>vi$ t a bird. 

Upon the invasion of the northern nations, Campania became the alternate 
prey of different barbarous tribes; at length it was seized by the Saracens, in 
the tenth century. These were expelled by the Normans, under Tancred, who 
founded the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 

§ 44. East of Latium and Campania was Samnium, including the coun- 
try of the Hirpini. 

The chief towns of Samnium were Samnis the capital; Beneventum, Bene- 
vento, at first called Maleventum, from the severity of the winds, but when the 
Romans sent a colony here they changed the name, from motives of supersti- 
tion ; near this town Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who had come to the assistance of 
the Samnites, was totally defeated by the Roman army, commanded by Curius 
Dentatus; Caudium, near which are the Caudinse Furculas, Forchia d'Arpaia, 
a narrow and dangerous defile, in which the Roman army being blocked up by 
the Samnite general, Pontius, were obliged to surrender on disgraceful condi- 
tions ; and Alfenias, remarkable for its manufactory of earthen-ware. — Among 
the Hirpini were Equotuticum, whose unpoetical name is celebrated by Horace ; 
Trixicum, and Herdonia, Ordonia, on the borders of Apulia. — Near Herdonia 
was the celebrated valley of Amsanctus, surrounded by hills, and remarkable 
for its sulphureous exhalations and mineral springs; on a neighboring hill 
stood the temple of Mephitis, the goddess who presided over noxious vapors, 
whence the valley is now called Moffeta. 

§ 45. The principal rivers of Samnium were the Sabatus, Sabato, and Calor r 
Colore, both tributary to the Vulturnus. 

The Samnites were descended from the same' parent stock as the Sabines, and 
for many years contended with the Romans for the empire of Italy ; at length, 
after a war of more than seventy years, during which the Romans were fre^- 
quently reduced to great extremities, the fortune of Rome prevailed, and the 
Samnites were almost totally extirpated, B. C. 272. 

§ 46. Apulia, called also Daunia and Japygia, but now La Puglia, occu- 
pied the greater part of the east of Italy, extending from the river Frento to the 
Bay of Tarentum. 

Its chief towns were Teanum, named Apulum, to distinguish it from a town 
of the same name in Campania ; Arpi, said to have been built by Diomede, after 
his return from the Trojan war; north of Arpi is mount Garganus, Saint An- 
gelo, in the spur of the boot to which Italy is commonly compared ; east of Arpi 
were Uria, which gave the ancient name, and Sipontum, Manfredonia, which 
gives the modern name to the Sinus Urius, Gulf of Manfredonia ; on the bor- 
ders of Samnium, stood Luceria, celebrated for its wool, Salapia, Salpe, and As- 
culum, called Apulum, to distinguish it from a town of the same name in Pice- 
num. — Near the river Aufidus stood the village of Cannae, where Hannibal al- 
most annihilated the power of Rome ; through the fields of Cannas runs the 
small stream Vergellus, which is said to have been so choked with the carcasses 
of the Romans, that the dead bodies served as a bridge to Hannibal and his sol- 
diers. Canusium, a Greek colony, where the remains of the Roman army were 
received after their defeat— 'Venusia, Venom, near mount Vultur, the birth- 
place of Horace; Barium, Bari j where excellent fish were caught in great abun- 
dance; and Egnatia, on the Matinian shore, famous for bad water and good 
honey. 

The principal Apulian rivers were Cerbalus, Cerbaro, and Aufidus, Ofanto, 
remarkable for the rapidity of its waters, both falling into the Adriatic. 

§ 47. Calabria, called also Messapia, lay to the south of Apulia, forming 
what is called the heel of the boot. 

Its chief towns on the eastern or Adriatic side, were Brundusium, Brindisi, 
once remarkable for its excellent harbor, which was destroyed in the fifteenth 
century; from this the Italians who wished to pass into Greece generally sailed; 
Hydrantum, Otranto, where Italy makes the nearest approach to Greece; Cas- 
trum Minervae, Castro, near which is the celebrated Japygian cape, now called 
Capo Santa Maria de Luca. On the west side of Calabria were Tarentum, Ta- 
rento, built by the Spartan, Phalanthus, which gives name to the Tarentine bay ; 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 585 

Rudiae, the birth-place of the poet Ennius; and Callipolis, Gallipoli, built on an 
island, and joined to the continent by a splendid causeway. 

The principal river ol Calabria was the Galesus, Galeso, which falls into the 
bay of Tarentum. 

§ 48. Lucania lay south of Campania, extending from the Tuscan sea to 
the bay of Tarentum ; in the middle ages the northern part was named Basili- 
cata, from the emperor Basil, and the southern part was called Calabria-citra by 
the Greek emperors, to perpetuate the memory of ancient Calabria, which they 
had lost. 

The principal towns of Lucania, on the Tuscan sea, were Pactum, near 
Mount Alburnus, celebrated in ancient times for its roses, and in modern for its 
beautiful ruins; near it, Velia or Elea, the birth-place of Zeno, the inventer of 
logic, founded by a division of the Asiatic colony, who built Marseilles ; Buxen- 
tum, called by the Greeks ; Pyxus, on the Lausine bay, and Laus, on a river of 
the same name, from which the Lausine bay is designated. — In the interior, were 
Atinum,onthe Tenagrus ; Aternum, on theSilarus; Grumentum, on the Aci- 
ris; and Lugaria, said to have been founded by Epeus, the framer of the Trojan 
horse. — On the shore of the Tarentine bay, were Metapontum, the residence of 
Pythagoras during the latter part of his life, and the head-quarters of Hannibal 
for several winters; Heraclea, where the congress of the Italo-Grecian states 
used to assemble ; Sybaris, on a small peninsula, infamous for its luxury; and 
Thurium, at a little distance, whither the Sybarites retired when their own city 
was destroyed by the people of Crotona. The plains where these once flourish- 
ing cilies stood are now desolate ; the rivers constantly overflow their banks, and 
leave behind them muddy pools and unwholesome swamps, while the few archi- 
tectural remains contribute to the melancholy of the scene by recalling to mem- 
ory the days of former greatness. 

The principal rivers of Lucania were the Tanagrns, Negro, which, after sink- 
ing in the earth, breaks forth near the beautiful valley of Alburnus, and falls into 
the Tuscan sea; Melpus, Melfa, which emptiesitself into the Laus Sinus, Gulf of 
Policastro, so called from the number of ruins on its shores ; the Bradanus, a lit- 
tle rivulet, dividing Lucania from Calabria, and falling into the Tarentine bay; 
the Aciris, Agri, and the Sybaris, Coscile, small streams on the Tarentine coast. 

§ 49. The south-west of Italy, below the Sybaris, was named Bruttia-tellus or 
Bruttium, but is now called Calabria-ultra. — The principal cities of the 
Bruttii,on the Tuscan sea, were Pandosia, where Alexander, king of Epirus, 
who waged war in Italy while his relative and namesake was subduing Asia, 
died; Consentia, Cotenza, the capital of the Brutti; Terina, on the Sinus Teri- 
naeus, Gulf of St. Euphemia ; and Vibo, or Hippo, called by the Romans Valen- 
tia, Monte Leone. — On the Sicilian strait, were the town and promontory Scyl- 
lseum, Scilla, whose dangerous rocks gave rise to the fable of the sea monster 
Scylla. (P. III. § 117). On the opposite coast of Sicily is the celebrated whirl- 
pool Charybdis ; Rhegium, Reggio, so named by the Greeks, because they be- 
lieved that, at some very remote period, Sicily was joined to Italy and broken 
off here by some violent natural concussion; it was founded by a colony from 
Chalcis, in the island of Eubcea, and the surrounding country was celebrated 
for its fertility; not far from Rhegium were the village and cape Leucopetra, so 
named from the whiteness of its rocks, now Capo deW Amai. 

On the Tarentine bay were Petilia, the city of Philoctetes; Crotona, founded 
by some Achaeans, on their return from the Trojan war, where Pythagoras es- 
tablished his celebrated school of philosophy. The people were so famous for 
their skill in athletic exercises, that it was commonly said ' the last of the Croto- 
niates is the first of the Greeks ; ' south of this was the Promontorium Lacinium, 
where a very celebrated temple of Juno stood, whence she is frequently called 
the Lacinian goddess; from the remains of this temple, the promontory is now 
called Capo delta, Colonne ; Scylacaeum, Squillace, founded by an Athenian colo- 
ny on a bay to which it gives name ; Caulon, Castel Vetere, an Achasan colony, 
almost destroyed in the wars with Pyrrhus; south of it ~Neryx, Gerace, near the 
Promontorium Zephyrium, Burzano, the capital of the Locrians, who at a very 
early period settled in this part of Italy. The cape at the southern extremity of 
Italy was named Promontorium Herculis, now Sparlivento. 

The principal rivers of the Bruttii were the Crathes, Crati, and Neaethes, 
Neti, which received its name from the Achaean women having burned their 
husband's ships, to prevent their proceeding further in search of a settlement, 
74 



58G CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 50. A great proportion of the Greeks who colonized the south of Italy, 
were generals, who on their return from the Trojan war, found that they had 
been iorgotten by their subjects, and that their thrones weie occupied by others. 
The intestine wars that almost continually devastated Greece, increased the 
number of exiles, who at different times, and under various leaders, sought to ob- 
tain in a foreign country, that tranquillity and liberty that had been denied them 
at home. — These different states were internally regulated by their own laws, 
but an annual congress similar to the Amphictyonic council of Greece, assem- 
bled at Heraclea, and united the several communities in one great confederacy. 

Sibaris seems to have been, at first, the leading state, but after a bloody war, 
it was destroyed by the jealousy of the people of Crotona; the Sybarites did not 
yield to despair ; five times they rebuilt their city, but at length it was leveled to 
the ground, and its wretched inhabitants forced to relinguish their native place, 
and built a new town at Thurium. — The Crotoniates did not long preserve their 
supremacy, for the vices of the Sybarites were intoduced into their city, and they 
consequently fell an easy prey to the Locrians.— To secure their superiority, the 
Locrians entered into an alliance with the kings of Syracuse, who by this means 
obtained considerable influence in the south of Italy, until the attempt of the el- 
der Dionysius to secure to himself apart of the country by building a wall from 
the Terinean gulf to the Ionian sea, and still more by the ingratitude of the 
younger Dionysius, gave them a distaste for the foreign connexion. — After 
breaking off their alliance with the Sycilians, the Locrians united themselves to 
the Romans ; during the war with Pyrrhus, they adhered to the fortunes of 
Rome with the most unshaken fidelity, but afterwards becoming justly alarmed 
at the restless ambition of their allies, they readily joined Hannibal.— It is re- 
markable that in all the other Italo-Grecian states, the people embraced the Car- 
thaginian side, while the nobles sided with the Romans, but among the Locrians 
the division of parties was directly the contrary. 

The Tarentines ruled the shores of the Tarentine bay, but being enervated by 
riches and luxury, they were obliged to put themselves under the protection of 
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, to secure their city from the Romans. After the dis- 
graceful termination of Pyrrhus's Italian campaign, that monarch returned 
home, leaving a garrison in Tarentum, under the command of Milo, who be- 
trayed the city to the Romans. ■» 

After the termination of the second Punic war, these states, though acknowl- 
edging the superiority of Rome, retained their own laws and private jurisdic- 
tion, even to the latest periods of the Roman empire. 

§51.(3) The Topography of Rome. Thiscity was origin ally.it is stated, nearly 
in the form of a square, and its whole perimeter was scarcely onemile. In the 
time of Pliny, the walls are said to have been nearly 20 miles in circuit. The 
wall built by Belisarius to resist the Goths, still remaining, is about 14 miles in 
circumference. 

The Gates (Porta.) of Rome were originally four; in the time of the elder 
Pliny, there were thirty-seven, in the reign of Justinian only fourteen. The 
following were the most noted ; Porta Carmentalis, Collina, Tiburtina, Cosli- 
montana, Latina, Capena, Fiaminia, Ostiensis. 

§ 52. Thirty one great Roads centred in Rome. Some of the principal were 
Via Sacra, Appia,Mniilia, Valeria, Fiaminia. These public roads 'issuing from 
the Forum traversed Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were terminated only by 
the frontiers ot the empire.' Augustus erected a gilt pillar in the middle of the 
Forum, called miliiarium aureum, from which distances on the various roads were 
reckoned. ' This curious monument was discovered in 1823. ' {Butler's Geogr. 
Class, p. 39). - 

' They usually were raised some height above the ground which they traversed, and proceeded in as 
straight a line as possible, running over hill and valley with a sovereign contempt for all the princi- 
ples of engineering. They consisted of three distinct layers of materials ; the lowest, stones, mixed 
with cement, smtumen ; the middle, gravel or small stones, rudera, to prepare a level and unyielding 
surface to receive the upper and most important structure, which consisted of large masses accurately 
fitted together. These roads, especially in the neighborhood of cities, had, on both sides, raised foot 
ways, margines, protected by curb-stones, which defined the extent of the central part, agger, for car- 
riages. The latter was barrelled, that no water might lie upon it.' 

The most ancient and celebrated of all was the Appian way, called Regina Viarum, the Queen of 
Roads. It was constructed by the censor, Appius Claudius, in the year of the city 441, and extended 
JromRome to Capua. Afterwards it was continued to Brundusium 360 miles. At Sinuessa it threw off 



KUROPE. ITALIA.. TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 587 

a branch called the Doraitian way, which ran along the coast to Baiffi, Nqapolis, Herculaneum, and 
Pompeii. 'The public roads were accurately divided by mile-stones. They united the subjects of 
the mostdistant provinces by an easy intercourse ; but their primary object had been to lacilitate the 
march of the legions. The advantage of receiving the earliest intelligence, and of conveying their or- 
ders with celerity, induced the emperors toestablish, throughout their extensive dominions, the regu- 
lar institution of posts. Houses were everywhere erected cnly at the distance of five or six miles; 
each of them was constantly provided with forty horses, and by the help of these relaj s, it was easy 
to travel an hundred miles in a day along the Roman roads. The use of the posts was allowed to those 
who claimed it by an Imperial mandate ; but though originally intended for the public service, it was 
sometimes indulged to the business or conveniency of private citizens. ' 

§ 53. Therewere eight principal bridges over the Tiber, which flowed, through 
the city from the north ; Pons Milvius; JElius, still standing ; Fabricius ; Cestius; 
Palatinus or Senatorius, some arches of it still remaining; Sublicius or jEmili- 
<u,s ; Janicularis, still existing; Triumphalis or Valicanus. 

Rome was called Septicollis, from having been built on seven mountains or 
hills. These were Mons Palatinus, CapitoLinus, Esquilinus, Ccclius, Aventinus, 
Quirinaiis, Viminalis. 

The founda'ion or commencement of the city was made, according to the common accounts, on the 
Mons Palatums, or Palatium. Here Romulus had his residence. Here the emperors usually abode, 
and hence the term Palatium, palace, applied to designate a royal or princely dwelling. The hill first 
added was probably the Quirinaiis, on which it has been supposed was a Sabine settlement called 
Quirium; this addition being made when the union was formed between the Romans and Sabines, 
before the death of R' mulus, and the Romans took the name of Quirites. The double Janus on the 
earliest coins is by some supposed to refer to this union. Next was added the hill Coslius, on which a 
Tuscan settlement is supposed to nave been planted. The other four hills were successively added, at 
least, before the close of the reign of Servius Tullius, sixth king of Rome. Two hills en the north of 
the Tiber were also connected with the city. The Janiculum was fortified by Ancus Martius, 4th king 
of Rome, as asort of out-post and joined to the city by a bridge. The other, the Vaticanus, so called 
perhaps from the predictions uttered there by sooth-sayers, vates, was added at a later period ; it was 
rather disliked by the ancients, but is now the principal place in Rome, being the seat of the Pope's 
palace, St- Peter's church, and the celebrated Vatican Library. A tenth hill, Collis hortulorum, called 
also Pincius, was taken Into the city by Aurelian. 

On the side of the Capitoline hill towards the Tiber was the Tarpeian Rock; ( of all that tremendous 
precipice.paintedin such terrific colors,by Seneca, immensm altituiinis aspectus, only thirty feet of its 
summit now overlook the consolidated dust of ancient temples and the accumulated filth of modern 
hovels.' 

§54. Rome was originally divided into four districts. From the time of Au- 
gustus there were fourteen. The last division is followed by most topographers, 
and affords the most convenient order for mentioning the objects worthy of no- 
tice in the city. The names of the districts were as follows ; 1. Porta Capena ; 
2. Cozlimontium ; 3. lsis and Serapis or Moneta ; 4. Tcmplum Pads or Via Sa- 
cra ; 5. Esquilina cum iurri et colle Viminali ; 6. Alta Semita ; 7. Via Lata ; 8. 
Forum, Romanum ; 9. Circus Flaminius ; 10. Palatium; 11. Circus Maximus; 
12. Piscina Publica ; 13. Aventinus ; 14. Trans Tiberim. To desbribe only 
the most remarkable objects in each region or district would trespass on our de- 
signed limits, and we must be content with merely naming some of them. 

See G. C. Adler's ausfuerliche Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. Altona 1781. 4. with engrav- 
ings. The basis mainly, isthe arrangement of Sextus Rufus and Publius Victor with the additions 
of Nardini and others. Grccvii Thesaurus vol. 3 and 4. Nardini's Italian original was published 
anew by A. Nibby, Rome 1820. with plates. — Descrizione di Roma Antica forma nuovamente Con le 
Autoritadi Bart. Marliani, Onof. Panvinio, &c. with plates. Rom. 1697.— C. Fea, Nuova descrizione- di 
Roma antica e moderna. Rom. 1820. 3 vols. 8. with plates— C. Burton, Monuments and Curiosities of 
Rome. Transl, into German by Sickler, Weim. 1823. 8.— Venuti Descrizione topografia delle anti- 
chita di Roma, ed. by Vtsconti, 1803.— A tabular statement of the objects included in the 14 regions is 
given in Kennstt's Rom. Antiquities, ch. ii.— On the remains monuments of ancient Rome, of. P. I. § 
186,191,226,242. i 

§ 55. There were large open places in the city, designed for assemblies of the 
people, and for martial exercises, and also for games, termed Campi. Of the 
nineteen, which are mentioned, the Campus Martius was the largest and most 
famous. It was near the Tiber ; thence called sometimes Tiberinus, but usually 
Martius, as consecrated to Mars. It was originally the property of Tarquin the 
Proud, and confiscated after his expulsion. In the later ages it was surrounded 
by several magnificent structures ; and porticos were erected under which the 
citizens could exercise in rainy weather. It was also adorned with statues and 
arches. Comitia were held here; and there were Septa or Ovilia (P. IV. §259) 
constructed for the purpose. 



588 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 56. The main streets of the city were termed vice. On each side were con- 
nected blocks of houses and buildings; these being separated by intervening 
streets and by lanes or alleys, would form separate divisions, ora sort of squares ; 
the portions occupied by buildings and thus separated were called Vici ; of these 
there were, it issaid,424. They had particular names; e. g. Vjcus albus, jugari- 
us, lanarius, Tibertinus, Junonis, Minerva, tyc. 

§ 57. The name of Fora, was given to places where the people assembled for 
the transaction of business. Although at first business of every sort was proba- 
bly transacted in the same place, yet with the increase of wealth, it became con- 
venient to make a separation ; and the Fora were divided into two sorts Civilia 
and Venalia. The Roman Fora were not, like the ayooai of the Greeks, nearly 
square, but oblong, the breadth not more than two thirds of the length ; the differ- 
ence between the length and breadth of the chief Forum discovered at Pompeii 
is greater. 

Until the time of Julius Caesar there was but one Forum of the first mentioned 
class; that generally called Forum Romanum, or Forum simply, byway of emin- 
ence. This gave name to the 8th region (§ 54), and was between the Capito- 
line and Palatine hills j it was 800 feet wide, built by Romulus, and adorned on 
all sides, by TarquimusPriscus, with porticos, shops and other buildings. On 
the public buildings around the Forum great sums were expended in the architec- 
ture and ornaments. Here were basilica, enria. and tabularia ; temples, prisons, 
and public granaries ; here too were placed numerous statues, with other monu- 
ments. In the centre of the Forum was the place called the Curtian Lake, 
where Curtius is said to have plunged into a mysterious gulph or chasm, and 
thus caused it to be closed up. On one side were the elevated seats for suggestns, 
a sort of pulpits'), from which magistrates and orators addressed the people; usu- 
ally called the Rostra ; because adorned with the beaks of ships, taken in a sea- 
fight from the inhabitants of Antium. Near by was the part of the Forum called 
the Comitium, where some of the legislative assemblies were held, particularly 
the Comitia Curiata. In or near the Comitium was the Puteal Attii ; a puteal 
was a little place surrounded by a wall in the form of a square and roofed over ; 
such a structure was usually erected on a spot which had been struck with light- 
ning. Not far from the Puteal Attii was the Praetor's Tribunal, for holding 
courts. There was in the Forum, near the Fabian Arch, another structure 
marking a place struck with lightning, the Puteal Libonis, near which usurers 
and bankers were accustomed to meet (Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 35). The milliarium in 
the Forum has already been mentioned ( § 52). 

Besides this ancient Forum there were four others built by different emperors, 
and designed for civil purposes ; the Forum Julium, built by Julius Caesar, with 
spoils taken in the Gallic war; the Forum Augusti, by Augustus adorned with 
statues of the kings of Latiumon one side and the kings of Rome on the other; 
the Forum Nerva, begun by Domitian and finished by Nerva, haying statues of 
all the emperors ; and the Forum Trajani, by Trajan, the most splendid of all. 

The Fora Venalia were 14 in number; among them the Forum Boarium, 
ox. and cow market, adorned with a brazen bull ; Piscarium, fish market ; Olito- 
rium, vegetable market; Suarium, swine market, &c. 

§ 58. In speaking of the temples of Rome, the first place belongs to the Capi- 
tolium. The Capitol was one of the oldest, largest and most grand edifices in 
the city. It was first founded by Tarquinius Priscus, and afterwards from time 
to time enlarged and embellished. Its gates were brass and it was adorned with 
costly gilding ; hence the epithets aurea and fulgens applied to it. It was on the 
Capitoline hill in the highest part of the city, and was sometimes called arx. 
The ascent from the Forum to it was by 100 steps. It was in the form of a square 
extending about 200 feet on each side. Its front was decorated with three rows 
of pillars, the other sides with two. Three temples were included in this struc- 
ture, that of Jupiter Capitolinus in the centre, one sacred to Minerva on the right, 
and one to Juno on the left. The Capitol also comprehended some minor tem- 
ples or chapels, and the Casa Romuli, or cottage of Romulus, covered with straw. 
Near the ascent to the capitol was also the asylum, or place of refuge. 

This celebrated structure was destroyed or nearly so, by fire, three times ; first, 
in the Marian war, B. C. 83, but rebuilt by Sylla ; secondly in the Vitellian war, 
A. D. 70, and rebuilt by Vespasian; thirdly, about the time of Vespasian's death, 
after which it was rebuilt by Domitian with greater magnificence than ever. A 
few-vestiges only now remain. 



EUROPE. ITALIA, TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 589 

§ 59. The temple next in rank was the Pantheon, built by Marcus Agrippa, 
son-in-law of Augustus, and consecrated to Jupiter Ultor,or as its name imports, 
to all the gods (navxuiv 6tc5v). It is circular in form and said to be 150 feet high 
and of about the same breadth. The walls on the inside are either solid marble 
or incrusted. The front on the outside was covered with brazen plates gilt and 
the top with silver plates, but now it is covered with lead. The gate was of brass 
of extraordinary size and work. It has no windows, but only an opening in the 
top, of about 25 feet in diameter, to admit the light. The roof is curiously vault- 
ed, void spaces being left here and there for the greater strength. The Pantheon 
is one of the most perfect of the ancient edifices remaining at Rome. It is now 
called the Rotunda, having been consecrated by pope Boniface 4th, A. D. 607, to 
the Virgin Mary and all the Saints. It is worthy of remark that such has been 
the accumulation of the soil around it, that the entrance, which used to be gained 
by ascending 12 steps, is now found only by descending as many. 

§ 60. There were many other temples in ancient Rome (cf. P. IV. § 203), 
which cannot here be described. The temple of Saturnv/as famous particular- 
ly as serving for the public treasury ; perhaps thus used because one of the strong- 
est places in the city ; although some ascribed it to the tradition, that in the gold- 
en age, under Saturn, fraud was unknown. In this temple were also kept the 
public registers and records, among them the Libri Elephantini, or ivory tables 
containing lists of the tribes. 

The temple of Janus was built or finished, at least, by Numa; asquare edifice, 
with two gates of brass, one on each side ; which were to be kept open in time of 
war and shut in time of peace, So continually was the city engaged in wars, 
that the gates of Janus were seldom shut ; first, in the reign of Numa ; second- 
ly, at the close of the first Punic war, B. C. 241 ; three times in the reign of Au- 
gustus : the last time near the epoch of Christ's birth ; and three times after- 
wards, once under Nero, once under Vespasian, and lastly, under Constantius, 
about A. D. 350. The gates were opened with formal ceremony ( Virg. Ma. vii. 
707). 

The temple of Apollo on the Palatine hill was celebrated on account of its li- 
brary (P. I. § 126). The temple of Vesta yet exists in a small circular church, 
on the side of the Palatine hill towards the Tiber. Besides these, we may name 
the temple of Concord ; of the goddess of Peace (Pari cderncz); of Castor and 
Pollux; of Valor, built by Marcellus. 

The Romans were accustomed, like other ancient nations,to consecrate groves 
and woods to the gods. As many as 230 sacred groves (luci) are enumerated, 
chiefly within the city of Rome. 

• § 61. The Curia were public edifices, or parts of public edifices, and appro- 
priated, some of them for assemblies of the senate and civil councils, others for 
meetings of the priests and religious orders for the regulation of religious rites. 
To the former class the Senacula seem to have belonged. The following were 
among the Curiae ; viz. Curia Romana, Vetus, Hostilia, Vailensis, Pompeii, &c. 
The Basilica: were buildings of great splendor, devoted to meetings of the 
senate, and to judicial purposes. Here counsellors received their clients, and 
here bankers also had rooms for transacting their business. There were four- 
teen of these buildings; among them, Basilica vetus, Constantiniana, Sici- 
niana, Julia, &c. — Both the Basilicee and the Curiae were chiefly around the 
Forum. 

It should be remarked that the term Basilica was applied to many of the ancient Christian churches, 
because they so much resembled the BasilictB just described. The earliest churches bearing this name 
were erected under Constantine. He gave his own palace on the Coelian hill to construct on its site a 
church, which is recognized as the most ancient Christian Basilica. Next was that of St. Peter on the 
Vatican hill, erected A. D. 324, on the site and with the ruins of the temples of Apollo and Mars; it 
stood about 12 centuries, and was then pulled down by pope Julius 2d, and on its site has arisen the 
modern church of the same name. 

§ 62. The Cirri were structures appropriated to public spectacles, to races 
and to fighting with wild beasts. They were generally oblong, having one end 
at right angles with the sides, and the other curved, and so forming nearly the 
shape of an ox-bow. A wall extended quite round, with ranges of seats for the 
spectators. There were eight of these buildings, besides the Circus Maximus, 
described in another place (P. IV. § 232), situated in the vicinity of the Forum. 



590 CLASSICAL GEOORArilV. 

We only add here, that this is said to have been enlarged after the time of Julius 
Caesar, so as to contain 260,000 persons. 

The Stadia were structures of a similar form, designed for contests in racing, 
but less in size and cost. — Hippodromi were of the same character and seem to 
have been sometimes built for private use. 

§ 63. Ancient Rome had also a number of large edifices constructed for the 
purpose of dramatic exhibitions, and for gladiatorial shows. Those for the for- 
mer use were termed theatra (cf. P. IV. § 238), The first, permanent, was that 
erected by Pompey, of hewn stone. Near this in the vicinity of the river were 
two others, that of Marcellus and that of Balbus ; hence the phrase applied to 
them, tria theatra. — The structures designed for the gladiatorial shows were 
termed Amphitheatra (P. IV. § 238), of which the most remarkable was the Coli- 
seum, still remaining, a most stupendous ruin. The Odea were buildings cir- 
cular in form, and ornamented with numerous seats, pillars and statues, where 
trials of musical skill were held, and poetical and other literary compositions 
were exhibited, after the manner of the Greeks, Those established by Domitian 
and Trajan were the most celebrated. 

§ 64. The buildings constructed for the purpose of bathing (balnea) were very 
numerous ; such as were of a more public character were called thermce. In the 
time of the republic the baths were usually cold. Maecenas is said to have been 
the first to erect warm and hot ones for public use. They were then called 
thermce., and placed under the direction of the adiles. Agrippa, while he was 
sedile, increased the number oi thermce to 170, and in the course of two centuries 
there were no less than 800 in imperial Rome. The thermce Diocletiani were 
especially distinguished for their extent and magnificence. Those of Nero, 
Titus, Domitian, and especially Caracalla, were also of celebrated splendor. 

The edifices designed for public baths, although differing in magnitude and splendor and in the de- 
tails of arrangement, were all constructed on the same common plan. ' They stood among extensive 
gardens and walks and often were surrounded by a portico. The main building contained spacious 
halls for swimming and bathing; others for conversation; others for various athlethic exercises; 
others for the declamation of poets and the lectures of philosophers ; in a word for every species of 
polite and manly amusement ' Those erected by the emperors especially had these appendages, and 
were of great magnificence. 'Architecture, sculpture, and painting exhausted their refinements on 
these establishments, which for their extent were compared to cities t incrustations, metals and marble 
were all employed in adorning them. The baths of Caracalla were ornamented with two hundred pil- 
lars, and furnished with sixteen hundred seats of marble -. three thousand persons could be seated on 
tnem at one lime. Those of Diocletian surpassed all the others in size and sumptuousness of decora- 
tion ; and were besides, enriched with the precious collection of the Ulpian library. We can entertain 
some idea of the extent of this edifice, when we are told that one of its halls forms at present the church 
of the Carthusians, which is among the largest and at the same time most magnificent temples of 
Rome. Here we are furnished with one of the many monuments of the triumph of Christianity, in 
despite of the most persevering and cruel persecutions of the then sovereigns of the world. On this 
very spot, where the organ, and the choral strain of devotion are now daily heard, Diocletian is said to 
have employed in the construction of his baths forty thousand Christian soldiers, whom, after de- 
grading with all the insignia of ignominy, he caused to be massacred when the edifice was completed. 
—It may be added that the private baths, al some of the villas of the rich, vied in splendor with the 
public thermae. According to Seneca, the walls were of Alexandrian marble, the veins of which were 
so disposed as to resemble a rtgular picture : the basins were set round with a most valuable kind of 
stone imported from the Grecian islands; the water was conveyed through silver pipes, and fell by 
several descents in beautiful cascades ; the floors were inlaid with precious gems ; and an intermix- 
ture of statues and colonnades contributed to throw an air of elegance and grandeur over the whole. 
(Bell on Baths. Phila. 1831. 12.) 

- As no particular description of an ancient bath has been given elsewhere in this work, it seems pro- 
per to introduce here some account of such a structure. The following description, drawn chiefly from 
the pufkic baths discovered at Pompeii, will apply substantially both to the Greek and Roman baths. — 
' The building, which contained them, was oblong, and had two divisions, the one for males, and the 
other for females. In both, warm or cold baths could be taken. The warm baths, in both divisions, 
were adjacent to each other, for the sake of being easily heated. In the midst of the building, on the 
ground-floor, was the heating-room, hypocaustum, by which not only the water for bathing, but some- 
times also the floors of the adjacent rooms, were warmed. Above the heating-room was an apartment 
in which three copper kettles were walled in, one above another, so that the lowest (caldarium) was 
immediately over the fire, the second (tepidarium) over the first, and the third (frigidarhim) over the 
second. In this way, either boiling, luke-warm, or cold water could be obtained. A constant commu- 
nication was maintained between these vessels, so that as fast as hot water was drawn off from the cal- 



EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 591 

darium, the void was supplied from the tepidarium, which, being already considerably heated, did but 
slightly reduce the temperature of the hotter boiler. The tepidarium, in its turn, was supplied from 
the piscina or frigidarium, and that from the aqueduct ; so that the heat, which was not taken up by the 
first boiler, passed on to the second, and instead of being wasted, did its office in preparing- the con- 
tents of the second for the higher temperature which it was to obtain in the first. The cuppers and re- 
servoir were elevated considerably above the baths, to cause the water to flow more rapidly into them. 
The terms frigidarium, tepidarium, and caldarium are applied to the apartments in which the cold, 
tepid, - and hot baths are placed, as well as to those vessels in which the operation of heating the 
water is carried on. 

The bathing rooms had, in the floor, a basin of mason-woik, in which there were seats, and round it 
a gallery, where the bathers remained before they descended into the bath, and where all the atten- 
dants were.' In the division of the Pompelan baths supposed to belong to the men, the principal 
public entrance led directly into the vestibule, a sort of court, along three sides of which there ran a 
portico or walk (ambulacrum). Seats were ranged round the walls perhaps for the slaves, who ac- 
companied their masters to the bath. In this place was the box for the quadrans (fourth of an as, less 
than a farthing), the piece of money given as a fee for bathing by each visitor. A corridor or small 
passage, in which were found above 500 lamps, conducted from the court into the room for undressing, 
apodyterium. This room had three seats, made of lava, with a step to place the feet on. The room 
was stuccoed from the cornice to the ground, highly finished and colored yellow. In the vaulted roof 
was a window with a single large pane of glass (cf. P. IV. § 323). Various ornaments were carved in 
the cornice. The floor was paved with white marble in mosaic. Several doors communicated with 
the room.— One of these led to the cold bath, frig idariwm. This was a round chamber, encrusted with 
yellow stucco, having its ceiling in the form of a truncated cone, apparently once painted blue. It was 
lighted by a window near the top. In it were four niches equi-distant from each other, with seats, 
scholtB, in them for the bathers. There was also a basin nearly 13 feet in diameter and 2 feet 9 inches 
deep, entirely lined with white marble, with two marble steps to aid the descent into it, and a sort of 
cushion, pulvinus, also of marble, atthe bottom, for the bathers to sit upon.— Another door of the un- 
dressing room opened into a passage leading to the tepidarium, or warm-chamber, so called from its 
warm but soft and mild temperature, which prepared the body of the bather for the more intense heat 
of the vapor and hot baths, and also softened the transition from the hot bath to the external air. This 
room was divided into a number of niches or compartments, was lighted by a window with a bronze 
frame of four panes of glass, and had many ornaments in stucco. A doorway led from it into the cal- 
darium or sudatorium. This apartment exactly corresponded to the directions laid down by Vitru- 
vius, for constructing the vapor bath. Its length was twice as great as its breadth, exclusive of the 
laconicum at one end, and the lavacrum at the other. It was stuccoed like the other rooms, painted 
yellow and decorated with var.ous ornaments. The floor and walls of the sudatorium were made hol- 
low, that the heated air might pass freely around : the design was to furnish a sudatory of dry air; 
' it -corresponds precisely with a hot stove room of the present day, except that the stove proper was 
beneath and outside the sudatorium. 1 The laconicum was a large semi-circular niche, seven feet wide 
and three feet six inches deep, in the middle of which was placed a vase for washing the hands and lace, 
ca'.led labrum; this was a large basin of white marble, elevated 3 1-2 feet above the pavement and 
about 5 feet in diameter, into which the hot water bubbled up through a pipe in the centre ; an inscrip- 
tion on this labrum states that it cost 750 sesterces. There is in the Vatican a magnificent porphyry 
labrum, found in one of the imperial baths at Rome. The lavacrum, or hot-bath, at the other end of 
the room, was 12 feet long, 4 feet 4 inches wide and 1 foot 4 inches deep ; entirely of marble, into 
which the hot water was conveyed by a pipe ; it was elevated two steps above the floor ; the descent 
into it was by a single step, which formed a continuous bench around it for the convenience of the 
bathers. 

Besides the rooms thus described, there was also a room, called the unctuarium or elaothesium; 
In which the bathers anointed their bodies with oil before taking their exercise, or with perfumes after 
bathing. This room was usually stored with pots containing numerous varieties of unguents appro- 
priated to different parts of the body (P. IV. 5 170). There was likewise another room, in which various 
exercises were performed before taking the bath ; this room was sometimes called ephebium, more fre- 
quently sphtzristerium, because the favorite exercise was the ball. The conistcrium was an apart- 
ment, where was kept the powder which was sprinkled over the body after the exercises just men- 
ti ned. In the more splendid imperial baths there were various other rooms and halls. 

Those who went to bathe first proceeded to the apodyterium, where they took off their clothes and 
committed them to the care of the capsarii, slaves employed for the purpose by the overseer, balnea- 
tor. Thence they proceeded to the unctuarium, where they were anointed by other slaves, atiptts. 
Thence they proceeded to the sphmristerium,- to engage in some of the exercises of that apartment. 
From this room they went to the caldarium. In taking the hot bath in the latter room, they sat upon 
the step or bench already described, which was below the surface of the water. Here they scraped 
themselves with instruments ca'.led strigiles, usually of bronze, sometimes of iron ; or this operation 
■was performed by an attendant slave. From drawings on a vase found at Canino, it is inferred that 
the bathers, after the use of the strigils, rubbed themselves with their hands, and then were washed 
from head to foot by having pails or vases of water poured over them. They were then dried carefully 
with cotton or linen cloths, and coveied with a light shaggy mantle, called gau-sape. On quitting the 



592 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

caldarium, they went into the tepldarlum, and, after some delay, thence into the frigldarium ; but are 
supposed not generally to have bathed in these rooms at the public thermos, but to have used them 
chiefly to soften the transition from the intense heat of the caldarium to the open air. The bathing 
was usually followed by an anointing of the body with the perfumed oils of the elasotliesium, after 
which the clothes left in the apodyterium were resumed. 

The customary lime of day for bathing, both at the public thermtB, and the more private balnea, was 
between 2 o'clock and dusk. Between 2 and 3 o'clock was considered the most eligible time for the ex- 
ercise and the bath. The baths were usually closed at dusk ; some of the emperors allowed them to be 
open until 5 in the evening. The charge for entrance was increase 1 a hundred fold after 4 o'clock. 
Nero's baths were heated by 12 o'clock] and Severus allowed the baths to be opened before s unrise 
and even through the night, in summer. 'I he rage for bathing seems to have continued until the re- 
moval of the seat of the empire to Constantinople; after which no new thermae were erected and the 
old gradually fell into decay. 

It is worthy of remark, that the] exercise of swimming was connected with the custom of bathing. 
' This art ' it is said, ' was held in such estimation by the Greeks and Romans, that, when they wished 
to convey an idea of the complete ignorance of an individual, they would say of him, that he neither 
knew how to read nor swim, a phrase corresponding with our familiar one, that a person knows not 
how to read or write. Attached to, and forming a part of, the gymnasia and pakestrse, were schools 
for swimming ; according to Pliny, the Romans had basins in their private houses for the enjoyment 
of this exercise ' (Bell.) 

For fuller details, with notices of some of the imperial baths, see Pompeii, p. 153.— The most copious 
work on the Roman Baths and their remains is that of Cameron, entitled The Baths of the Romans ex- 
plained and illustrated. Lond. 1772. fol. with the illustrations of Palladio, 75 plates.— Cf. Les Thermes 
des Romains, dessinees par Andre Palladio, &c. Vicenza, 1785. fol.— See also G. A. Blouet, Re- 
stauration des Thermes d'Ant. Caracalla. Par. 1828. fol. fine plates.— J. B. Piranesi (cited P, I. § 242.2) 
2d vol. 

§ 65. The name of Lmdi or schools was given to those structures, in which 
the various athletic exercises were taught and practiced; those most frequently 
mentioned are the L/adus Magnus, Matutinus, Dacicus and jEmilius. There were 
also several structures for exhibiting naval engagements, called Naumac/rice ; as 
Naumachia Augusli, Domitiani (cf. P. IV. § 233). 

Finally there were large edifices, sacred to the nymphs and called Nymphcea ; 
one particularly noted, which contained artificial fountains und water-falls, 
and was adorned with numerous statues of these imaginary beings (cf. P. III. 
§ 101). 

§ 66. The Porticos or Piazzas (porticus) were ve ry numerous. These were 
covered colonnades, adorned with statues and designed as places for meeting and 
walking for pleasure. They were sometimes separate structures, sometimes 
connected with other large buildings, such as basilica?, theatres and the like. 
The most splendid was that of Apollo's temple on Mount Palatine, and the 
largest, the one called Milliaria. Courts were sometimes held in porticos ; and 
goods also of some kinds were exposed for sale in them. (Cf. P. I. § 237.) 

The city was adorned with Triumphal arches (arcus triumphales), to the num- 
ber of 36, having statues and various ornaments in bas-relief (P. I. § 188). Some 
of them were very magnificent, as e. g. those of Nero, Titus, Trajan, Septimius 
Severus, and Constantine. These were of the finest marble, and of a square 
figure, with a large arched gate in the middle, and small ones at the sides. 

§ 67. There were single pillars or columns, columntz, also erected to com- 
memorate particular victories, e. g. those of Duillius (cf. P. I. § 133. 1), Trajan, 
and Antoninus. The two last are still standing and are reckoned among the 
most precious remains of antiquity. 

With great labor, Obelisks were removed from Egypt, of which those still 
existing, having been conveyed there by Augustus, Caligula, and Constantius 
the second, are the most remarkable. 

Innumerable also were the statues, which were found not only in the temples, 
but also in many public places, in and upon large edifices. More than eighty of 
a colossal size are mentioned. 

There were likewise erected at Rome a few trophies, tropcea. These were 
trunks of marble, sometimes of wood, on which were hung the spoils taken 
from the enemy, especially the weapons of war. There are two trunks of 
marble, decorated like trophies, still remaining at Rome, and supposed to have 
been erected by Marius for his victories, over Jugurtha, and over the Cimbri. 

§ 68. Among the memorable things of Rome, the Aqueducts, aqiiceduclus, 
should be mentioned. Their design was to furnish the city with a constant sup- 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES, THRACIA. 593 

ply of water, and great expense was laid out in constructing and adorning them. 
There were 14 of the larger sort; the Aqua Appia, Marcia, Virgo, Claudia, 
Septimia and Ahietina, are the most known. The smaller reservoirs (lacus) 
were commonly ornamented with statues and carver's work. Some of the aque- 
ducts brought water more than 60 miles, through rocks and mountains, and over 
valleys supported ou arches, sometimes above 100 feet high. The care of these 
originally belonged to the sediles ; under the emperors particular officers were 
appointed for it, called curatores aquarium. 

The Cloaca: were also works of gj'eat cost and of very durable structure. They 
were a sort of sewers or drains, some of them very large, passing under the 
whole city, and discharging its various impurities into the Tiber. The prin- 
cipal was the Cloaca Maxima, first built by Tarquinius Priscus, cleansed and re- 
paired by M. Agrippa ; it was 1C feet broad and 30 feet high, formed of blocks of 
hewn stone. The Pantheon (§ 59) was over it ; and many private houses stood 
directly upon the cloaca? (Stuart's Diet, of Arch.j. These were under the 
charge of officers styled curalores cloacarvm. 

§ 69. Splendid tombs and monuments to the dead were sometimes erected 
(cf. P. IV. 9 341). We may name here particularly the Mausoleum of Augus- 
tus, of a pyramidical form, 385 feet high, with two Obelisks standing near it, 
the Moles HadHani, and the Tomb or Pyramid of Oestius. (Cf. P. I. § 226.) 

§ 70. The number of private buildings, which were called domus when con- 
tiguous to one another, and insula, when they were isolated or when several 
.buildings of one owner were connected together and separate from others, 
amounted to above 48,000 in the most flourishing times. Among them were 
some of great splendor, partly of marble, and adorned with statues and colon- 
nades. The more celebrated were the palaces of Julius Cassar, Mamurra, Ju- 
nius Verus, Cicero, and Augustus, the golden house of Nero, the palace of Lici- 
nius Crassus, A^quilius, Catulus, iEmilius Scaurus, Trajan, Hadrian, &c. Be- 
fore the conflagration of the city under Nero, the streets were narrow and ir- 
regular, and the private houses were incommodious, and some even dangerous 
from their imperfect architecture and their height of three lofty stories. In the 
time of Nero, 'more than two thirds of the city was burnt. Of the 14 districts, 
only 4 remained entire. The city was rebuilt with more regularity, with streets 
broader and less crooked; the areas for houses were measured out, and the 
height restricted to 70 feet. 

§ 71. The manors or country Seats, villa; of the more distinguished Romans 
were also works of costly architecture, adorned with sculpture, and rich gar- 
dens, especially those termed villa urbana, or prceloria. Among the more re- 
markable were the villas of Lucullus, Augustus, Maecenas, Hadrian, and the 
Gordiani. (Cf. P. IV. § 326.) 

The suburbs of ancient Rome were so extensive, that its neighborhood was 
almost one immense village, but at present, the vicinity of Rome, called Cam- 
pagna di Roma, is a complete desert. Modern Rome is built chiefly on the 
ancient Campus Martius. The accumulation of ruins has raised very sen- 
sibly the soil of the city, as is evident from what has been said respecting 
the entrance of the Pantheon (§ 59), and the height of the Tarpeian rock 
(§ 53). 

§ 72. We proceed now to what remains to be described in the south of Eu- 
rope (cf. § 27) ; and we might include the whole under the term Gracia, taken in 
a very comprehensive sense, in which it has sometimes been used. For it has 
been made to cover not only the Peloponnesus and Greece Proper, but also Epi- 
rus, Thessalia, Macedonia, and even Thracia. The victories of Philip having 
procured him a vote in the Amphictyonic council, his Thessalian and Macedo- 
nian dominions were consequently ranked among the Grecian states. The valor 
and policy of the Epirote kings procured the same honor for Epirus not long 
after; and finally, Thrace was raised to the same dignity, when it became the 
habitation of the Roman emperors. But Graecia is rarely used in so large a 
sense, and we shall first consider ancient Thrace separately, and include the 
other countries under Graecia. 

Thracia was bounded on the north by the chain of mount Haemus, which 
separated it from Moesia ; on the east by the Euxine sea, Thracian Bosphorus, 
and Hellespont, which divided it from Asia; on the south by the Mgeza sea; 
75 



594 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

and on the west by the river Strymon, dividing it from Macedon. In conse- 
quence ol" the conquests of Philip, the river Nessus became the mutual boundary 
of Thrace and Macedon, the intermediate district being annexed to the latter 
country. — The peninsula contained between the Bay of Melas, and the Helles- 
pont was called the Thracian Chersonese, so celebrated in the wars between 
Philip and the Athenians. 

§ 73. The capital of Thrace, and at one time of the civilized world, was By- 
zantium, or Constantinopolis, built on the north-eastern extremity of the Cher- 
sonese, called from its beauty Chrusoceras, or the golden horn. By whom this 
city was founded is a matter of dispute ; but it was greatly enlarged and beauti- 
fied by Constantine the Great, who, in the fourth century of the Christian era, 
transferred the seat of government hither from Rome. On the division of the 
Roman empire, this city became the capital of the Greek or eastern part; it re- 
tained this distinction for many years, until from the vicesof the inhabitants, and 
the imbecility of their rulers, it was captured by the Turks, on the 29th of May, 
A. D. 1453.— On the topography of Byzantium, Gibbon ch. xvii.— ./V. Am. Rev. 
16th vol. or 7th of New Series, p- 43S. 

The other principal towns were, Salmydessus, Midijek, celebrated for ship- 
wrecks; Thynia, a town and promontory, whence the Thyni, who colonized 
Bithynia in Asia Minor, came; Apollonia called afterwards Sizopolis, Sizeboli, 
and Mesembria, built by a colony of Megarensians ; all on the Euxine sea.— Se- 
lymbria, Selibria, and Perinthus, or Heraclea, Ereldi, on the Propontis. — Calli- 
polis, Gallipoli, at the junction of the Propontis and Hellespont; the srriall towns 
Madytos and Cissa, near where the little river iEgos Potamos joins the Helles- 
pont, the scene of the fatal battle in which Lysander destroyed the naval power 
of the Athenians, and Sestos, Zenunie, where Xerxes built his bridge of boats 
across the Hellespont. — Sestos and Abydos are also celebrated for the loves of 
Hero and Leander. The possibility of swimming across the Hellespont was 
for a long time doubted, but it was performed by the late Lord Byron. 

On the bay of Melas, so named from the river Melas, that empties itself into 
it, were Cardia, destroyed by Lysimachus, to procure inhabitants for a new 
town, Lysimachia, that he had built a little farther south, and Eion, which was 
burned by its governor, Boges.— In the interior wereTrajanopolis, built by Tra- 
jan, and Adrianopolis, its successful rival, built by Adrian, and now the second 
city of the Turkish empire. — At the east mouth of Hebrus stood iEnos, said to 
have been founded by jEneas, near the territory of the Cicones ; on the west side, 
Doriscus, where Xerxes reviewed his immense armament after passing the Hel- 
lespont, and it is said that his army were so numerous as completely to drain the 
neighboring river Lessus. At the mouth of the Nessus was Abdera, the birth- 
place of the philosopher Democritus, near which were the stables of Diomede, 
who is said to have fed his horses on human flesh. 

§ 74. The principal rivers of Thrace were the Hebrus, Maritza., celebrated 
for the clearness and rapidity of its waters, Nessus, Nissar, and Strymon, Jum- 
boli. — The principal mountains of Thrace were Mount Hasmus, extending from 
the Euxine sea in a western direction between Mcesia and Thrace, Rhodope ex- 
tending from the Euxine sea to the sources of the Nessus, and Pangaeus, thence 
to the north of Macedon. — The principal seas and bays adjoining this extensive 
maritime country were Pontus Euxinus, Bosphorus Thracius, Propontis, Hel- 
lespontus, Melanis Sinus, Gulf of Saros, and Strymonicus Sinus, Gulf of Con- 
tesse. 

§ 75. Thrace was anciently possessed by several independent tribes, one of 
these, the Dolonei, being hard pressed by the Absinthians, their neighbors, sent 
to Delphi to consult the oracle about the event of the war. The ambassadors 
were directed to choose as leader the person who should first invite them to his 
house. While passing through Athens they were hospitably entertained by Mil- 
tiades the son of Cypselus; they immediately requested him to accompany them 
to the Chersonesus, and Miltiades, having consulted the oracle at Delphi, accept- 
ed the invitation.— On his arrival he was immediately created king, and the Ab- 
sinthians were soon after defeated. He fortified the Chersonesus by building the 
long wall across the Isthmus, and after a prosperous reign bequeathed the crown 
to his nephew Stesagoras. — Stesagoras dying after a short reign, his brother 
Miltiades was sent from Athens by the Pisistratidae as his successor. He had 
not reigned long, when Darius king of Persia, sent a fleet of Phoenicians against 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. GRjECIA. 595 

the Chersonese, and Miltiades, unable to make any effective resistance, retired 
to Athens. 

The Chersonese, after the defeat of the Persians, was principally possessed by 
the Athenians, who colonized all the coast. The interior of Thrace remained 
subject to the native princes, until the whole country was united to Macedon by 
Philip and Alexander. 

§ 76. What remains to be described in Europe we shall include, as already 
remarked (§72,', under Grje cu, usingthis name in what is commonly con- 
sidered its most comprehensive sense (cf. P. IV. § 2). The extensive region 
thus included in Graecia presents four general divisions, which are obviously 
suggested by the natural face of the country. The 1st is that part, which lies 
north of the chain of mountains called Cambunii, which are connected by the 
StymphaeiMontes with the Aero Ceraunii; the 2d is the part between the Cam- 
bunii on the north, and another line of highlands and mountains on the south, 
which may be traced from the Sinus Maliacus on the east, to the Sinus Ambra- 
cius on the west ; in its eastern extremity it forms the pass of Thermopylae, and 
the chain is in this portion of it called CEta ; as it stretches back in a northerly 
and then westerly direction, it is called Pindus ; this sends down a spur from the 
sources of the river Achelous to the Sinus Ambracius, where it forms another 
pass corresponding to that of Thermopylae on the east ; the 3d is the part between 
the mountains just traced and the gulfs on each side of the isthmus of Corinth, 
Sinus Corinthiacus and Sinus Saronicus ;' and the 4th is the peninsula connect- 
ed to the main by that isthmus. The first, is Macedonia; the second, Epirus 
and Thessalia; the third, Hellas; the fourth, Peloponnesus. 

§ 77. (1) Macedonia, considered as including the first of the natural divisions 
above described, was bounded W. by the Mare Hadriaticum : N. by Illyricum 
and Mcesia ; E. by Thracia from which it was separated by Mt. Rhodope and 
the river Nestus flowing from Rhodope ; S. by the iEgaeum Mare, the Cambunii 
Montes and the other mountains forming the chain already mentioned, which 
terminates in the Aero Ceraunii on the western extremity. 

In noticing the physical features of Macedonia, it will be observed that Mt. 
HaemusandMt. Rhodope, meeting on its N. E. corner, stretch along on its 
north in a single chain; this was called Orbelus Mons ; a spur from Orbelus 
will be noticed running down south through Macedonia, and forming a connec- 
tion with the Stymphasi, or mons Stympha, already named between the Cambu- 
nii and the Aero Ceraunii. The waters east of this spur flow to the iEgean; 
those west of it to the Hadriatic. 

§ 78. The principal river of the west was the Drilo, Drino, which runs 
through lake Lychnidus, and empties into a bay of the Hadriatic, north of the 
point called Nymphasum Promontorium. — One of the most important places in 
this western portion was Apollonia, on the Hadriatic coast, celebrated in the Ro- 
man age of Greek Literature (P. II. § 9) for its cultivation, and said to be the 
place where Augustus acquired his knowledge of Greek, and finished his educa- 
tion. Another place is worthy of notice, Epidamnus, further north, called Dyr- 
rachium by the Romans, the place where travelers from Italy to Greece gene- 
rally landed. — This portion west of the spur was taken from Illyricum by Philip 
[Ro'llin, B. 14. § 1). 

§ 79. The country east of the spur is principally champaign. We notice 
three most considerable rivers ; the Haliacmon, Plalcmone, in the southern part, 
flowing east to the Sinus Thermaicus, Gulf of Thesalonica, or Salonichi ; the 
Axius, Vardari, rising in the heights beiween Macedonia and Mcesia, and run- 
ning S. to the head of the same gulf, receiving on its way many tributaries, and 
uniting with the Erigon on the west before its discharge; the Strymon, rising in 
Mt. Rhodope, and flowing to the Sinus Strymonicus, Gulf of Contessa.— Between 
the two gulfs or bays just named, was the peninsula sometimes called Chalcidice, 
and presenting peculiar features, having a cluster of mountains on its neck, and 
being split into three smaller peninsulas by two bays, the Toronaicus, G. of Cas- 
sandra, and the Singeticus, G. of Monte Sancto. ,The western of these smaller 
peninsulas was Pallene or Phlegra, the fabled scene of the battle between Ju- 
piter and the Giants (Ov. x. 151.); the eastern was marked by Mt. Athos, extend- 
ing several leagues upon and projecting into the sea, and was celebrated for a 
canal said to be cut across its neck by Xerxes to avoid the passage around Mt. 
Athos, that passage having proved so fatal to the fleet of Darius, 






y 



596 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 80. This portion of Macedonia had numerous subdivisions, many of which 
are not important, even if they could be accurately traced. Paeonia was in the 
northern part. The part between the Strymon and Nestus was called Edonis. 
The southern part on the west of the Sinus Thermaicus, wasPieria. ""Emathia 
was north of Pieria, and of the same gulf. 

Emathia was the most important province. In this was situated Edessa, the 
original capital of the country, on the Erigon ; also Pella, on the Lydias, subse- 
quently made the capital by Amyntas, the father of Philip. Further east, on 
the Sinus Thermaicus, was Thermae, afterwards called Thessalonka, the place 
of Cicero's banishment, and the capital of the country as a Roman province. 
On the peninsula which has been described were Potidasa, or Cassandria, on 
the neck of Pallene, celebrated for its splendor under king Cassander; Olyn- 
• thus, memorable for its siege by Philip, who after much labor captured it 
by treachery ; Chalcis, which gave name to the region; Stagira^ Stagros, on 
the eastern coast, the birth-place of Aristotle.— In Edonis were two important 
towns; Amphipolis, originally on an island in the river Strymon, an Athenian 
colony; Philippi, further east, near Mons Pangseus, a branch from Rhodope. It 
was built by Philip, for the same purpose for which the Athenians built Amphi- 
polis, to secure the valuable gold and silver mines found in this region. It is cel- 
ebrated for the battle m which Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Augustus 
and Antony, B. C. 42. It was on Pangaeus that the wonders ascribed to the lyre 
of Orpheus were said to be performed (P. II. § 48). Two precipices of this 
mountain, now called Castaznas, approach to the seanearly opposite to the island 
Thasus, and form very narrow passages, which were defended by walls. — In Pi- 
eria, one of the most memorable places was Pydna, Kiira, where Olympias was 
murdered by Cassander, and where the Roman general Paulus iEmilius made a 
prisoner of Perseus the last king of Macedonia, B. C. 168. North of this, on 
the coast, was Methone, at the siege of which Philip lost his right eye. 

§ 81. The kingdom of Macedonia was said to be founded by Caranus, a de- 
scended of Hercules, B. C. 814; but it did not acquire consequence until the 
reign of Philip, who ascended the throne B. C. 360. It has been stated, that 
150 different nations or tribes were finally included within its limits. 

§ 82. (2) Epirus and Thessalia, embraced in the second natural division 
pointed out (§ 76), are next to be noticed. 

Thessalia is described by Herodotus as a very extensive plain, embosomed in 
mountains. The Cambunii and Olympus were on the north ; Pelion and Ossa, 
on the east; Pindus on the west; and (Eta, on the- south : so that only the small 
portion of coast between the Sinus Pelasgicus and the Sinus Maiiacus is without 
the guard of mountains ; and even this has a guard a little in the interior, by Mt. 
Othrys, which strikes across from Pindus to Pelion. 

The extensive plains of Thessaly were peculiarly favorable to the breeding 
of horses; and the Thessalians were the first who introduced the use of cavalry, 
horses having been, at first, only used for draught. Hence, perhaps, arose the 
fable of the Centaurs, a people of Thessaly, who Were supposed to have been 
half man and half horse. The Thessalian cavalry maintained their superior- 
ity to a very late period, and to them Philip was indebted for many of his vic- 
tories. 

§ 83. The northern part of Thessaly was called Pelasgiotis, from the Pe- 
lasgi, an Asiatic wandering tribe, who are supposed to have been the first inhab- 
itants of Greece. The principal cities in Pelasgiotis were Larissa, the capital 
of the province; Gomphi, destroyed by Caesar; Gonnus and Gyrtona, near the 
entrance of the vale of Tempe, so celebrated for its natural beauties; Scotussa, 
near which are some hills, called, from their shape, Cynos Cephale, where 
Philip was defeated by GluintusFlaminius; and Pharsalus, near which Pompey 
was overthrown by Caesar. 

The eastern part of Thessaly was named Magnesia; the most remarkable 
places were Sepias, a small village on a promontory of the same name, where 
the fleet of Xerxes received an omen of their final overthrow, being shattered in 
a storm; Demetrias, Vloo, built by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and which, from the 
commercial advantages of its situation, almost depopulated the neighboring 
towns; Melibasa, the city of Philoctetes; Iolcos, the residence of Jason and Me- 
dea; Pagasas, where the ship Argo was built, from which the Sinus Pelasgicus 
is sometimes called Pagasseus : Aphetse, Fetio, whence the Argonautic expedi- 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. CRjECIA. 597 

lion sailed; Pherae, the residence of the tyrant Alexander; and Thebae, neat 
the river Amphrysus, where Apullo fed the herds of king Admetus. 

In the southern parts of Thessaly wereMalia, which gives name to the Ma- 
liac bay; Larissa, called Cremaste^, from its sloping situation, the capital of the 
kingdom of Achilles; Alos, at the foot of mount Othrys, near which the combat 
between the Centaurs and Lapithae took place ; Phylace, on the sea coast, the res- 
idence of Protesilaus; Dorion, where the musical contest between Thamyris 
and the Muses took place; Hypata, famous for the magical arts of its women 
[Hor. Ep. 5.) ; Lamia, where Antipater was fruitlessly besieged by the Atheni- 
ans; and Trachis, Zeiton, celebrated for its desperate resistance when besieged 
by the Romans, 

§ 84. The mountains have been mentioned above. The most remarkable 
river was the Peneus, which passing through the vale of Tempe falls into the 
jEgeansea. This river is said to have overflowed Thessaly, until Hercules 
opened a passage for the waters between mounts Olympus and Ossa. — The prin- 
cipal inlets of the iEgean sea, on the Thessalian coast, were Sinus Pelasgicus, 
or Pagasep.us, Gulf of Volo, and Sinus Maliacus, Gulf of Zeilon. 

§ 85. The inundation of Thessaly, during the reign of Deucalion, is one of 
the first events recorded in profane history; all the inhabitants, except Deucalion 
and his wife Pyrrha, are said to have been destroyed. Perplexed to discover by 
what means the human race might be restored they consulted the oracle of The- 
mis, and were ordered to throw stones behind them; those thrown by Deucalion 
became men and those by Pyrrha women. In this fable the history of some par. 
tial inundation seems to be confounded with the tradition of the universal deluge. 

The next remarkable occurrence was the Argonautic expedition under Jason, 
aided by the bravest heroes of Greece, in the ship Argo (P. III. §127]. — Achilles 
was the most remarkable Thessalian prince after Jason ; he was the son of Pe- 
leus and the sea-nymph Thetis ; an oracle had foretold that he would perish if 
he accompanied the Greeks to Troy ; to prevent this, his mother concealed him 
at the court of Lycomedes, king of Scyros, by one of whose daughters he begat 
Pyrrhus, or Neoptolemus, afterwards king of Epirus. Achilles was at last dis- 
covered by Ulysses and brought to Troy, where he was slain by Paris, one of 
the sons of Priam. 

During the supremacy of Athens and Sparta, Thessaly seems to have been of 
little importance. The greater part of it was annexed to Macedon by Philip and 
his successors. — It was cruelly devastated in the wars between the Romans and 
the Macedonian and Syrian kings; it also suffered very severely in the civil 
wars between Caesar and Pompey. 

§ 86. Under Epirus a greater extent than we have assigned to it is often in- 
cluded. We have suggested as its natural boundaries on the north the mountains 
Oambunii and Aero Ceraunii, and on the south, the Sinus Ambracius; but the 
region called Oreslis between the Aero Ceraunii and the river Aous is commonly 
termed a province of Epirus; and Acarnania, within the proper limits of Hellas, 
is also often considered as another province. In all descriptions, it is separated 
from Thessaly by Mt. Pindus ; while the Mare Ionium bounds it on the west. 
Within the compass here given, it included the provinces Chaonia, Thesprotia, 
and Molossis. 

§ 87. Chaonia was the portion under the Aero Ceraunii on the south, said to 
be named from Chaon, the brother of Helenusson of Priam. These mountains 
were so called from their summits (uxqu) being often struck with lightning (xe- 
Quwhc); they were remarkable for attracting storms, and were dreaded by mar- 
iners; the rocks at the western extremity of their southern branch, Acro-Ceraw- 
nia, were called infamous (infames). — The principal towns were Orieum in the 
extreme north, on the coast between the branches of the mountains just men- 
tioned, and Anchesmus also on the coast and in the extreme south of the pro- 
vince: 

Thesprotia extended on the coast from Chaonia to the Sinus Ambracius. G. of 
Aria. Its principal places were Burhrotum on the river Xanthns, near which 
JEneas is said to have landed on his flight from Troy to Italy; and Ephyra, on 
the river Acheron, flowing to the harbor called Glycys Limen (yZvxvg Zifclv). 
Ephyra was subsequently called Cichyrus; the ruins of its walls are said to be 
still visible [Hughes, Travels in Greece and Albania. 2 vols. 4. Lond. 1820). — 
The river Acheron is joined at it its mouth by the Cocylus. These were ranked 



598 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

in the ancient mythology among the flumina inferorum, or infernal rivers; three 
others had the same rank; the Styx, in Arcadia, the Lethe, in Bceotia probably, 
and the Phlegethon, the location of which, as an actual river, is unknown, al- 
though it is represented sometimes as uniting with the Acheron. 

Molossis was east of Thesprotia, and north of the Sinus Ambracius. Its prin- 
cipal towns were Arnbracia, the residence of the Epirote kings; Dodona, fa- 
mous for its oracle and temple of Jupiter (P. IV. § 71), and Passaro, where the 
kings of Epirus took the coronation oath. — The Molossian dogs were highly es- 
teemed by the ancients. 

§ 88. We meet but casual mention of the Epirotes in history until the Mace- 
donian empire was divided after Alexander's death. It was then that this peo- 
ple, who had hitherto been looked on as barbarians, and held in subjection by 
the Macedonians, began to ta'^e a lead in the affairs of Greece. — The folly of 
Pyrrhus, who hoped by his victories in the west, to rival the conquests of Alex- 
ander in the east, weakened their forces and diminished their authority. 

On the invasion of the Romans, the Epirotes adhered to the cause of Grecian 
likerty with a desperate fidelity worthy of better success. When the conquest 
of their country had been achieved by Paulus iEmilius, enraged at their resis- 
tance, he ordered seventy of their cities to be destroyed, and 150,000 of the in- 
habitants to be sold as slaves; an instance of atrocious revenge scarcely to be 
paralleled in history. 

When the empire of Constantinople fell before the victorious arms of the Ma- 
hometans, the remnants of the Christian forces retreated to the fastnesses of the 
mountains of Suli and the town of Pargain this territory. — The Sulioites, after 
performing feats of valor only to be paralleled in the brighter days of Grecian 
freedom, were duped by Ali Pacha and treacherously massacred; and Parga, 
after many vicissitudes, fell under the power of Turkey. For an account of 
Parga, cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xxiii. p. 111. 

§ 89. (3) Our 3d division nf Greece includes the portion between Mt. ffita 
and the large Gulfs, Sinus Corinthiacus and Sinus Saronicus. It is what is 
properly termed Hellas, and is also called Gr.ecia Propria. 

This division is washed on every side but the north by the sea. On the east 
are first the waters of Sin. Maliacus, then of Sin. Opunlius and those between 
land and Euboea, w Inch are called in the narrowest place Euripus. Leaving these 
and drawing near the southern point of the country, you enter the Myrtoum 
Mare, and having passed that point, Sunium Prom, with the splendid temple of 
Minerva in sight, you proceed up the Sin. Saronicus < Gulf of Egina) ; at the end 
of which you must take a land carriage, but of 5 miles only, over the isthmus 
of Corinth (Hexa-Mili), when you reach the Sin. Corinthiacus (Gulf of Lepan- 
to). This opens into Hellas several bays, one at its eastern extremity called 
Haley onium Mare, and another central and opening to the north called Sinus 
Crisseeus (Bay of Salona). 

Continuing the survey of the coast of Hellas, you pass out of the Sinus Cor- 
inthiacus through the strait called Dardanelles of Lepanto between Rhium on 
the Peloponnesus, where is the tomb of Hesiod, and Antirrhiumon the opposite 
side. Issuing from this strait you enter and continue in the Mare Ionium, till 
having gone through thearlificial channel separating Leucas from the mainland, 
you turn round the Prom. Actium and enter the Sin. Ambracius, which ends the 
"tour, and the eastern extremity of which is not more than 70 miles distant, across 
the mountains, from the Sin. Maliacus, where the imaginary tour began. 

§•90. If an observer could take an elevated station in the air, and thence 
look down upon Hellas, his eye would rest upon an almost countless number of 
hills and mountains, with rich vales, and small pure streams. At first its sum- 
mits might seem to rise up over the country in disorder and confusion, but 
soon he would trace some obvious lines of connection. — He would perceive one 
line of summits stretching from Mt. GZtaat Thermopylae down parallel to the 
eastern coast and to the island Euboea as far as to the strait Euripus. — He would 
observe another of more lofty and attractive summits proceeding from Pindus 
(in about the centre betweek the Sin. Maliacus and Sin. Ambracius) running 
quite southerly a short distance, and then sending off on its right a line of minor 
summits down to the western extremity of the Sin. Corinthiacus, but itself bend- 
ing to the southeast, and at length verging along the shore of that gulf to its 
eastern extremity and there connecting with the Gcranii Monies and Mons On- 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. GRiECIA. 599 

cius on the isthmus, and with Mons CitAaron, which proceeds directly east to the 
sea south of the straits of Euripus.— The part of this line joining Pindus in- 
cludes probably the mountains in which the ancient Dryopes dwelt. The first 
part of the branch, which it sends off to the west, is the Coras chain, and the ter- 
mination of this branch at the gulf is in the summits called Taphiassus and 
Chalcis. — In the main line bending to the southeast occur first Parnassus, which 
although of barren soil was celebrated for its green vallies and shady groves 
suited for meditation ; then Helicon, with its fountain Hippocrene, sprung (accord- 
ing to fable) from the stamping of Pegasus. — After this, as you turn eastward, 
appears Citharon, which has a summit in the eastern part, called Parnes. — In the 
territory south of these, were several summits, particularly, Penlclicus famous 
for its marble, northeast from Athens; Hymettus, celebrated for its honey, east 
and southeast of Athens; Laurius, containing the silver mines, in the southern 
extreme of Attica. — Aracynthus was a chain in iEtolia. 

§91. Hellas contained eight small, but independent provinces or districts. 
These were, beginning on the west, Acarnania, JElolia, Doris, Locris, Phocis, 
Baotia, Megaris, Attica. 

The two western districts Acarnania and AZtolia were very inferior to the rest 
in fame, although nature presented herself in a grander and sublimer aspect 
than in some other districts. 

§ 92. Acarnania was marked for its woods and forests, and its inhabit- 
ants were noted for their attachment to sensual pleasures. We have alluded 
(§ 76) to the natural boundaries between this district and Epirus, viz. the Sinus 
Ambracius and the spur of mountains running from Pindus down to that bay. 
This line of highlands is now called Makrinoros, which name is also given to the 
narrow pass under their abrupt and steep termination near the bay, a pass simi- 
lar to that of Thermopylae. The boundary between Acarnania and the next 
district of Hellas, ^Etolia, is ihe river Achelous, rising amongthe vallies of Mt. 
Pindus and flowing to the Mare Ionium. 

Of the places in Acarnania, we mention Argos Amphilochius, on the river Ina- 
chus emptying at the east extremity of the Sin. Ambracius ; Anactorium on a 
peninsula forming the northwestern corner of the district: Actium a little fur- 
ther to the east, on the Promontory of the same name. At this place Augustus 
gained his great naval victory over Antony and Cleopatra, and to commemorate 
it, built a town called Nicopolis, and instituted games celebrated every 3d year, 
called Actia. — Leucas was on the northern point of the island Leucadia, which 
wasa peninsula before the Peloponnesian war, but after that separated by an ar- 
tificial channel. On the south part was a temple of Apollo on the Promontory 
Leucate, from which the despairing Sappho, is said to have thrown herself (cf. 
P. II. ^ 54). — Stratus, once its metropolis, was on the Achelous which is now 
called Aspro potamo. 

§ 93. JE t o 1 i a was east of Acarnania, separated by the river Achelous ; it 
is now called Vlakia from a tribe of barbarians to whom the Greek emperors 
gave this province. Its other chief river was the Evenus (Fideri) falling into the 
Corinthian bay ; this and the Achelous are the largest rivers of Hellas. 

The following were the chief places; Cab/don on the Evenus, under Mt. 
Chalcis; associated with the story of the Calydonian boar (destroyed by the son 
of the kingof iEtolia), whose tusks were said to be preserved in Greece until 
Augustus carried them to Rome as curiosities; Thermus the ancient capital, in 
the interior or between the Evenus find Lake Trichords ; Naupaclus on the Sinus 
Corinthiacus, under Mt. Taphiassus, was not included in the proper limits of 
^Etolia, but was given to this province by Philip of Macedon. It was said to 
have its name from ruvg and ni'iyvvfti; because the Heraclidae built here their first 
ship to invade Peloponnesus. 

§ 94. Doris, a very small district, lay under mount Pindus, between (Eta 
on the east and the mountains of the Dryopes'on the west, having Parnassus on 
on the southwest and being separated from Phocis by elevated hills on the 
southeast; thus wholly surrounded by mountains. It was called Doris from 
Dorus, son of Deucalion ancient monarch of Thessaly. It wasa rocky, moun- 
tainous region. Its towns were situated on the river Pindus a branch of the 
Cephissus, which also rises in the hills of Doris. From its four towns Pin- 
dus, Erineum, Boium and Cytinium., it was called Tetrapolis; and sometimes 
Hexapolis, Lilaum and Carphia being added. 



GOO 



CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



§j"95. Loc r is consisted of two parts separated from each other.— The larg- 
er part was on the Sin. Corinlhiacus having iEtolia on the west, and Phocis 
on the east (partly separated from it by the Sin. Crissaus). The inhabitants of 
this part were called Western Locri, or Locri Hesperii and Locri Ozolm. Of 
the origin of the latter name, different accounts are given ; the people are said 
to have disliked the mme exceedingly. 

One of their principal places was AmpMssa, in the interior, where was a tem- 
ple to Minerva. — Naupadus(§ 93) originally belonged to them. 

§ 96. The other and smaller part of Locris was on the opposite coast of 
Hellas, on the waters separating it from Eubcea. It was northeast of Phocis 
andBoeotia, divided from them by a chain of mountains and extending from 
Ml. CEta on the north to the Platanius, a small river flowing to the channel of 
Eubcea and separating Locris from Bceotia on the south. 

This part was inhabited by two tribes.— The Opunlii were in the southern re- 
gion, so called from their principal city Opus, which gave name also to the 
bay adjacent Sinus Opuntius, containing a small island Atalanta. — The other 
tribe or people were the Epicnemidii, so named from Mt. Cnemis. On this there 
was a small town of the same name; other places of note were Naryx, the 
city of Ajax, son of Oileus; Thronium; and Anthela, where the Amphictyonic 
council assembled annually in a temple of Ceres, or as she was called here, 
in allusion to the council, Thesmophora, the lawgiver. 

Close to Anthela were the ever-memorable straits of Therrnnpyla;, deriving 
their name from some hot springs and fortified gates that were there. This 
celebrated pass, usually reckoned the key of Greece, is about sixty paces wide, 
and is situated between the ridge of mount GEta and the Malian gulf, at the 
junction of the three countries, Locris, Phocis, and Thessaly. Here Leoni- 
das, with a handful of men, bravjly resisted the countless myriads of Persia, and 
died rather than violate the Spartan law, which forbade flight to the citizens. 
In the same place Antiochus, king of Syria, was defeated by the consul Aci- 
lius; and during the late struggle for Grecian freedom, two signal triumphs 
were obtained by the Greeks over their Turkish oppressors on the same in- 
spiring spot. 

The Locri Opuntii derived their name from their chief town Opus, whose 
port, called Cynos, was on the Euripus. 

§ 97. Phocis extended between the two parts of Locris, from the Corinthian 
gulf to the borders of Thessaly. 

The capital was Elatea, on the river Cephissus, the capture of which by 
Philip first awakened the attention of the Greeks to the dangerous ambition 
of the Macedonian monarch. West of Elatea was Delphi, on mount, Parnas- 
sus, celebrated for the oracle of Apollo (P. IV. § 72), and for the annual 
meetings of the Amphictyonic council (P. IV. § 1051 held in the temple. It 
is now a mean village, called Castri. Parnassus (Haliocoro) had two summits, 
one sacred to Apollo, and one to Bacchus; the town stood at the foot of the 
mountain, and the temple was built on a neighboring eminence, close to the 
fountain Castalia. Near the town, the Pythian games were celebrated, in 
memory of Apollo's victory over the serpent Python. — Cirrha, on the small 
river Plistus, falling into the Corinthian gulf, was esteemed the port of Del- 
phi; near this was Crissa, from which an inlet of the Corinthian gulf, and 
sometimes the whole, was called Crissoeus; and Antifyra, celebrated for the 
production of hellebore. — The principal river of Phocis was the Cephissus, 
which is sometimes confounded with a river of the same name in Attica. 

§ 98. At the time of the-Persian invasion, the Phocians strenuously exerted 
themselves for the common liberties of Greece; in revenge, Xerxes despatched 
a large army to lay waste the country and plunder the temple of Delphi. The 
greater part of these were destroyed by earthquakes and lightning; the inhabit- 
ants, encouraged by these appearances of a divine assistance, rose en masse, and 
completely destroyed the remainder. 

About 280 B. C, a large body of Gauls, under the command of Brennus, in- 
vaded their country, and were defeated under circumstances similar to the de- 
feat of Xerxes. 

§ 99. Bceotia occupied the north-east of Graecia propria, on the shores 
of the Euripus, a narrow strait, between the island of Eubcea and the con- 
tinent. 



I 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. HELLAS. 601 

The capital was Thebes, built by Cadmus, the Phoenician, who first introduced 
letters into Greece. The city stood on the river Ismenus, and was ornamented 
with seven gates, whence it is called Heptapylos. It was the birth-place of the 
demi-gods Hercules and Bacchus, of the poet Pindar, and of those illustrious 
warriors and statesmen, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The citadel was, from its 
founder, called Cadmea. — South of this was Platsea, where the Persian army 
were totally destroyed by the united valor of the Athenians, Spartans, and Pla- 
teaus. It was afterwards destroyed by the Spartans in the Pelopcnnesian war. 
We mention also Leuctra, near lake Copias, where the Spartans were defeated 
by Epaminondas; Coronea, near mount Helicon ; Chaeronea, where Philip, having 
defeated the Athenians and Thebans, became absolute master of Greece; Leba- 
dea, remarkable for the temple of Trophonius ; and Orchomenus, hear which 
was the Acidalian fountain, sacred to Venus.— Near the Corinthian gulf was 
Thespiae, sacred to the Muses, having a port named Creusa; and Ascra, the 
birth-place of the poet Hesiod. — On the Euripus were Aulis, the rendez-vous of 
the Grecian fleet in the Trojan expedition, and the scene of Iphigenia's sacri- 
fice; Tanagia, where the celebrated poetess Corinna was bom; and Delium, a 
village, deriving its name from a temple of Apollo, built in imitation of that of 
Delos, where Socrates, in the Peloponnesian war, saved the life of his pupil 
Alcibiades. 

§ 100. The chief mountains of Boeotia were Helicon, with the fountain Aga- 
nippe and Hippocrene, sacred to the Muses ; Pimpla, on the borders of Phocis, 

^ dedicated to the same divinities; Dirce, near Thebes; and Cithaeron, on the 

'borders of Megaris, sacred to Bacchus. 

The people of Boeotia were usually described as naturally stupid, but with ap- 
parently little justice, for it gave birth to many men of superior talents, and the 
barbarous custom of exposing children, common in the rest of Greece, was 
here totally prohibited. They have been accused of nourishing a deadly hatred 
for trifling causes.— In the heroic ages, Thebes seems to have been one of the 
most powerful of the Grecian stales, but its history is so involved, that the 
discovery of the truth is very difficult. It certainly declined in after times ; 
probably the misfortunes and civil discords of the posterity of Cadmus had 
weakened the power and destroyed the spirit of the people. 

§ 101. Megaris was a small territory, said not to be more than eight 
miles square, south of Mount Cithseron, near the isthmus of Corinth. Its 
chief city was Megara, situated midway between Corinth and Athens, built on 
two cliffs not far from the Sinus Saronicus ; its port was Nisaea, taken and 
destroyed by Pericles. The only other place of note was Crommyon, near the 
Scironian rocks ; these were said to be very dangerous, and to have derived 
their name from Sciron, a notorious pirate and robber. 

§ 102. The remaining province of Hellas was Attica, east of Megaris, and 
south of Cithaeron. The district so named was of a triangular shape, not 30 
miles wide at its base on the north and tapering until it terminates in the point 
called Sunium, projecting into the Myrtoum Mare, east of the Sinus Saronicus 
(gulf of Engia). It was also called Acte (axrlj) from its maritime situation. 
The capital was Athens, a more full description of which we shall give below. 

§ 103. About ten miles north of Athens is Marathon, where the first Per- 
sian invaders, under the command of Datis and Artaphernes, were completely 
routed by the Athenians, commanded by Mill iades. North of this was the vil- 
lage Rhamnus, where a statue, formed of the marble that the Persians had 
brought to raise a trophy of their anticipated victory, was erected to the god- 
dess Nemesis ; a little to the east was Phyle, a strong fort taken possession of 
by Thrasybulus, in his expedition against the thirty tyrants. On the Euripus 
was Oropus, where there was a celebrated temple of Amphiaraus, and Delphi- 
num. Nearer to Athens, on the north side, was Acharnae, where the Lace- 
daemonians encamped when they invaded Attica ; and Decelia, which they forti- 
fied, by the advice of Alcibiades. — East of Athens was Brauron, where the 
statue of Diana, brought from Tauris by Orestes, was preserved until taken 
away by Xerxes ; and Sunium, a town and promontory at the south-eastern 
extremity of Attica, celebrated for a splendid temple of Minerva, from the 
ruins of which it is now called Cape Colonna, and is in modern times re- 
markable as the scene of the shipwreck beautifully described by Falconer. — 

76 



G02 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

West of Athens was Eleusis, where the Eleusinian mysteries in honor of Ce- 
res were celebrated. There were two remarkable temples at Eleusis : that of 
Ceres and that of Triptolemus. 

§ 104. Topography of Athens. The city of Athens was founded by Cecrops, 
an Egyptian, who led thither a colony from the banks of the Nile. At first 
it was called Cecropia, from the name of its founder; and afterwards 'A&ij- 
vat, Athens, in honor of the goddess Minerva, whom the Greeks called 'A$>' r 
rt], because she was the protectress of the city. In its most flourishing state, 
it was one of the largest and most beautiful cities of Greece, and is said by 
Aristides to have been a day's journey in going round it; according to other 
and more exact computations, it was about one hundred and seventy-eight 
stadia, or rather more than twenty-two Roman miles; and Dion Chrysostom 
reckons it to have been two hundred stadia, about twenty-five Roman miles in 
circumference. — Col. Leake considers the ancient city to have been much larger 
than the modern, and estimates the circumference as not less than 19 miles 
at least, reckoning the sinuosities of the coasts and walls. The number of 
gates is not known, thirteen are named by Robinson; the largest was called 
Jlnvlov, and was near the Ceramicus; the ' ItQa was that leading to Eleusis. 

§ 105. Athens lies in a valley, extending from mount Pentelicus on the 
east to the Sinus Saronicus on the west, between mount Parnes on the north 
and Hyniettus on the south. In the plain of this beautiful valley thus sur- 
rounded by natural ramparts, we behold the very singular geological feature 
of six insular mountain rocks standing in regular succession, and gradually 
diminishing as you descend from Pentelicus westward to the sea. The one 
nearest the sea is called the hill of Musseus. On the next is the Acropolis 
of Athens. The one next to this on the east is mount Anchesmus. on the 
summit of which was a temple and statue in honor of Jupiter ; from this 
eminence an observer could survey the whole of Athens and its environs. — 
Two streams furnished their waters to the city, One was the Ihssus, which 
flowed on the east and south of the city, and which is supposed, from the ap- 
pearances of its channel and from the allusions of the poets, to have been 
anciently much larger than it has been seen in modern times. The other, 
Cephissus, was still smaller and ran on the other side. 

Athens may be described in two parts ; the Cecropia, built by Cecrops on 
the summit of the hill termed Acropolis {axqanoUg), and called the upper 
city, ij avai noXig • and the part built afterward </ xaru> noUg, or the lower city. 

§ 106. The citadel, or wpper city, was sixty stadia in circumference, and 
was fenced with wooden pales, or, as some say, was surrounded with olive 
trees. It was fortified on the south side with a strong wall, which was built 
by Cimon, the son of Miltiades, from the spoils taken in the Persian war, 
and which was called xtfid>viov ru^og. The north wall was built many ages 
before by Agrolas, or, according to some, by Euryalus and Hyperbius, two 
brothers, who first taught the Athenians the art of building houses. This wall 
was denominated ncXaayixov or nO.aqyixbv from the Pelasgi, the name of its 
founders. This wall was beautified with nine gates, from which it is some- 
times called ' ' EweanvXov ■ but, though there were several lesser gates, there 
was only one grand entrance into the citadel, the ItqanvXaia, to which the 
Athenians ascended by steps covered with white marble, and which was built 
by Pericles at the expense of more than one thousand drachms. Over this 
entrance is one of those enormous slabs of marble, called ' marble beams' by 
Wheler; and to which Pausanias particularly alluded, when, in describing the 
Propylaea, he says, that, even in his time, nothing surpassing the beauty of the 
workmanship, or the magnitude of the stones used in the building, had ever 
been seen. 

The inside of the citadel was ornamented with innumerable edifices, statues, 
and monuments, on which all the ancient stories were fully described. The 
noble statues of Pericles, Phormio, Iphicrates, Timotheus, and other Athenian 
generals, were here intermingled with those of the gods. 

Here was the temple of Minerva, called NCxi], or Victory, constructed of 
white marblej and placed on the right of the entrance into the citadel. 

§ 107. About the middle of the citadel was the stately temple of Minerva, 
called Parthenon, because that goddess preserved her virginity inviolate, or 



EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 603 

because it was dedicated by the daughters of Erechtheus, who were particul- 
arly called naqSeroi, virgins. It was also denominated 'ExaTifinedov, because 
it was one hundred feet square. It was burnt by the Persians, but restored by 
Pericles, who enlarged it fifty feet on each side. It was of the Doric order, and 
built of that beautiful white marble, found in the quarries of Pentelicus, a moun- 
tain of Attica. Within this temple was the statue of Minerva, so celebrated for 
its size, the richness of the materials, and the exquisite beauty of the workman- 
ship. This figure, the work of Phidias, was twenty-six cubits high. This 
temple still remains a noble monument of antiquity, being 229 feet in length, 101 
in breadth, and 69 in height. 

Here also was the temple of Neptune, surnamed Erechtheus. This was a double 
building, and, besides other curiosities, contained the salt spring called 'Egex- 
■Siji's, which was feigned to have sprung out of the earth from a stroke of Nep- 
tune's trident, when he contended with Minerva for the possession of the coun- 
try. This part of the temple was consecrated to Neptune. The other part be- 
longed to Minerva, surnamed JloXihg, the protectress of the city, and UavSqoaog, 
from one of the daughters of Cecrops of that name. Here, so late as the second 
century of the present aera, was the sacred olive-tree, which was said to have 
been produced by Minerva, and to have been as old as the foundation of the 
citadel. Here also was the image of the goddess, which was said to have fallen 
from heaven in the reign of Erichthonius, and which was guarded by dragons, 
called otxovQoL otpttg, and had a lamp always burning with oil, and an owl before 
it. The whole structure was called 'Eqix- s ' il0V - Both these buildings still re- 
main. The smaller edifice, which is an entrance to the other, is 29 feet in 
length, and 21 feet and 3 inches in breadth. The larger is 63 1-2 feet in length, 
and 36 feet in breadth. The roof is supported by Ionic pillars channeled. 

Behind the temple of Minerva stood the public treasury, which from its situa- 
tion was called 'Onio$68oftog, and in which, besides other public money, a 
thousand talents were deposited for any very great exigency of the state. 

In the citadel were also several other edifices, as the chapel of Jupiter Swrl^Q, 
and of Minerva Swraqa; the temple of Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops, or 
rather of Minerva, who was worshiped under that name, in the front and steep 
side of the rock; and the temple of Venus, ' InnoXvxact, consecrated by Phaedra, 
when in love with Hippolytus. 

§ 108. The lower city, which contained all the buildings that surrounded the 
citadel, with Munychia, Phalerum, and Piraeus, was encompassed with walls of 
unequal strength, built at different times, and by different persons. The princi- 
pal parts of the walls were the Maxqartix'>l> which joined the harbor of Pirasus 
to the city, and which, being about five miles in length, were sometimes called 
May.qu ay.iXrj, long legs, and brachia longa, long arms. They consisted of two 
sides. The wall on the north side was built by Pericles at great expense, and 
contained forty stadia. That on the south side was called Notiov ruxog, or na- 
qu fiiaov nixy, to distinguish it from the south wall of the citadel, and some- 
times -luxog (paXijQiy.ov, because it included the port of Phalerum. It was built 
by Themistocles, of huge square stones, not cemented together with mortar, but 
fastened on the outside by iron and leaden cramps. The height of it was forty 
cubits, but Themistocles wished to have raised it to eighty cubits. Its length 
was thirty-five stadia. Upon both of the walls was erected a great number of 
turrets, which, after the Athenians became so numerous that the city could not 
contain them, were converted into dwelling houses. The Mowvxiov, or wall 
that encompassed the Munychia, and joined it to the Piraeus, contained sixty 
stadia; and the exterior wall on the other side was forty-three stadia in length ; 
and hence it appears, as has been before observed, that the whole circumference 
of Athens was 178 stadia, or rather more than 22 Roman miles. 

§ 109. Of the buildings of the lower city, the principal and most remarkable were 
the following. — HouTceiov was a stately edifice, in which were kept the sacred uten- 
sils used at festivals, and in which were prepared all things necessary for solemn 
processions. — The temple of Vulcan, or of Vulcan and Minerva, situated not far 
from-the Ceramieus within the city, was a public prison. — Near to this building 
was the temple of 'the Heavenly Venus; for the Athenians had two deities of the 
name of Venus, .of which one was designated OvQavia, and the other ITuviriftog: 
the former presided over chaste and pure love; the latter was the patroness of 
lust and debauchery. 

The temple ol Theseus was erected by Cimon in the middle of the city, near 



604 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

the place where the youths employed themselves in wrestling and other bodily 
exercises. This temple was a sanctuary for slaves, and for all persons of low 
condition that fled from the persecution of men in power, in commemoration of 
Theseus, who, when alive, was the guardian and protector of the distressed. 
Speaking of the temple cf Theseus, Dr. Clarke observes, that this beautiful 
Doric temple, more resembling, in the style of its architecture, the temples of 
Peestum than .that of Minerva in the Acropolis, and the most entire of any of the 
remaining structures of ancient Greece, were it not for the damage which the 
sculptures have sustained, may be considered as still perfect. The entire edifice 
is of Pentelican marble : it stands east and west, the principal front facing the 
east ; and it has a portico of six columns in each front, and on each side a range 
of eleven columns, exclusive of the columns on the angles. 

3 Avaxaov was the temple of Castor and Pollux, who were called uvaxeg. In 
this place slaves were exposed to sale. 

§ 110. 'OAvfimov, or ' OXvpntiov, was a temple erected in honor of Jupiter the 
Olympian, and was the most magnificent structure in Athens. The area, or peri- 
bolus, within which it stood, was four stadia in circumference. It was constructed 
with double rows of columns, 10 in front, and 21 in flank, amounting in all to 
124; the extent of the front being 171 feet, and the length of the flank more 
than 400. These pillars are the majestic ruin of this sumptuous and stately 
temple. The foundation of this edifice was laid by Pisistratus, whose sons 
continued the work ; but it was not completely finished till the time of Adrian, 
700 years after the structure had been commenced. 

The temple of Apollo and Pan stood on the north side at the bottom of the 
citadel, in a cave or grotto, which was called Maxqai nirgai, or KsxQonCai 
nixQai. — The temple of Diana, surnamed Jvaitmrog, because in it women, after 
the birth of their first child, dedicated their girdles to that goddess. 

Huv-deov was a temple consecrated to all the gods, who, as they were united 
in one edifice, were honored with one common festival, which was called 0eo- 
%hia. This was also a very magnificent structure, and. was supported by 120 
pillars of marble. On the outside were curiously engraved the history of all 
the. gods; and on the great gate two horses were carved by Praxiteles. 

The temple of the Eight Winds was a tower of eight squares, of marble, on 
every side of which was carved the figure of a wind, according to the quarter 
whence it blew. The model of this building was furnished by Andronicus Cyr- 
rhastes, who placed upon the top of the tower a small pyramid of marble, upon 
the summit of which he erected a brazen triton, holding in his right hand a 
switch or wand. The triton was so placed, that he turned round with the wind, 
and pointed with the wand to the wind which blew. 

9 111. Zroal, porticoes, were very numerous at Athens; but the most re- 
markable was that called IltioiavuxTiog, and afterwards Hoixihj, from its con- 
taining a variety of curious pictures, drawn by those great masters, Polygnotus, 
Mycon, and Panaenns the brother of Phidias. At the gate of the IloixlXr] was the 
statue of Solon. — To the north of the Acropolis, not far from the temple of The- 
seus, are the ruins of a structure once evidently very splendid, supposed by Stuart 
to be the ruins of this celebrated Stoa or Porch. Some travelers have mistaken 
them for the remains of the temple of Jupiter Olympius already described, which 
was in the southern part of the city, near the fountain Calirrhoe. 

Movatiov was a fort near the citadel, which received its name from the poet 
Musasus, the scholar of Orpheus, who used to repeat his verses in this place, 
where he was also buried. — 'Sideiov was a music theatre, built by Pericles. 
The inside of this building was filled with seats and ranges of pillars ; and 
the outside roof or covering was gradually bent downwards. The roof, which 
was constructed of the masts and yards of the vessels taken from the Per- 
sians, and in its form resembled the tent of Xerxes, was supported by columns 
of stone or marble. It was burnt by Sylla at the siege of Athens, but after- 
wards rebuilt. This Odeum was situated at the south-east angle of the citadel. 
The Odkum of Herodes Atticus has sometimes been confounded with that of 
Pericles, but the Odeum of Herodes was situated at the south-west angle of 
the citadel. This last was built by Herodes, in memory of his wife, and was 
considered as far surpassing, in magnitude and in the costliness of its mate- 
rials, every other edifice of the kind in all Greece. The roof of this building 
was of cedar. 

The Ceramicus received its denomination from Ceramus, the son of Bacchus 



EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHLNS. 605 

and Ariadne; or more probably lino rljg xtQaftitsttis ri/vrjg, from the potter's art, 
which was invented here by Corsebus. This extensive space was divided into 
two parts, one of which was situated within the city, and contained a great 
number of temples, theatres, porticoes, &c. ; the other was in the suburbs, 
was a public burying place, and contained the academy and several other buil- 
dings. The academy and other gymnasia have been already mentioned (P. I. 
§ 74, G4). 

§ 113. 'Jyoqal, forums, were very numerous ; but the most remarkable were 
the old and the new forum. The new forum was in a place called 'Eotrnia, 
which it is probable was near to the portico of Zeno. The old forum was 
situated in the Ceramicus within the city, and was called '^do^ala ayoo'u. It 
was extremely spacious, and was decorated with buildings dedicated to the 
worship of the gods, or to the service of the state; with others which some- 
times afforded an asylum to the wretched, but which were often a shelter for 
the wicked: and with statues decreed to kings and individuals, who had merit- 
ed well of the republic. In it were held the public assemblies of the people ; 
but every trade had a different place assigned as a market, and the forum was 
divided into different parts, according to the wares exposed for sale. Thus 
Krxlog denotes the place where slaves were sold ; ' Jlhpnimwhg "uyoqa, the 
bakers' market; ' 1/^vunwXig ayoQu, the fish-mongers' market; rvraixeiu ieyoQu, 
the market for women's apparel. The time when goods were exposed to sale 
was called nh'ftovaa ayoQa, full market, from the great number of persons as- 
sembled; and different hours of the day seem to have been appointed for the 
sale of different commodities. To this place the inhabitants resorted every 
day. The Scythians, kept in pay by the republic to maintain order, were en- 
camped in the middle of the forum. Collectors also attended to receive the 
duties imposed on every thing that was sold, and magistrates to superintend 
what passed. 

jRovltvTi'jQia were public halls, in which each company of tradesmen met, 
and deliberated on matters relating to their trades. At Athens trade was very 
much encouraged ; and if any one reproached another, even the lowest 
citizen, with living by the profit of his traffic, he was liable to an action 
of slander. 

§ 113. Aqueducts were not common at Athens before the time of the Ro- 
mans ; and the want of them was supplied by wells, some of which were dug 
by private persons, and others at the public expense ; but as good water at 
Athens was extremely scarce, frequent quarrels arose among the citizens. 
Adrian laid the foundation of a stately aqueduct, which was finished by his 
successor Antoninus, and which was supported by Ionic pillars. 

The stadium was a large semicircle in which exercises were performed ; 
and for ihe accommodation of spectators, who resorted thither in great num- 
bers, it was built with steps above each other, in order that the higher ranks 
might look over the heads of those placed below them. The most remarkable 
at Athens, and indeed ia all Greece, was the stadium erected near the river 
Ilissus by Lycurgus, and afterwards enlarged by Herodes Atticus, one of the 
richest of the Athenian citizens. It was built of Pentelic marble, wilh such 
magnificence that Pausanias did not expect to be credited, even in his brief 
description of this work, and says that it was a wonder to be taken for a moun- 
tain of white marble upon the banks of the Ilissus. It was about 125 geome- 
trical paces in length, and 26 or 27 in breadth and was therefore called a sta- 
dium, a measure in ordinary use among the Greeks, being the eight part of a 
Roman mile. 

§ lit. The Areopagus was a small eminence a little to the north-west of 
the Acropolis. On this, the court or senate of the Areopagus usually held its 
meetings. (Cf. P. IV. § 108.) A space was leveled for the purpose on the sum- 
mit of the rock; and the steps, which conducted to it, were cut out of the 
natural solid stone. There was originally neither enclosure nor roof; but. mere- 
ly an altar to Minerva, and two stone-seats for the accuser and defendant. 
The court was occasionally protected by a temporary erection. — The Pm/x, 
TTixt, was another eminence, opposite the Areopagus, not far from the citadel, 
celebrated as the place where the Athenians held their assemblies. Almost the 
whole of the structure, as appears from a recent removal of the earth in this 
place, was an excavation of the rock. The (J>>b, on which the orators stood 



606 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

to address the people, was carved from the stone, and yet remains. Before 
this was a semi-circular area, of which the part most distant from the orator's 
stone consists of masonry. In the perpendicular surface of the rock, facing 
this area, are niches for votive tablets. 

§ 115. Athens had theatres besides those termed Odea. One of the most 
celebrated was the theatre of Bacchus, capable of accommodating 30,000 spec- 
tators. (Of. P. I. § 235.) This contained statues of many of the tragic and comic 
writers, and was the place, where the dramatic contests (P. I. § 66) were decided; 
it was near the Acropolis, at its south-east angle. Nothing of it is now seen 
except the circular sweep scooped in the rock for the seats. Above it, in the 
rock of the Acropolis, still appeals a cavern or grotto, formerly termed the 
Cave of Bacchus, but now converted into a sort of chapel. — Close by this cavern 
stands a building, called the Choragic monument of Thrasyllus ; having on its 
front three inscriptions, recording dramatic victories obtained in the theatre. 
Over this building and higher up the rock are the two Columns of the tripods, or 
Choragic pillars. Thers were several other edifices in Athens, erected for the 
same purpose ; one, exquisitely wrought, is near the eastern end of the Acropolis, 
commonly called the Lantern of Demosthenes, but proved by its inscription to be 
a choragic monument erected by Lysicrates. This edifice stood in the street of 
the tripods, so called from the circumstance, that in it were erected, on choragic 
monuments or pillars, or otherwise located, numerous tripods, which had been 
obtained as prizes in the dramatic contests.— North-east from the Acropolis, on 
this streets of the tripods, was the Upvraruor, where was a public hall, and where 
the laws of Solon were deposited. 

§ 116. Athens had three harbors for ships — 1. TCnoanvg, Piraus, which be- 
longed to the tribe of Hippothoontis, and was about 35 or 40 stadia distant from 
the city, before the building of the fiaxqa tsi/jj or long walls. After that time, 
the Athenians, by the direction of Themistocles, rendered this their principal 
harbor. It contained three oq^oi or docks. In this harbor were five porticoes, 
which being joined together formed a very large one, called on that account 
MaxQa arolx.. The Piraeus also contained two forums. Here the productions of 
all countries were accumulated; and this was not the market of Athens only, 
but of all Greece. In this harbor three hundred galleys have sometimes been col- 
lected at once ; and it was sufficiently capacious to contain four hundred. The 
advantages of this place were first observed by Themistocles, when he devised 
the plan of giving a navy to Athens. Markets and magazines were presently 
erected, and a arsenal capable of furnishing everything necessary for the equip- 
ment of a great number of vessels. — 2. Mowvx'ta, Munychia, which was a pro- 
montory not far distant from Piraeus, and extended not unlike a peninsula, and 
was well fortified both by nature and art. It received its name from a person 
called Munychus, who dedicated in this place a temple to Diana, surnamed 
Movrvx'ia. — 3. <f>a?.riQov, Phalerum, which belonged to the tribe Antiochis, and 
was distant from the city 35 stadia, or, as some say, only 20 stadia. This was 
the most ancient of the three harbors ; and from it Theseus is said to have 
sailed for Crete, and Mnestheus for Troy. 

Fur further details respecting the interesting objects in this renowned city, we refer to works cited 
P. I. § 242. 1.— We may add, Leake's Topography of Athens. Waddington's Visit to Greece.— Hughes, 
Travels in Greece, &c. Lond. 1823. 2 vols. i.—Kruse, Hellas, Oder Darstellung des alten Griechenlan- 
des, &c. Leipz, 1725. 3 vol. S. In this work may be found an account of Lord Elgin's proceedings, in 
removing some of the most beautiful parts of the structures remaining at Athens ; also of the various 
modern works illustrating the remains of Grecian art in general.— Cf. Stuart's Diet, of Architect, under 
Ath-nlan Architecture; cf. also Chateaubriand's Travels, in Introduction.— E. D. Clarke, Travels in 
various countries, &c. Part. II. Sect. 2.— Barthelemy's Anacharsis. Ch. xii., a beautiful description. 

§ 117. (4) The Peloponnesus, the fourth division of Graecia (§ 76), remains 
to be noticed. In looking at the physical features of this peninsula, we perceive 
in the interior a circular chain of mountains almost surrounding an included 
tract of country, which was called Arcadia. From the circle of elevated sum- 
mits, various branches are sent off towards the sea; and we find a line running 
out to each of the principal promontories; to lihium Prom, at the entrance of 
the Sinus Corinthiacus; lo Chelonit.es Prom, on the western side of the penin- 
sula ; to Acritas Prom, west of the Sinus Messeniacus ; to Tccnarum, to 'Malca, 
and to ScyllcEum, the other points, which occur in passing round the peninsula 



. 



EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. PELOPONNESUS. G07 

to the east. — Between these several mountains were fruitful vallies, watered by 
numerous streams, descending from the mountains in every direction. 

§ 118. This country was originally called Argia, and Pelasgia, but after the 
conquests of Pelops was called the island of Pelops, JliXonog rijaog- it was also 
called Apia. Its present name, Morea, is said to be drawn from its resemblance 
to a mulberry-leaf in shape, or from the number of mulberry-trees that it pro- 
duces. — It may be considered in six divisions, Achaia, Argolis, Elis, Arcadia, 
Messenia, and Laconia. Sicyonia, and Corinthia are sometimes added, to these ; 
but they may be included under Achaia. 

§ 119. Achaia, in the extent we have just given to il, includes the whole 
north-coast of Peloponnesus, and the isthmus of Corinth by which it is joined to 
Hellas. Exclusive of Sicyonia and Corinthia, it comprised twelve towns, each 
independent and possessed of its own little territory, which were from a very 
early time united in a sort of confederacy, called the Achaean league; they were 
Dyme, Olenus, Pharas, Tritaea, Palrce, now Patras, Rhype, JEgium, the place 
where the deputies of the league met, Helice, Bura, Mge, Mgiiw, and Pcllene. 
In the resistance to the Romans made by the Achaean league of the later ages, 
the cities of Sicyon and especially Corinth took part. It was from theopposi- 
tion made in Achaia, that the Romans, when Mummius reduced Greece to a 
subject province by the capture of Corinth B. C. 146, applied the name Achaia 
to the whole country. 

§ 120. Sicyon was the most ancient city of Greece said to have been founded 
B. C. 2089. — But Corinth has obtained greater notoriety ; it was on the isthmus 
at nearly an equal distance from the Saronic and Corinthian gulfs. It was once 
called Ephyra. Its citadel was on a hill called Acro-Corinthus. It had two 
ports Lechceum, on the Sinus Corinthiacus, and Cenchreas on the Sin. Saronicus. 
Although destroyed by Mummius, it afterwards recovered its splendor, being re- 
built by Julius Cassar, and became more famous than before for its luxury and 
licentiousness. 

The isthmus of Corinth was an important pass. Several attempts have been 
made, at different periods, to join these two seas by a canal, and from the failure 
of them all, ' to cut through the Corinthian isthmus' has become a proverbial ex- 
pression for aiming at impossibilities. Here the Isthmian games, in honor of 
Neptune, were triennially celebrated ; and here a stand has been frequently made 
against foreign invaders, — the narrowness of the isthmus easily admitting of 
regular fortification. 

§ 121. Argolis occupied the north-eastern extremity of the Peloponnesus. 
Its chief town was Argos, on the river Inachus, more celebrated in the heroic 
than the historic ages of Greece. When Perseus had accidentally slain his 
grand-father Acrisius, he transferred the seat of government to Mycenae ; this 
latter city retained its power to the encl of the Trojan war, but after the death of 
Agamemnon, the Argives, through motives of jealousy, besieged, captured, and 
leveled it with the ground. — North of Argos was Nemea, where Hercules slew 
the Nemean lion, and instituted the Nemean games in memory of his victory ; 
and Tirynthus, a favorite residence of Hercules, whence he is frequently called 
the Tirynthian hero. — On the Argolic bay, Gulf di Napoli, were Nauplia, Na- 
poli di Romania, in ancient and modern times the principal port in these conn- 
tries; Epidaurus, remarkable for a celebrated temple of JEsculapius (P. III. 
§ 84) ; and Trcezene, whither the aged inhabitants of Athens i etired when their 
city was burned by Xerxes. 

§ 122. Elis was a small province south of Achaia, on the coast of the 
Ionian sea. 

Its chief town was Elis, the residence of king Salmoneus, who is said to have 
provoked the indignation of Jupiter, by his attempts to imitate thunder and light- 
ning ; Olympus, near which the Olympic games were celebrated; and Pisa, 
destroyed at a very remote period. — The principal river was the Peneus, Bel- 
videre. 

§ 123. Arcadia occupied the centre of the Peloponnesus, and being en- 
tirely devoted to agriculture, was said to be sacred to Pan. — Its principal towns 
were Tegaea, the capital ; Orchomenus, near the lake Siymphalus, where Her- 



60S CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

cules destroyed the Harpies; Mantinea, where Epaminondas fell; and Megal- 
opolis, built by that general to repress the incursions of the Lacedaemon- 
ians: near the ruins of Mantinea is Tripolitza, the present metropolis of the 
Morea. 

The mountains of Arcadia were greatly celebrated by the Poets; the prin- 
cipal were Cyllene, the birth-place of Mercury; Erymanthus, where Hercules 
slew an enormous boar; Maenalus, sacred to the Muses; Parthenius, where 
Atalanta resided; Parrhasius and Lyceeus, sacred to Jupiter and Pan. From 
the hill Nonacris flowed the celebrated river Styx; its waters were said to 
be poisonous. 

§ 124. The south-western division of the Peloponnesus was Messenia, 
of which Messene, a strongly fortified town, was the capital ; the citadel was 
called Ithome, and was supposed impregnable. 

The other principal towns were Pylos, the city of Nestor, now called Na- 
varin; Methone, were Philip defeated the Athenians; and CEchalia or Eryt- 
opolis, conquered by Hercules. 

The Messenians, after a desperate resistance, were subdued by the Lace- 
daemonians, and the greater p rt compelled to leave the country. Subsequent- 
ly their city lay long in ruins; but when Epaminondas had destroyed the su- 
premacy of Sparta, he recalled the descendants of the exiles, and rebuilt Mes- 
sene. After his death, the Spartans again became masters of the country, but 
did not expel the Messenians from their restored possessions. 

§ 125. The south-eastern and most important division of the Peloponnesus 
was Laconia. Its capital was Sparta, which we shall describe in the fol- 
lowing sections. 

The other towns of note were Amycla?, on the Eurotas, the residence of Le- 
da; Therapne, on the same river, the birth-place of Castor and Pollux; Gy- 
theum, the pincipal port of Laconia; Helos, whose inhabitants where enslaved 
by the Spartans; and Sellasia, w r here the Acheeans, by the defeat of Cleome- 
nes, liberated the Peloponnesus from the power of Laeedaemon. 

The Laconian Gulf, now called the Gulf of Colochina, was bounded by the 
capes Malea, St. Angelo, and Tsenarum, Matapam,. Near Taenarum, was a cave 
represented by the poets as the entrance into the infernal regions: through 
this Hercules dragged up Cerberus. 

The Peloponnesian states were first subjected by Pelops; but about eighty 
years after the Trojan war, the Heraclidse, or descendants of Hercules, returned 
to the Peloponnesus, and became masters of the different kingdoms. This 
event, which forms a remarkable epoch in Grecian history, took place 1104 B. C. 

§ 126. Topogi aphy of Sparta. The city of Lacedsemon, which was an- 
ciently called Sparta, is said to have been built by king Laeedaemon, who gave 
it the latter denomination from his wife Sparta, though he designated the 
country and the inhabitants from his own name; but some think that this city 
received the appellation of Sparta from the Sparti, who came with Cadmus 
into Laconia. It was situated at the foot of mount Taygetus, on the west 
side of the river Eurotas, which runs into the Laconic gulf. It was of a cir- 
cular form, and forty-eight stadia, or six miles in circumference, and was sur- 
rounded, to a great extent, with vineyards, olive or plane trees, gardens, and 
summer-houses. 

Anciently, the city was not surrounded with walls ; and its only defence was 
the valor of its inhabitants. Even in the reign of Agesilaus, and for the space 
of eight hundred years, this city was without any fortifications; but after it 
fell into the hands of tyrants, it was surrounded with walls, which were ren- 
dered very strong. It had, however, some eminences, upon which soldiers 
might be posted in case of an attack. The highest of these eminences served 
as a citadel: its summit was a spacious plain, on which were erected several 
sacred edifices. Arour.d this hill were ranged five tpwns, which were sepa- 
rated from each other by intervals of different extent, and each of which was 
occupied by the five tribes of Sparta. 

§ 127. The great square or forum, '^yopa, in which several streets termin- 
ated, was embellished with temples and statues. It also contained the edifices, 
in which the senate, the ephori, and other bodies of magistrates assembled. Of 
these public edifices the most remarkable was the Portico of the Persians, which 



EUROPE. PELOPONNESUS. TOPOGRAPHY OF SPARTA. 609 

the Lacedaemonians erected after the battle of Platasa, at the expense of the van- 
quished, whose spoils they shared. The roof of this building was supported by 
colossal statues of the principal officers in the army of Xerxes, who had been 
taken or killed in that battle, and who were habited in flowing robes. — The 
Scias was a building not far from the forum, in which assemblies of the people 
were commonly held. The Chorus was a part of the forum, where dances were 
performed in honor of Apollo in the Gymnopasdian games. 

Upon the highest of the eminences stood a temple of Minerva, which had the 
privilege of asylum, as had also the grove that surrounded it, and a small house 
appertaining to it, in which king Pausanias was left to expire with hunger. The 
temple was built with brass (Xalxioixog). Within the building were engraven, 
in bass-relief, the labors of Hercules, and various groups of figures. To the 
right of this edifice was a statue of Jupiter, supposed to be the most ancient 
statue of brass in existence: of the same date with the re-establishment of the 
Olympic games. 

The most ornamented place in Sparta, however, was the Pozcile, which, in- 
stead of being confined to a single gallery like that of Athens, occupied a very 
considerable extent. The Romans afterwards took away the superb paintings 
in fresco, which had been employed to decorate the walk. — Farther advanced in 
the city, appeared different ranges of Porticoes, intended only for the display of 
different kinds of merchandize. 

§ 128. Columns and statues were erected for Spartans who had been crowned 
at the Olympic games; but never for the conquerors of the enemies of their 
country. Statues might be decreed to wrestlers, but the esteem of the people was 
the only reward of the soldiers. It was not till forty years after the battle of 
Thermopylae, that the bones of Leonidas were conveyed to Sparta, and deposited 
in a tomb near the theatre; and at the same time also, the names of the three 
hundred Spartans, who had fallen with him, were first inscribed on a column. — 
The theatre was in the vicinity of the forum and was constructed of beautiful 
white marble. Not far from the tomb of Leonidas were those of Brasidas and 
Pausanias. Funeral orations and games were annually given near these monu- 
ments. 

Of the edifices and monuments of Sparta it may be remarked in general, that 
they were not distinguished for architectural beauty; and the city had nothing 
imposing or splendid in its appearance. 

$ 129. On the south side of the city was the ' JnnoSqo^og, or course for foot 
and horse races, some vestiges of which are still visible ; and at a little distance 
from it was the Platanistas, or place of exercise for youth, shaded by beauti- 
ful plane trees, and enclosed by the Eurotas on one side, by a small river 
which fell into it on the other, and by a canal which opened a communication 
with both on the third. The Platanistas was en-tered by two bridges, on one 
of which was the statue of Hercules, or all-subduing force ; and on the other 
that of Lycurgus, or all-regulating law. 

The place, which served Sparta for a port or harbor, was Gytheium, rii- 
&tiov, situated west from the mouth of the Eurotas, and distant from Sparta 
240 stadia according to Strabo, and 30 [3001] according to Pclybius. It was 
early surrounded by strong walls, and had an excellent harbor in which the 
fleets of Sparta rode in security, and where they found every requisite for 
their maintenance and security. 

The ruins of Sparta are found, under the name Paleeochori or old town, about two miles distant 
from the modern town Misitra, near a spot called Magoula. 'The whole site' says Chauteaubriand, 
' Is uncultivated ; when I beheld this desert, not a plant adorned the ruins, not a bird, not an insect, not 
a creature enlivened them, save millions of lizards, which crawled without noise up and down the 
sides of the scorching walls. A dozen half wild horses were feeding here and there upon the withered 
grass ; a shepherd was cultivating a few water-melons in a corner of the theatre ; and, at Magoula, 
which gives its dismal name to Lacedsemon, I observed a small grove of cypresses.' 

On the topography and ruins of Sparta, see Chateaubriand's Travels (p. 94. ed. N. Y. 1814).— Le Roi, 
Monumens de la Grece.— Sir W. Gell, Itinerary of the Morea — Dodwell, Classical and Topographical 
Tour through Greece. Lond. 1819. 2 vols. 4.— Leake's Travels in the Morea. Lond. 1830. 3 vols. ». 

(d) Islands belonging to Europe. 

§ 130. It was mentioned (§ 8), that having considered the mainland under 
three divisions, northern, middle, and southern, we might notice the islands to- 

77 



610 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

gether under a fourth. The European islands known to the ancients were in the 
Atlantic or the Mediterranean ; of those in the Baltic they knew but little. "We 
will speak first of those in the Atlantic. 

§ 131. Of these Britannia was the most important. It was scarcely- 
known to exist before the days of Julius Caesar. Being peopled by successive 
migrations from Gaul, the Britons naturally aided the mother country when in- * 
vaded, and thus provoked the vengeance of Rome. The southwestern shores 
are said to have been visited by the Phoenicians at a much earlier period; and 
that enterprising people have been described as carrying on an extensive trade 
for tin with Cornwall and the Scilly isles, which, from their abounding in that 
metal, were called the Cassiterides Insulse or tin islands. 

§ 132. The enumeration of the several tribes and villages being a matter 
rather of curiosity than utility, we shall only notice a few of the more remarka- 
ble. — The Cantii occupied the south of the island; in their territory were Rutu- 
piae, Richborough, celebrated for its oysters by Juvenal, and Portus Lemanus, 
Lyme, where Caesar landed B. C, 55. — The Trinobantes possessed the country 
north of the Cantii; their chief town was Londinum, London, the most flourish- 
ing Roman colony in Britain. — The Silures possessed South Wales, and appear 
to have been a very flourishing and warlike tribe. Caractacus, one of their kings, 
is celebrated for having bravely defended the liberties of his country, and for a 
long time baffled the utmost efforts of the Romans : he was at length subdued by 
Ostorius Scapula, A. D. 51, and sent in chains to Rome. 

On the eastern coast were the Iceni, whose queen Boadicea, having been cruel- 
ly abused by the Roman deputies, took up arms to avenge her own and her coun- 
try's wrongs; at first she obtained several victories over her oppressors, but was 
finally defeated by Suetonius Paulinus, A. D. 61. — The north of England was 
possessed by the Brigantes, the most powerful and ancient of the British nation ; 
their principal towns were Eboracum, York, and Isurium supposed to be Aldbor- 
ough, the capital of their tribe. 

§ 133. Scotland was still less known than England; five nations on the bor- 
ders, known by the general name of Meata, were subdued by Agricola, and be- 
came nominally subject to the dominion of Rome. 

When Britain became a Roman province, it was divided into the five follow- 
ing provinces ; Britannia prima, comprising the eastern and southern division c f 
the country, Flavia Cmsariensis, con taing the western tribes, Britannia secunda, 
which included all "Wales, Maxima Casariensis, which contained the country 
between the former divisions and the river Tweed, and Valentia occupied by the 
Meatae. 

§ 134. To repel the incursions of the Picts and Scots, who frequently laid 
waste the Roman settlements, several walls were built across the island. The first 
was erected by the celebrated Agricola, who completed the conquest of Britain. 
But this being found insufficient to restrain the incursions of the barbarians, the 
emperor Adrian erected a rampart of great strength and dimensions. — It extend- 
ed fromiEstuarium Itunae, Solway Firth, on the western coast, to Segedunum, 
Cousin's House, a village north of Pons JElii, New Castle-upon-Tyne, on the 
eastern coast, a distance of about 70 miles. It consisted of a double rampart 
and ditch, and was strengthened by forts erected at short intervals. — Twenty 
years after this, the emperor Antoninus rebuilt the wall of Agricola, which was 
nearly parallel to that of Adrian, and had been neglected after that was built, 
whence this is usually called the rampart of Antoninus. 

§ 135. But the last and greatest of these structures was the wall erected by 
the emperor Severus, A. D. 200. — It was situated a few yards north of the wall 
of Adrian, and was one of the strongest fortifications of antiquity. The wall 
was twelve feet wide and eight feet high, built of stone and cement: it was 
strengthened by eighteen stations or garrisons, thirty-one castles, and three hun- 
dred and twenty-four towers : the whole body of forces employed to garrison 
this immense range of fortification were ten thousand men, besides six hundred 
mariners, appoined to guard the points where the ramparts communicated with 
the shore. 

§ 136. The islands adjoining Britain were the Orcades, Orkney's, Hebrides, 
Western Isles, Mona Taciti, Anglesea, Mona Caesaris, Man, Vectis, Isle of Wight, 



EUROPE. ISLANDS OF THE ATLANTIC. 611 

and Cassiterides, Scilly Isles. — Ireland was known to the ancients only by name, 
and was called Ierne Juverna, orHibernia. The Irish say that they are de- 
scended from a Scythian nation, and that at an early period, part of the country 
was colonised by the Phoenicians ; in proof of the latter, it has been urged that 
the specimens of the Punic language preserved by Plautus, are almost pure 
Irish, and that antique swords, found in the bogs of Ireland, have on analysis been 
proved to consist of materials, precisely similar to those of the Punic swords 
dug up by Sir W. Hamilton in the field of Cannae. 

An island called T h u le is frequently mentioned in the classical authors as 
the most distant known, but its situation has not been described, and therefore 
we cannot be certain what particular island was meant. Iceland, some of the 
Shetland isles, and Greenland, have been named by different modern writers 
(§ 3). 

§ 137. In speaking of the islands in theMediterranean, we begin in the west- 
empart. The Balearicoe, deriving their name from the skill of the inhabitants 
in slinging and archery, were on the coast of Spain. Their names were Balea- 
ris major, Majorca, Balearis minor, Minorca, and Ebusus, Idea. 

Between Spain and Italy are Corsica and Sardinia, separated by the Fretum 
Fossae, Strait of Bonefacio. Corsica, called by the Greeks Cyrnos,was of 
little note in ancient times, but is celebrated for having gi ven birth to Napoleon Bo- 
naparte. It contained two Roman colonies, Mariana planted by Marius, and Ale- 
ria by Sylla. North of Mariana was Matinorum Oppidum, Baslia, the present 
capital of the island. — The Greeks called Sardinia Ic/inusa, from its resemblance 
to the human foot. It derived its name from Sardus, an Airican prince, said to be 
a son of Hercules, who at a very early period led a colony hither. Neither ser- 
pents or wolves were found in this island, and as we are told, only one poisonous 
herb, which caused those who eat of it to expire in a fit of laughter, and hence 
the expression, a Sardonic grin. The chief town was Calaris, now Cagliari. 
Both islands were long tributary to the Carthaginians, who were expelled by the 
Romans in the first Punic war. 

There were several small islands of no great importance on the coast of Italy; 
the chief were Uua, Elba, to which recent events have given importance ; Pro- 
chyta, and Capreas, Capri, infamous as the scene- of Tiberius's unnatural de- 
baucheries. 

§ 138. Sicilia, the largest and most fertile of the Mediterranean islands, lies 
to the south of Italy, from which it is separated by the Fretum Siculum, Strait 
of Messina. — It was called Triquelra, or Trinacria, from its triangular shape, 
terminating in three promontories, Pelorus, Faro, on the north, Pachynus, Pas- 
saro, on the south, and Lilybasum, ■ Boco, on the west. 

Syracusse, Siracusa, was the ancient capital of Sicily, and one of the most re- 
markable cities of antiquity. It was founded by a Corinthian colony led by Ar- 
chias, and arrived at such a pitch of greatness that the circuit of its walls ex- 
ceeded twenty miles. — It was divided into five parts, which were so large as to be 
esteemed separate towns ; viz. Ortygia, a small island, on which the Greeks orig- 
inally settled, Acradina facing the sea, Tycha, between that and the following 
division, Neapolis, which stood on the great port, and Epipote. — Syracuse had 
two ports, the lesser formed by the island Ortygia, and the greater at the mouth 
of the river Anapus, which here flows into a large bay, having the island at its 
northern, and the fort of Plemmyrium at its southern extremity. The celebrat- 
ed prison of Latomse was cut out of the rock, by the tyrant Dionysius; in this 
was a cavern shaped like the human ear, so contrived as to transmit all sounds 
from below toa small apartment, where the tyrant used to conceal himself, in or- 
der to overhear the conversation of his victims ; it is now a very handsome sub- 
terraneous garden. — This city is remarkable for the defeat of the Athenians, in 
their fatal Sicilian expediton, and the formidable resistance made by the inhab- 
itants when the town was besieged by Marcellus. This siege was protracted 
principally by the mechanical contrivances of Archimedes. 

§ 139. Some of the other considerable towns in Sicilia were Messana, Leonti- 
um; Agrigentum, where the tyrant Phalaris resided; Lilybaeum, Drepanum, 
V^nonnos (Palermo), Himera; Naulochus, where the oxen of the sun were sup- 
posed to be kept ; Tricola, where Trypho and Athenis established the head- 
quartersof a republic of slaves, and held out against the Roman power forsever- 
al years. 



612 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

The principal Sicilian rivers are the Simaethus, Giaretta, celebrated for the 
production of amber ; Asinarius, where the Athenian generals Niciasand Demos- 
thenes were taken prisoners by the Syracusans, and Helorus on the eastern 
coast; on the south side wereCamicus and Grimisus, with some smaller streams; 
and on the north, the river Himera. — Mount ./Etna, so celebrated for its volca- 
no, occupies a great part of Sicily ; the poets feigned that the giants, when de- 
feated by Jupiter, were buried under this heap, and that the eruptions were caus- 
ed by their efforts to relieve themselves. — The first inhabitants of Sicily were the 
Cyclopes and Las strigons, a barbarous race of people, almost extirpated by the 
different Greek colonies, whom the commercial advantages of Sicily's situation 
induced to settle in this island. 

§ 140. Near Lilybaeum are three small islands called iEgates, opposite one of 
which, iEgusa, Lutatius Catulus defeated the Carthaginians in a great naval en- 
gagement, and thus put an end to the first Punic war. — North of Sicily were 
the Insula? iEoliae, Lipari islands, sacred to Vulcan ; the largest is Lipara, 
which was once a place of great consequence ; the next in size isStrongyle, Slrom- 
boli, where iEolus is said to have imprisoned the winds, and where there is a 
celebrated volcano. 

Southeast of Sicily is Melite, Malta, remarkable in ancient times for its cotton 
manufactories. Here St. Paul was ship-wrecked in his voyage from Jerusalem 
to Rome. — Malta was first peopled by the Phoenicians, who found this island a 
convenient station for commerce, on account of its excellent harbor. — Near 
Malta is the small island Gaulos, Gozo. 

§ 141. We notice next the Ionian Islands, on the western coast of Greece. 
Corcyra, Corfu, stood opposite that division of Epirus called Thesprotia, 
from which it was separated by a narrow strait j named Corcyrean.— It is called 
by Homer Scheria, or Phaeacia, and he describes (in the Odyssey) the inhabi- 
tants as luxurious and indolent. — The principal town was Corcyra, near which 
■were the celebrated gardens of Alcinous and Cassiope. Near the promontory 
Phalacrum was a remarkable rock, said to have been the ship which Ulysses re- 
ceived from Alcinous, to convey him to his native country, and which Neptune 
changed into a rock, as a punishment to the Phseacians for aiding Ulysses. 

Leucadia, Santa Maura, was originally a peninsula, and the isthmus was cut 
through by the Carthaginians to facilitate navigation. The chief town was 
Leucas, in earlier ages called Nericum, and the neighboring country Neritis ; it 
was founded by a Corinthian colony, and was joined to the continent by abridge, 
as the strait was here very narrow.T-At the south-western extremity of Leuca- 
dia was a high mountain, named Leucate, and a remarkable rock, called from 
its color Leucopetra, from which unfortunate lovers precipitated themselves into 
the sea. On the top of this rock was a temple of Apollo, where the victims sac- 
rificed previous to taking the fatal leap. 

TheEchinades, Curzolari, were a small cluster of islands at the mouth of the 
river Achelous, of which the most celebrated was Dulichium, part of the em- 
pire of Ulysses. — Near Dulichium was Ithaca, Thaki, the birth-place of Ulys- 
ses; the capital was also called Ithaca, and stood at the foot of Mount Neritus. 

§ 142. Cephalenia, Cephalonia, is the largest of the Ionian islands. Its 
chief town was Same, from whence the island was frequently called by the same 
name. There were three other towns of little consequence in the island, from 
which circumstance it is called Tetrapolis ; in this island are some ruins of Cy- 
clopean structure. 

South of this was Zacynthus, Zante, with a capital of the same name, cele- 
brated for its fertility and beautiful groves. Herodotus declares that there was 
such an abundance of bitumen found here, that even the neighboring sea as- 
sumed prismatic hues, from the oily matter that floated on its surface. 

West of the Peloponnesus were the Strophades, Strivoli, at first called Plotae, 
the residence of the Harpies, and south of them the island of Sphacteria, Spha- 
gice, taken by Cleon, the Athenian, in the first Peloponnesian war. — South of 
the Peloponnesus was Cythera, or Porphyrae, Cerigo, sacred to Venus. It con- 
tained two excellent towns and harbors, Cythera and Scanda. which the Lace- 
daemonians fortified with great care, but the Athenians destroyed both in the 
first Peloponnesian war. 

§ 143. We may include among the Mgean Islands all that remain to be no- 
ticed. 



EUROPE. ISLANDS OF. THE MEMTJERRANEAN. 613 

The Thracian islands occupy the northern part of the jEgean, and were 
named Thasus. Samothrace, and Imbros. — Thasus, Tasse, opposite the mouth of 
the Nessus, was in the earlier ages of Grecian history named iEthria. It pro- 
duced wine and marble, and the inhabitants were at one time so powerful as to 
dispute the mastery of the sea with the Athenians, but after a severe contest of 
two years they were compelled to surrender at discretion. — Samothracia, Saman- 
drac'hi, derived its name from Samos, by a colony from which it was first peo- 
pled. From this place Dardanus brought the worship of Cybele to Troy. — Im- 
brus, Embro, lies to the south of Samothrace. 

§ 144. Tenedos stands at the entrance of the Hellespont, opposite the Troad. 
It contained but one city and a celebrated temple of Apollo, here called Smin- 
theus, because he delivered the inhabitants from a plague of mice, called Smint has 
in the Phrygian language. 

South-west of this was Lemnos, Stalimene, dedicated to Vulcan, who, when 
thrown out of heaven by Jupiter, is said to have fallen on this island. It con- 
tained two cities, Hephsestia or Vulcatia, and Murina. — Farther west, on the 
Macedonian coast, was Halonnesus, Dromo, which is said to have been at one 
time defended by the valor of the women alone, when all the males were slain. 
South of these were Sciathus, Sciatia ; Scopelos, Scopela ; and Scyros, Skiro, 
where Achilles was concealed by his mother Thetis, to prevent his going to the 
Trojan war. 

South of Tenedos, and opposite Ephesus, was Lesbos, Mclelin, the birth- 
place of the philosopher Pittacus, the poets Arion and Alcreus, and the poetess 
Sappho; its chief towns were Methymna, celebrated for wine, and Mitylene, 
from whence the island has derived its modern name. — South of this was Chios, 
Scio, celebrated for its wine. The slaughter of the inhabitants of this island 
lately by the Turks excited great public sympathy. 

§ 145. The largest island of the iEgean was Eubcea, Negropont, opposite 
the coast of Bceotia, from which it was separated by a narrow strait, called the 
Euripus. Into this strait Aristotle, according to the accounts of some, threw 
himself, in a fit of frenzy, because he was unable to explain the cause of its ebb- 
ing and flowing. The chief towns were Chalcis, joined to Aulis, in Bceotia, by 
a bridge across the Euripus ; Eretria, an Athenian colony, founded before the 
Trojan war; Oreus, on the Euripus ; the town and promontory of Artemisium, 
in the northern part oi the island, where the Greeks gained their first naval vic- 
tory over the Persians; and Carystus, in the south, between the promontories 
Gerfestus and Caphareus, remarkable for the quarries of marble in the neighbor- 
ing mountain Ocha. The history of Eubcea is not very important, as the great- 
er part was subjected to the other Greek states. 

In the Saronicgulf were iEgi n a, Engia, anciently iEnone, strongly fortified 
by nature, and at one period the rival of Athens at sea. The jEginetans were 
the most distinguished of the Grecian allies at the battle of Salamis, and ob- 
tained the prize of valor. — Next to this is Salamis, Elimi, the island of Te- 
lamon, father of Ajax and Teucer. Near Salamis, the Greek fleet, commanded 
by Eurybiades the Spartan, and Themistocles the Athenian, totally defeated the 
immense nav} r of Persia. — On the coast of the Peloponnesus was Calauria, Fnro, 
where Demosthenes poisoned himself, sooner than fall into the hands of Antipa- 
ter, the successor of Alexander the Great. 

§ 146. South-east of Eubosa wasa large cluster of islandscalled the Cycla- 
d e s, from their nearly forming a circle round the island of Delos. This island, 
also called Ortygia, is celebrated by the poets as the birth-place of Apollo and 
Diana. Near Mount Cynthius stood the celebrated temple of the Delian god, to 
which pilgrimages were made from all parts of Greece. A sacred galley, called 
Paralus, was annually sent ffom Athens to Delos with a solemn sacrifice, and 
during its absence it was unlawful to punish any criminal in Athens capitally. 
The other remarkable islands in this group were Mycone, Gyarus, and Seri- 
phus, small islands whither the Roman emperors used to banish criminals; An- 
dros and Tenos, south-east of Eubcea ; Ceos, Zea, and Helena, on the coast of 
Attica; Cythus, Siphnus, and Melos, so.uth of Ceos; Paros, celebrated for its 
white marble, the birth-place of the statuaries, Phidias and Praxiteles;' Naxos, 
sacred to Bacchus, where Ariadne was ungratefully deserted by Theseus; Ios, 
where Homer was said to have been buried; Thera, and Anaphe. 



614 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 1-17. The islands in the eastern part of the iEgean were called the Spo- 
rades, and more properly belonged to Asia, but they are enumerated here 
as they were possessed by the Greeks. The chief of these were Samos, sacred 
to Juno, the birth-place of Pythagoras ; Icaria, which gave name to the Icarian 
sea; Patmos, Palmossa, where Saint John wrote the Revelations; Cos, the 
native country of Harpocrates; Carpathus, Scarpanto, which gave name to the 
Carpathian sea; and Rhodus, Rhodes. — This latter island contained three cities, 
Lindus, Camyrus, and Rhodus ; at the harbor of Rhodus stood the Colossus, 
an enormous statue, dedicated to the sun (P. III. § 72). It held in one hand 
a light-house. This splendid statue was thrown down by an earthquake, and 
having long lain prostrate was broken up by the Saracens when they became 
masters of the island. 

§ 148. Creta, Crete or Candid, at the entrance of the iEgean, was the 
most celebrated island of ancient times ; it is said to have contained a hun- 
dred cities, the principal of which were Gnossus, near Mount Ida, on the 
north side of the island ; Gortyna, on the opposite side, where the celebrated 
Labyrinth, built by Daedalus, stood, and Cydonia, by some esteemed the capi- 
tal. — The first inhabitants of Crete were the Idsei Dactyli, who lived near mount 
Ida, and exercised mechanical arts ; nearly contemporary with these were the 
Curetes, who directed their attention to agriculture. — Minos, a descendant of 
Jupiter, was the legislator of Crete, and from his laws the institutions of Ly- 
curgus are said to have been principally borrowed. The fabulous legends res- 
pecting this monarch, his wife PasiphaC, and his daughter Ariadne, are suf- 
ficiently known. Cf. P. III. § 117. (a). 



II. Of Asia. 

§ 149. Asia, the largest and most populous of the divisions of the globe, is 
celebrated as the birth-place of the human race ; the quarter where the true 
God was worshiped when the rest of the world was sunk in superstitious bar- 
barism ; the scene of our Savior's life and sufferings ; and for the three great 
monarchies, the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian, which possessed extensive 
sway before the commencement of authentic European history. From Asia, 
the first principles of arts and sciences were imported into Europe, and there 
civilization had attained a high degree of perfection, before the western coun- 
tries had emerged from barbarism. 

§ 150. The countries of Asia may naturally be considered in two divisions, 
the Eastern and Western; the boundary between them being the river Rha or 
Wolga, the iVlare Caspium, and the mountains extending thence towards the 
Sinus Persicus. 

The Eastern division includes Scythia, Sinarum Regio, India, Persia, Media, 
and Parthia, with the countries north of the mountains called Paropamisus. 
— The Western includes Sarmatia with the countries between the Mare Cas- 
pium and Pontus Euxinus, Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria, Arabia, and Meso- 
potamia with the countries in the valley of the Tigris. 

(a) The Countries of the Eastern Division of Asia. 

§ 151. Scythia was the name applied to all the northern and north-eastern 
part of Asia. Very little was known respecting it. It was divided into Scy- 
thia intra Imuum, and Scythia extra Imaum. separated by the mountains called 
Imaus, now Belur Tag, which unite with the modern Altai on the north, and 
Himmaleh on the south.— Scythia extra Imaum included the Regio Casia, Kash- 
gar in Tartary, and the Regio Serica, the north-west part of China ; in the lat- 
ter was the city Sera, the thorough-fare of ancient commerce between eastern 
and western Asia. (Cf. P. IV. § 335.) 

The Sin;e occupied the most eastern portion of Asia known to the ancients ; 
supposed to be the country now named Cochin China. Their capital was 
Thynae, on the Cotiaris, a branch of the Senus. 

§ 152. India included the territory extending from the mountains called in 
their northern part Parueti, on the west of the river Indus, to the river Serus or 



ASIA. EASTERN DIVISION. G15 

Menan, which empties into Magnus Sinus, Gulf of Siam. It was divided by 
the ancients into India, intra Gangem, and India extra Gangem : the boundary 
between them being the Ganges, which discharged into the Sinus Gangeticus, 
bay of Bengal. This country was but little known before the expedition of 
Alexander. The southern point of India intra Gangem, or Hindostan, was 
called Prom. Comaria, cape Comorin. Several places on the coast were known. 
North of the river Chaberis, Cavery, was the Regio Arcati, the modern Arcot. 
—In India extra Gangem was the Aurea Chersonesus, the peninsula of Malaya, 
its southern point being called Magnum Promontorium, now cape Romania. 

§ 153. Persia, in its more limited meaning, was the country lying east of the 
river Tigris between Media on the north and the Persian gulf on the south. 
But the name is sometimes, and is here, employed to comprehend the whole ter- 
ritory south of the Paropamisus chain of mountains from the Zagros Montes and 
the Tigris on the west to the Parueti and Arbiti Montes separating it from In- 
dia on the east. Thus it includes several provinces. 

Susiana was the most western, on the Tigris, containing the cities Elymais 
andSusa; the latter, called in the Bible Shushan, was the winter residence of 
the Persian kings ; it was situated upon the river Choaspes, which flowed from 
the Orontes mountains into the Tigris. — P e r s is was directly east of Susiana, 
bordering upon the Sinus Persicus, and corresponding to Persia in its limited and 
proper sense. Its capital was Persepolis, represented as a city of great splendor ; 
the royal palace was set on fire by the order of Alexander, when inflamed with 
wine and instigated dy his mistress Thais. Its ruins still excite admiration. It 
was situated on a beautiful plain 6 miles wide and 100 long from N. W. to S. E. 
which is now crowded with numerous villages. Through this flowed the 
Araxes, now Bendemir or Bend Emir, discharging into Lake Baktegian, The 
principal ruin is the palace called by the natives Chehul-Minar, Chil-Minar, or 
Shekel- Minar, or palace of forty columns. (See a description, with plates, in 
Rob. Ker Porter's Travels.) 

The other provinces were Carmania, Herman, south-east of Persis, also 
bordering on the Sinus Persicus ; G e d r o s i a , now Mekran, lying on the Ery- 
thraeum Mare and extending from Carmania to India; Arachosia and 
Drangiana, which include the whole remaining territory on the north and 
east between Gedrosia on the south and the Paropamisus on the north. This 
latter territory was watered by the Elymander, which, with tributaries from the 
mountains on the north, east and south, flowed into the Aria Palus, a lake or sea 
on its western limits; the whole territory was often included under Aria, which 
properly belongs to the contiguous country north of the Paropamisus. 

§ 154. Media was situated south of the Mare Caspium ; its northern limit 
was the river Araxes flowing to that sea from Armenia. The portion lying on 
this river was formed into an independent kingdom, after the death of Alex- 
ander, by the satrap -Atropates and thence called Atropatene; having as its 
capital Gaza, now Tauris or Tebriz. — The capital of Media was Ecbatana, 
now Hamedan (Rennell, Geog. Herod. Sect. 11) ; this was made the summer 
residence of the Persian and afterwards of the Parthian monarchs. Ragse or 
Rages was another place of some importance, mentioned in the apocryphal 
bookofTobit. 

§ 155. Under Parthia we include the region lying at the south-eastern corner 
of the Caspian sea, between Media on the south and the river Oxus, Gihon, 
flowing to the sea of Aral, on the north. It was originally but a part of Hyr- 
cania, a province belonging to the Persian empire. By Arsaces, after the time 
of Alexander, it was made the seat of a new state, which under his successors 
called Arsacidce, grew into a considerable empire, and opposed effectual resis- 
tance to the Romans. — One of its principal places was Nisaea, now Nesa, on a 
northern branch of the river Ochus, now Margab, which empties into the Cas- 
pian. Hyrcania, now Corcan, was a considerable place, on the small river So- 
canda. — But the royal residence of the Arsacidas was Hecatompylos, in the 
south-western part ; although the later Parthian monarchs sometimes resided at 
Ctesiphon on the Tigris. 

The remaining countries, between Parthia and Scythia, were Aria, Bac- 
triana, and Sogdiana. — A ri a was east of Parthia and Media, and north of the 
Paropamisus ; although the name was often extended so as to include (§ 153) a 
large region south of that chain of mountains. The principal place was Arta- 



61G CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

coana, now Herat. — B a c t r i a n a was east of Aria and south of the river Oxus; 
its capital Zariaspa or Bactra ; now Balk, oh a tributary of the Oxus. — S o g- 
dian a includes the territory between the Oxus and the Jaxartes or Sir; cor- 
responding nearly to the modern country Al-Sogd. Its chief place was Mara- 
canda, now Samarcand t on the Polytimetus, a branch of the Oxus. Cyropolis 
was a place founded by Cyrus on the Jaxartes. Various tribes occupied this 
region ; in the north-eastern part were the Sacce. 

(A) The Countries of the Western Division of Asia. 

§ 156. Beginning on the northern limits we notice first Sarmatia, called 
Asiatica, to distinguish it from the country of the same name in Europe, from 
which it was separated by the river Tanais. Its boundary on the south was the 
Caucasus. It was inhabited by roving and uncivilized tribes; particularly the 
Alani, and the Cimmerii, from whom the strait connecting the Palus Moeotis 
with the Euxine received its name of Bosphorus Cirnmericus. — South of Sar- 
matia,, and between the Pontus Euxinus on the west, and the Mare Caspium or 
Hyrcanum on the east, were the three countries, Colchis, Iberia, and Albania. 
C olehis was on the Euxine; one of its chief places was Ma. on the river 
Phasis or Faz-Reone. — Albania was on the Caspian, extending south as far 
as the river Cyrus or Kur. An important place was one of the Iwo celebrated 
passes of the Caucasus, called Pulae Albania? or Caspise, between a northern 
spur of the Caucasus and the Caspian, as is generally supposed ; afterwards the- 
strong city of Derbend— I b eri a was between Colchis and Albania, a high 
valley, watered by the Cyrus and its numerous tributaries. The other celebrat- 
ed pass of the Caucasus led from this valley over into the declivity of the 
Euxine ; it was the defile through which the river Aragus, Arakui, flows into 
the Cyrus. It is now called Dariel. 

§ 157. Armenia was immediatelv south of Colchis and Iberia, extending to 
mount Masius, and the Carduchi Montes on the south, and from Media on the 
east to the northern branch of the Euphrates, which separated it from Asia Mi- 
nor. It presents three great valleys, extending nearly east and west ; first, that 
on the north-east, watered by the Araxes, also called Phasis, now Aras, flowing 
to the Caspian ; second, the central, separated from the first by the chain of 
mountains in which is the summit called Ararat, and watered by the southern 
branch of the Euphrates, which rises in its eastern part, and flows westerly, 
containing also the lake called Arsissa Palus ; third, the south-western, smaller, 
separated from the central by the Niphates Montes, and watered by the Tigris, 
which rises in its western part and flows through it in an easterly course. — Some 
of the principal places were Artaxata, on the Araxes, the ancient capital ; Aiza, 
Erze-Roum, near the sources of the northern branch of the Euphrates ; Amida, 
on the Tigris near its source ; and Tigranocerta, taken by Lucullus in the Mi- 
thridatic war, and plundered of vast riches. — The summit called Ararat is com- 
monly supposed to be that on which Noah's ark rested ; this is said to have been 
ascended, for the first time, by Prof. Parrot in 1829. 

§ 158. Asia minor is a term not used by classical authors, but invented in 
the middle ages. In general, the Roman writers confined the term Asia to 
the countries bordering on the Propontis and iEgean, and divided it into Asia 
intra and Asia extra Taurum. The large peninsula which is known by the 
name Asia Minor, included a great number of petty states, whose boundaries 
varied at different periods. — The northern provinces of Asia. Minor, begin- 
ning at the iEgean Sea, were Phrygia Minor, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, 
and Pontus. — The middle provinces were Lydia. Phrygia major, Galatia. Ly- 
caonia, and Isauria, Cappadocia, and Armenia minor. — The southern provinces 
were Oaria, Lycia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia. 

§ 159. Phrygia Minor, or Troas, is celebrated for the Trojan plains at 
the entrance of the Hellespont. The lapse of ages has produced such changes, 
that modern travelers are not agreed about the situation of the city of Troy, 
called also Ilium. It was built at some distance from the sea, above the junc- 
tion of the Scamander, or Xanthus, and Simois, two small streams, rising from 
mount Ida, and falling into the Hellespont; the citadel was called Pergamus, 
and was erected on a little hill included within the walls. The plain between 
the city and the sea was intersected by the rivers Scamander and Simois, and 



wmm 



ASIA. WESTERN DIVISION. ASIA MINOR. 617 

there the battles mehtioned in the Iliad were fought. At the eastern extremity 
of the plain was the mount Ida, the summit of which was called Gargarus : 
the west was bounded by the Hellespont, which here forms an extensive bay, 
between the promontory of Rhaeteum on the north, and Sigeum On the south. 
Here lay the Grecian fleet, and at a little distance on the shore was the camp. 
Ajax was buried on the Rhastean, and Achilles on the Sigean promontory. 

My si a, divided into minor and major, extended from the Hellespont to 
Bithynia; the principal towns of the former were Abydos, and Lampsacus, de- 
dicated to Priapus, celebrated ior its wealth and luxury. — The principal city 
in Mysia major was Cyzicus, situated on an island of -the same name in the 
Propontis, and joined by two bridges to the continent, celebrated for the gal- 
lant resistance it made when besieged by Mithridates ; near this is the river 
Granicus, where Alexander defeated the army of Darius, and where Lucullits 
obtained an equally important victory over Mithridates. 

§ 160. Bithynia, at first called Bebrycia, lay between the Thracian Bos- 
phorus and the river Parthenias. Its chief towns were Apamea, at the mouth 
of the river Rhyndacus; Nicomedia, on a gulf of the same name ; Chalcedon, 
Scutari, called the city of the blind, because its founders neglected the more 
eligible site Byzantium, at the opposite side of the Bosphorus; Libyssa, where 
Hannibal was buried ; Calpas and Heraclea, on the Euxine ; Prusa, at the foot 
of Mount Olympus, where Hannibal for a short time found refuge with king 
Prusias ; and Nicaea, Nice, where the first general council was assembled. 

Paphlagonia lay between the rivers Parthenias and Halys. The chief 
towns were Sinope, Sinube, the birth-place of Diogenes, and capital of the king- 
dom of Mithridates ; and Carambis, Karempi, near a promontory of the same 
name, opposite the Criu-Metopon, a cape in the Tauric Chersonese. 

Pon tu s, the kingdom of the celebrated Mithridates, extended from the river 
Halys to Colchis : the principal towns were Amisus, near the Halys ; Eupatoria 
on the confluence of the Iris and Lycus, named by Pompey Megalopolis; Ama- 
sia, the birth-place of the geographer Strabo; Themiscera, on the river Ther- 
modon, where the Amazons are supposed to have resided ; Cerasus, whence Lu- 
cullus brought the first cherry-trees that were seen in Europe ; and Trapezus, 
Trebisond, on the borders of Colchis, greatly celebrated by the Romance-writers 
of the middle ages. Near the river Halys, the Leleges and Chalybes, famous 
for their skill in iron-works, resided. 

§ 161. L y d i a , called also Mseonia, lay to the south of Phrygia Minor and 
Mysia, and to the east of the iEgean Sea. The northern part of the coast was 
called iEolia, and the southern Ionia, from the number of Greek colonies which 
settled there. — iEolia was colonized by the iEtolians, soon after the termination 
of the Trojan war: its chief towns were Adramyttium, founded by an Athenian 
colony; Pergamus, Bergamo, the capital of a small territory, greatly enlarged by 
the Romans after the defeat of Mithridates, and bequeathed to them by Attalus 
its last king ; its port was called Elea ; between Elea and Adramyttium was Lyr- 
nessus, and Cana, a town built on a promontory of the same name, near which 
are the iEginusan islands, where Conon, the Athenian admiral, completely de- 
feated the Spartans.— Ionia contained several remarkable cities, of which the 
principal were Smyrna, on the river Meles, near which Homer is said to have 
been born ; Clazomenae, on a peninsula of the same name, celebrated for its 
wealth ; Erythrae, near mount Mimas, the residence of one of the Sibyls ; Cory- 
cus, near which the fleet of Antiochus was defeated by the Romans; Teos, the 
birth-place of Anacreon. — South of the peninsula of Clazomenae, were Colophon, 
on the river Halesus, celebrated for the grove of Claros, sacred to Apollo ; 
Ephesus, on the river Cayster, the most splendid of the Asiatic cities, now de- 
generated into a paltry village, remarkable for the splendid temple of Diana ; 
Mycale, opposite Samos, where the Persian fleet was totally destroyed by the 
Greeks; Priene, on the Maeander, a river noted for its winding course; and 
Miletus, the birth-place of Thales. — In the interior of Lydia was Sardis, the 
capital, situate at the foot of mount Tmolus on the river Pactolus, a branch of 
the Hermus ; on the Hermus was Magnesia, where Antiochus, king of Syria, 
was overthrown by the Romans. 

§ 162. East of Lydia was Phrygia Major, separated by the river Lycus. 
Its chief towns were Pessinus, near the foot of mount Dindymus, sacred to'Cy- 
78 



618 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

bele, the mother of the gods, whose image was conveyed thence to Rome, at the 
end of the second Punic war; Gordium, celebrated for the Gordian knot cut 
through by Alexander ; Apamea, on the river Marsyas, where Apollo flayed 
alive his musical competitor Marsyas; Laodicea, celebrated in sacred history; 
and Colossse, on the river Lycus. — G a 1 a t i a or Gallo-grascia, lay north of Phry- 
gia, of which it originally formed a part. The chief towns were Ancyra, An- 
goura, where Bajazet was defeated and made prisoner by Tamerlane ; Gangra, 
the residence of king Deiotarus, a great friend of Cicero ; and Tavium, the 
capital of the Trocrni. 

South-east of Phrygia were I s a u r i a and Lycaonia. The principal 
towns of the former were Isaura?, the capital ; Lystra, and Derbe, mentioned in 
the acts of the apostles. The principal town of the latter was Iconium. Both 
these provinces were intersected by the chain of mount Taurus. 

§ 163. Cappadocia lay between the Halys and Euphrates. Its most re- 
markable towns were Comana, celebrated for a temple of Bellona, plundered by 
Antony ; Tyana, the birth-place of the impostor Apollonius ; and Mazaca, 
named by Tiberius, Csesarea ad Argreum, to denote its situation at the foot of 
mount Argaeus. — The north-eastern part of Cappadocia was known by the name 
of Lesser Armenia, and contained Cabira, or Sebaste, a well fortified city, cap- 
tured by Pompey ; the strong fortress Novus, where Mithridates kept his trea- 
sure ; and Nicopolis, built by Pompey, to commemorate his victory over Mithri- 
dates. — The Greeks described the Cappadocians as the worst of the three bad 
Kappas, or nations whose names began with that letter ; the other two were the 
Cretans and Cilicians. 

§ 164. The south-western province of Asia Minor was Caria. Its chief 
towns were-Halicarnassus, the capital, celebrated for having given birth to the 
historians Dionysius and Herodotus, and for the Mausoleum, a splendid monu- 
ment, one of the seven wonders of the world, erected by Artemisia, queen of Ca- 
ria, to the memory of her husband Mausolus ; Cnidus, in the peninsula of Doris, 
sacred to Venus ; Alabanda, on the Mseander ; and Stratonicea, on the south- 
ern coast. 

Lycia lay to the east of Caria. Its chief towns were Telmessus, on a gulf of 
the same name ; Xanthus, celebrated for its obstinate resistance to Brutus, the 
inhabitants having destroyed themselves by fire sooner than surrender ; and Pa- 
tara, sacred to Apollo. —Near the gulf of Telmessus ran the chain of mount 
Cragus, sacred to Diana ; in this chain was the volcano ChimDera, fabled by the 
poets to have been a monster subdued by Bellerophon (cf. P. III. § 117). Some 
hills at the Promontorium Sacrum were usually esteemed the commencement of 
mount Taurus, and a little beyond it is a part of the same ridge adjoining the 
sea, round which Alexander's army were compelled to march up to their middle 
in water. 

§ 165. Next to Lycia were Pisidia and Pamphylia, two mountainous 
districts, whose boundaries are indeterminate. The chief towns of the former 
were Antiochia ; Termessus, the capital of the Solymi, a people mentioned by 
Homer; andCremna, a Roman colony : of the latter, Perga, the capital; As- 
pendus, on the river Eurymedon, near which Cimon defeated the Persian fleet, 
and Coracesium, where Pompey destroyed the nest of pirates who had so long 
infested these seas. 

C i 1 i c i a lay to the east of Pamphylia, and south of Isauria, and was divided 
into two portions, the western called Tracheotis, or rough, and the other Cam- 
pestris, or level. — The chief towns of Tracheotis were Selinus, where the em- 
peror Trajan died ; Anamurium, opposite Cyprus ; and Seleucia, Seletkeh, on 
the river Calycadmus. 

In Cilicia Campestris were Soli, a colony of Athenians ; Tarsus, said to have 
got its name from one of the wings of the horse Pegasus being dropped there ; 
Saint Paul was a native of this town : Issus, where Alexander obtained his 
second triumph over the Persians ; and Alexandria, Scanderoon, erected by the 
conqueror to perpetuate the memory of his victory. — On the confines of Syria 
was the mountain Amanus, between which and the sea were Pylas Syria?, a 
celebrated pass. — The river Cydnus is remarkable for the coldness of its waters, 
by which Alexander was almost killed, and for the splendid festivities celebrated 
on its banks, when Antony visited Cleopatra. 



ASIA. WESTERN DIVISION. SYRIA. 619 

§ 166. Syria was bounded on the north by mount Amanus; on the east by 
the Euphrates; on the south by Arabia ; and on the west by the Mediterranean. 
It was divided into five provinces, Coraagene, Seleucis, Coalo-Syria, Phoenicia, 
and Judea, or Palestine. 

The principal city ofComagene was Samosata, on the Euphrates, the 
birth-place of Lucian. — In Seleucis, or Syria Propria, were Antiochia, on 
the Orontes, where the Christians first received that name ;* near it were the de- 
lightful grove and village of Daphne, sacred to Apollo; Berasa, Aleppo ; Hierap-' 
olis, the city of the Syrian goddess ; Emesa, the city of Heliogabalus, one of the 
worst of the Roman emperors ; and Heliopolis, Balbec, sacred to the sun, whose 
magnificent ruins still attract admiration. (Cf. P. I. § 242. 3.) 

C ce lo- Syria was so named because it lay between two parallel chain's of 
mountains, Libanus and Antilibanus ; its chief towns were Damascus, on the 
river Abana; Palmira, or Tadmor, said to have been founded by Solomon, the 
residence of queen Zenobia, who so bravely defied the Roman emperor Aurelian, 
and of Longinus. The ruins of this city are calculated to inspire us with very 
lofty ideas of ancient architecture. — The principal peak in the chain of mount 
Libanus was called Lebanon, and in that of Antilibanus, Hermon. — Phoenicia 
contained the cities of Tyre and Sydon, famous for their extensive com- 
merce. The siege of Tyre by Alexander is celebrated for the obstinate de- 
fence made by the besieged, and the unconquerable perseverance of the be- 
siegers. 

, § 167. Judaea, or Palsestina, is called in scripture the land of Canaan, 
of Israel, and of Judah. It was at first divided among the twelve tribes ; it was 
afterwards separated into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah ; and finally, the 
Romans divided it into four regions, Galilee, Samaria, Judaea Propria, and Pe- 
raea or Transfluviana, the country beyond Jordan. 

G a 1 i 1 e e was again subdivided into Inferior, chiefly inhabited by Jews ; and 
Superior, which from its proximity to Coelo-Syria, was called Galilee of the 
Gentiles. — The chief towns of Upper Galilee were Caesarea Philippi, so called 
to distinguish it from another town of the same name in this province ; its 
original name was Laish, afterwards changed to Paneas, and finally called Cae- 
sarea Philippi, by Herod's son Philip; Gabara, and Jotopata, bravely defended 
by the historian Josephus, when besieged by Vespasian. The principal cities in 
Lower Galilee were Aco, or Ptolemais, Acre, memorable for its siege by Richard 
CcEur de Lion, in the times of the crusades; Canae; Sepphoris, called after- 
wards Dio Caesarea ; Nazareth, and Jezreel. — A large lake in Galilee was called 
the sea of Tiberias or Gennesareth ; at its northern extremity was Chorazin ; at 
the western side were Capernaum, Tiberias, and Bethsaida ; on the opposite 
side was Gadara. — The chief mountains of Galilee were Carmel and Tabor, the 
scene of our Lord's transfiguration.^Between Galilee and Samaria stood Beth- 
san, the chief of the ten confederate cities called Decapolis, which, dreading the 
power of the Jews, entered into a confederacy against the Asmonean princes, 
who then governed Judea. 

§ 168. Samaria lay south of Galilee. Its chief towns were Samaria, the 
capital, destroyed by the Asmonean princes, but rebuilt by Herod, who called it 
Sebaste, in honor of Augustus; Cassarea, first called Turris Stratonices, a 
celebrated seaport, the residence of the Roman governors; Joppa, a seaport 
south of Cassarea, where Andromeda was delivered from a sea-monster by Per- 
seus ; Sichem, in the interior, the ancient capital, between the mountains Ebal 
and Gerizim ; it was in latter times called Neapolis ; Lydda, called by the 
Greeks Diospolis ; and Arimatbea. 

J u dae a was situated south of Samaria, between the lake Asphaltites, or Dead 
Sea, and the Mediterranean. — The capital was Jerusalem, a city originally be- 
longing to the Jebusites, from whom it was taken by David, who made it his re- 
sidence. Hence it is called the ' city of David.' The city was built upon four 
hills, Sion at the south, Moriah at the east, Acra at the west and Bezetha at 
the north. Sion was called the upper, and Acra the lower city ; near the former 
was the valley of Ben-Hinnom, and fountain Siloe; opposite the latter was the 
temple, built on mount Moriah ; and farther to the east, separated from the city 
by the valley and brook Kedron, was the mount of Olives ; Bezetha was called 
Kainopolis, or the new city, because it was added in later times ; and west of it 
was a district called Golgotha, in the middle of which stood mount Calvary, 



620 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

where our Lord was crucified. — North of Jerusalem was Emmaus, where the 
Jews were defeated by Vespasian ; Bethel in a mountainous district of the same 
name; Jericho neat the Jordan; and Engaddi, celebrated for its palm-trees. 
South of Jerusalem were Bethlehem, the birth-place of Christ; Hebron, where 
Abraham was buried ; and Beersheba. 

The southern district of Judea was called Idumea, or the land of Edom ; the 
chief towns were Gera, Zoar, and Bozra, at the foot of mount Seir. — The sea- 
coast was cilled Philistasa, or the land of the Philistines, from whom the whole 
country is now called Palestine ; its chief towns were Gath, Ekron, Azotus or 
Ashdod, Ascalon, and Gaza. 

§ 169. The river Jordan, which separates Persea from the other provinces, 
rises in mount Hermon, and passing through the sea of Tiberias, falls into the 
lake Asphaltites, whence there is no exit for its waters. — This lake is said to 
occupy the situation of the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. From its extreme 
saltness it is destructive of animal and vegetable life, neither fish nor weeds being 
found in its waters. — The chief towns of Peraea were Ramoth-Gilead, in the 
country of the Galaadites ; Gadara, on the torrent Hieromas, where the Chris- 
tians where severely defeated by the Saracens; Gaulon, a fortress of remarkable 
strength; Gamala, near the sea of Tiberias; and Rabboth-Ammon, in the dis- 
strict Ammonitis, afterwards called Philadelphia. 

§ 170. Mesopotamia was south of Armenia, between the rivers Tigris and 
Euphrates, whence it derives its name. Its chief towns were Nisibis; on a 
branch of the Tigris, the great bulwark of the Romans against the Parthians ; 
Edessa, near Syria; Seleucia, now Bagdad, on the confluence of the Tigris 
with a branch of the Euphrates; and Carrhae, called in scripture Charran, for 
a time the residence of Abraham, and the scene of Crassus's miserable over- 
throw. On the borders of Chaldaeawere the plains of Cunaxa, where Cyrus 
was slain by his brother Artaxerxes, and where the ten thousand Greeks com- 
menced that retreat so memorable in history. 

Separated from Mesopotamia by the Tigris, were the districts of Babylonia 
and Chaldaea. — Their chief town was Babylon, the most ancient and remarkable 
city of antiquity. Belus, its founder, commenced his building near the tower of 
Babel, which by profane writers is called after his name : but to Semiramis, the 
widow of his descendant Ninus, the grandeur of Babylon is attributable. She 
enclosed the city with a wall of brick, cemented by bitumen, of almost incredible 
dimensions, and ornamented it with one hundred brazen gates. The circuit of 
the city was said to have been more than sixty miles; and so great was its 
length, that when Cyrus had captured one extremity of the city, the inhabitants 
of the other were ignorant of the event until the following morning. — The river 
Euphrates flowed through the city, and Cyrus having diverted the river into 
another channel, led his troops through the vacant bed, and surprised the Ba- 
bylonians, who, with their monarch Belshazzar, were at that moment celebrating 
a feast in honor of their gods, and consequently made but a feeble, resistance. — 
The Chaldaeans were celebrated astonomers, but they debased the science by the 
admixture of judicial astrology, for which perversion of intellect they were 
greatly celebrated. 

East of the Tigris lay Assyria, now called Kurdistan from the Carduchi, a 
tribe that inhabited the northern part of the country. Its chief towns were Ni- 
nus, or Niniveh, frequently mentioned in scripture, and Arbela, near which is 
the village Gaugamela, where Alexander overturned the Persian empire, by the 
defeat of Darius. — The Assyrian empire was founded by Ninus, who made Ni- 
niveh the capital of his dominions. 

§ 171. The only country of Asia remaining to be noticed is Arabia, which 
was the large peninsula between the Persian Gulf and Red Sea, Sinus Ara- 
bicus. It was divided into three parts, Deserla, desert, Petraea, stony, and 
Felix, happy. 

Arabia Deserta lay between Syria and Chaldaea ; its principal city was Thap- 
sacus. — Arabia Petraea contained the towns Arse or Petra, and Berenice, called 
in scripture Ezion Geber, a sea-port on the Red Sea. In this province were 
mount Horeb and Sinai. — Arabia Felix, celebrated for its fertility, lay south of 
the former, and among its inhabitants, the Sabaei, who cultivated frankincense, 
were the most remarkable. 



AFRICA. JEGVPTUS. 621 

§ 172. The Asiatic Islands were not very important, except those in the 
Mare ;Ega:um already named (§ 147). The principal other in the Mediter- 
ranean was Cyprus, sacred to Venus ; the chief towns of which were Paphos, 
where stood the celebrated temple of Venus, infamous for the debauchery and 
prostitution it sanctioned; Citium, the birth-place of Zeno, the Stoic, on the 
west coast ; Salamis, Famagusta, built by Teucer on the east ; Lapethus Arsinoe, 
and Soli, in the north, and Tamassus, celebrated for its copper-mines in the in- 
terior. — The other islands were Procpnnesus, Marmora, in the Propontis ; Tap- 
robane, Ceylon, and Jabadi, Sumatra, in the Indian ocean. 



III. Of Africa. 

§ 173. The name Africa was applied strictly and properly by ancient geo- 
graphers, at least until the time of Ptolemy, to a small part of that vast penin- 
sula of the eastern continent which it now designates ; and by them Egypt was 
reckoned among the Asiatic kingdoms. But we here use the term as including 
all that was known to the ancients of that whole country. "We shall consider it 
under the following divisions; iEgyptus or Egypt, ^Ethiopia, Libya, Africa 
Propria, Numidia, Mauritania, and Africa Interior. 

§ 174. The general boundaries of iEeypTus were the Mediterranean on the 
north, Syria and the Sinus Arabicus on the east, Ethiopia on the south, and Li- 
bya on the west. The limit between it and Syria was the Torrens jEgypti, or 
river of Egypt as called in the Bible, which flowed into the arm of the sea called 
Palus Sirbonis. The limit between Egypt and Libya on the west was the great 
declivity and narrow pass termed Catabathmos (zcrra/Ja^os). Its southern 
limit was the smaller cataract of the Nile. 

One of the most striking features of Egypt was its river, Nilus. It has two 
principal sources; the eastern rising in the mountains of the country now called 
Abyssinia, and the western in the Lunae Montes, mountains of the moon. Having 
passed through the ancient Ethiopia it flows through the whole length of Egypt 
to the Mediterranean ; not receiving a single tributary for the last 1000 miles of 
its course, and at last dividing into two great arms and forming the triangular is- 
land called Delta from its shape. It had seven mouths ; the most western was 
the Ostium Canopicum ; the others in their order, proceeding towards the east, 
were the Balbytinum, Sebenniticum, Phatnicum, Mendesium, Taniticum, and 
Pelusiacum. — Its annual inundations were the great cause of fertility, and reser- 
voirs and canals were formed in great numbers to convey the water over the 
whole country ; where the land was too high to allow canals to convey it, pumps 
were used for raising the water ; almost every village, it is said, had its 
canal, although there were in the valley of .Egypt many thousand cities and 
villages. 

§ 175. There were three principal divisions of Egypt ; the northern part on 
the Mediterranean was called iEgyptus Inferior ; the southern part on the con- 
fines of Ethiopia was iEgyptus Superior or Thebais; and the portion between 
these, Heptanomis. — The capital of lower Egypt was Alexandria, the great mart 
of Indian merchandise; during the middle ages, caravans continually passed 
from thence to Arsinoe, Suez, on the Red Sea, whence goods were conveyed by 
sea to India. In front of the harbor was an island named Pharos, on which a 
celebrated light-house was built ; south of the city was the lake Mareotis, in the 
vicinity of which the best Egyptian wine was made. In Alexandria was the 
celebrated library, said to have been burned by the Saracens. (Cf. P. I. § 76.)— 
In the interior of the Delta was Sais, the ancient capital, remarkable for its 
numerous temples ;', and Naucratis: between the Delta and Sinus Arabicus were 
Heroopolis, the city of the shepherd kings; and Onion, founded by a colony of 
Jews, who fled hither under their high-priest Onias, from the cruelties of An- 
tiochus, and, by the permission of Ptolemy, built a city and temple. 

§ 176. One of the chief places in the middle portion or Heptanomis was Mem- 
phis, near the spot where Grand Cairo now stands; it was the ancient metropolis 
of all Egypt; in its vicinity are the stupendous pyramids. Arsinoe south-west 



622 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

of Memphis was an important place; near this was the famous lake Moeris, said 
to have been excavated by order of an Egyptian king as a reservoir to contain 
the waters of the Nile conveyed into it by a great canal, now the lake Birket-el- 
Kurun, and believed to have been wholly or chiefly a work of nature; at the 
southern end of this lake was the still more celebrated labyrinth. — Oxyrynchus 
was a considerable place, said to have derived its name from a sharp nosed fish 
(oilus (ivy/ ?) worshiped by the inhabitants. — In upper Egypt the most important 
place was Thebes, which gave the name of Thebais to this division ; called also 
by the Greeks Diospolis, and Hecatompylos; although destroyed by Cambyses 
500 years before Christ, its ruins still excite admiration, occupying a space of 27 
miles in circumference, including the modern Karnak, Luxor and other vil- 
lages ; near it was the famous statue of Memnon before noticed (P. III. § 74). — 
Tentyra, Dcnderah,was north of Thebes, and also presents interesting ruins ; espe- 
cially the large temple of Isis, from the ceiling of which was taken the famous 
Zodiac transported to France and made the subject of much speculation. (Amer. 
Quart. Rev. iv.) — Between Thebes and Tentyra, nearer the former and on the 
eastern side of the Nile, was Coptos; from this place a road was constructed by 
Ptolemy Philadelphus across the desert to Berenice on the Sinus Arabicus. 
Considerably to the south of Thebes was Ombi made notorious by Juvenal (Sat. 
xv.) for its quarrels with Tentyra respecting the worship of the crocodile. 
Syene was the extreme town on the borders of Ethiopia ; the place of Juvenal's 
exile ; where also was the well sunk to mark the summer solstice, its bottom 
- being then illumined by the vertical rays of the sun directly perpendicular over 
it. Not far from Syene was the island on which Elephantine stood, of which 
interesting ruins still remain. Near Syene was also the Mons Basanites, moun- 
tains of touch-stone, from which the Egyptians used to make ornamental vases. 
South of Syene were the cataracts of tjie Nile ; mighty terraces of red granite 
{Syenite) cross the bed of the river, and throw its waters into an impetuous and 
foaming torrent. In this region were the quarries whence the vast obelisks 
and colossal statues and blocks of the Egyptian temples were taken. — There 
were three places on the Sinus Arabicus, which should be mentioned ; Berenice 
in the south-eastern extremity of Egypt ; Arsinoe, now Suez, at the head of the 
western arm of the sea, called Sinus Heroopolites ; and Myoshormus, called also 
Portus Veneris, midway between them; they were each commercial places, 
goods being transported from them to Nile ; a canal, called Fossa Trajani, con- 
nected Arsinoe with that river. 

In the vast deserts on the western or Libyan side of Egypt were the cultivated 
and inhabited spots called the Great and the Little Oasis (Oasis Magna, and Par- 
■va). The latter was in the division termed Heptanomis, south of lake |Mceris. 
The Great Oasis is in the part that was called Thebais. It consists of a number 
of fertile spots, west of Thebes and parallel to the Nile, nearly 100 miles in their 
whole extent. Here are Egyptian ruins covered with Hieroglyphics. It was a 
place of banishment in the time of the later Roman empire ; yet said to be 
a delightful residence, and sometimes called by the Greeks the isle of the 
blessed. 

§ 177. The ruins and antiquities of Egypt have ever awakened the deepest 
interest in the traveler and the scholar. Besides the various temples and other 
edifices, of which splendid remains are found in various places, the following 
rank high among the objects of curiosity. 1. Obelisks and Pillars; several of 
these were removed to Rome ; of the remaining, the most noted are the Pillar of 
On at Heliopolis, the two obelisks called Cleopatra's Needles at Alexandria, and 
Pompey's Pillar, also at Alexandria. — 2. The Pyramids, ranked by the Greeks 
among the seven wonders. They are numerous at Djiza, or Gize, near Cairo 
and the ancient Memphis, and at Sacchara, 18 miles south of Gize. Those at 
Gize are the most celebrated. One of them has been open from the earliest 
times of which we have account. Several others have been opened in recent 
times. They all contain chambers evidently used for sepulchral purposes. (Cf. 
P. I. § 231.) — 3. Catacombs. These are subterranean burying places. They are 
found in several places ; but the most remarkable are near Thebes, at a place 
now called Gournou, a tract of rocks at the foot of the mountains west of the 
Nile. The tombs are excavated in the rocks and extend, it is said, over the 
space of two miles. From these, many mummies have been taken. — The laby- 
rinth, which Herodotus considered more wonderful than the pyramids, included 
numerous subterranean chambers designed as repositories for the dead ; over 



AFRICA. ETHIOPIA. LIBYA. 623 

these was an immense pile of splendid buildings. Some ruins of this structure 
near lake Moeris (§ 176) have been discovered. — 4. Colossal images and statues. 
One of the most remarkable of the colossal images of the sphinx (of. P. III. § 117) 
is near the great pyramids. — A very celebrated colossus is that called the statue 
of Memnon (cf. § 176). — The Egyptian monuments are covered with inscriptions 
in Hieroglyphics (cf. P. I. § 16). 

Much research has been employed in modern times upon Egyptian Antiquities and Remains. A 
new degree of interest was awakened in the whole subject by the celebiated expedition of Bonaparte 
in 1798. In this invasion of Egypt, he took with him a detachment of no less than one hundred men, 
who had cultivated the arts and sciences, or to use the French phrase, savans, selected for the purpose. 
This body , the first of the kind which ever accompanied an invading army, was liberally supplied with 
books, philosophical instruments, and all the means of prosecuting the several departments of knowl- 
edge.'— The splendid work, published under the emperor's patronage and styled 'Description de 
VEgypte,' was the result of their labors.— Many other valuable works illustrating the history and 
monuments of Egypt have been published during the present century , some from members of the com- 
pany of savans above named. That of Denon holds a high rank ; entitled Travels in Lower and Up- 
per Egypt during the Campaigns of Bonaparte ; with folio plates.— The following works relate to this 
subject. Legh's Travels in Egypt.— Belzoni's Travels.— Jomard's Description de VEgypte.— Hamil- 
ton's JEgyptiaca.— leironne, Recherches sur l'Egypte. — Russet's View of Ancient and Modern Egypt. 
—We may add, the Travels cf Clarke, Norden, Shaw, Pocockc. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. xxiv. 
p. 139.— Amer. Quart. Rev. No. vii. 

§ 178. ^Ethiopia was the name given by the ancients very indefinitely to the 
country lying south of Egypt; the modern countries of Nubia and Abyssinia 
particularly were included. 

Various uncivilized tribes are represented as dwelling here in ancient times; 
on the coast were the Troglodita? said to inhabit caves in the earth. It seems 
also to have contained inhabitants equally advanced in refinement with the 
Egyptians. 

The most important places were Napata, Meroe, Auxume, and Adulis. — 
Auxume, Axum, was on one of the sources of the Astaboras, Tacazze, the 
eastern branch of the Nile. Its ruins still exist. 'In one square Bruce found 
40 obelisks, each formed of a single piece of granite, with sculptures and inscrip- 
tions, but no hieroglyphics. One of the obelisks was 60 feet high.' A monu- 
ment usually called the Inscription of Axum, found among the ruins here, is said 
to contain evidence of intercourse between this place and Constantinople in the 
4th century. (Cf. Malle-Brun, Nouvelles Annoles des Voyages. Vol. xii. — Class. 
Journ. i. p. 83.) — Adulis was situated east of Axum, on the Sinus Arabicus; the 
modern Arkiko, on the bay of Masuah. The place gained celebrity from two 
inscriptions, which were first described by the geographer Cosmas (P. II. § 207) ; 
one is on a kind of throne or armed chair of white marble ; the other on a 
tablet of touch-stone ((Saaavirov ll&ov, § 176) placed behind the throne. — Meroe 
was on or near the Nile south of its junction with the Astaboras ; near the modern 
Shendy, as is supposed. It was the capital of a large tract between these rivers 
called by the same name, and was celebrated in ancient times, being the grand 
emporium of the caravan trade between Ethiopia and Egypt and the north of 
Africa. The remains of temples and other edifices of sandstone -still mark its 
site. — Napata was farther north or lower down on the Nile, and was next; in 
rank to Meroe. 

These regions have also been explored in modern times and splendid ruins have been found scat- 
tered along the val'ey of the Nile. The following are some of the sources of information on the sub- 
ject. Bruca's Travels in Abyssinia.— Travels of Salt and Lord Valentia, of Burckhardt, Franc. Gau, 
and especially of Cailliaud. 

§ 179. Under Libya we include the whole extent from iEgyptus on the east 
to the Syrtis Minor, Gulf of Cabes, together with an indefinite portion on the 
south. The term was used by the ancient poets to signify Africa in general. 
In its strict and most limited sense, it included only the region between Egypt 
and the Syrtis Major or Gulf of Sidra.—ln the latter sense, it comprised on the 
coast only the two districts, Marmarica and Cyrenaica. We include under Li- 
bya also the portion farther west called Regio Syrtica, from the two Syrtes on the 
coast already named. 

Marmarica was on the east nearest to Egypt. The inhabitants were said 
to possess some secret charm, against the poison of serpents : some of them, 
named Psylli, made it their profession to heal such as had been bitten, by 



624 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

sucking the venom out of the wound. In an Oasis, south of Martnarica, stood 
the celebrated temple of Jupiter Amnion (P. IV. § 71), and near it the fountain 
of the sun, whose waters were said to be warm in the morning, cool at noon, 
hot in the evening, and scalding at midnight. Alexander, after having en- 
countered great difficulties, succeeded in visiting this oracle, and was hailed by 
the priest as son of Jupiter. — C yrenaica, or Pentapolis, Barca, lay between 
Marmarica and the Syrtis major, or altars of the Phileni. It contained five 
cities ; Cyrene founded by a Greek colony, the birth-place of the philosopher 
Carneades; Apollonia, a celebrated sea-port ; Ptolemais, at first called Barce ; 
Arsinog, and Berenice or Hesperis, near which were the gardens of the Hes- 
perides, famous for their golden apples, and the residence of the Gorgons, so 
celebrated in fable. (Cf. Ed. Rev. No. 95. p. 228.) West of this was Regio Syr- 
tic a, also called, from its three cities, Tripolitana, Tripoli; its cities were 
Leptis, called major, to distinguish it from a town of the same name, near Car- 
thage ; CEa, the present city of Tripoli, and Sabrata, a Roman colony. A people 
called by Homer the Lotophagi dwelt on this coast ; he says, that they fed on the 
lotus, a fruit so delicious, that whoever tasted it immediately forgot his native 
country ; on the coast were the Syrtes, two dangerous quicksands, which fre- 
quently proved fatal to hapless mariners; here, also, was the lake Tritonis, 
sacred to Minerva. 

For an account of the ancient remains in these regions, particularly at Leptis and Cyrene, we refer 
toBeechy's Travels.— The situation of Cyrene is described as exceedingly beautiful.— ' It is built on 
the edge of a range of hills, rising about SOO feet above a fine sweep of high table land, forming the 
summit of a lower chain, to which it descends by a series of terraces. The elevation of the lower 
chain may be estimated at 1000 feet ; so that Cyrene stands about 1800 feet above the level of the sea, of 
which it commands an extensive view over the table land, which, extending east and west as far as the 
eye can reach, stretches about five miles to the northward and then descends abruptly to the coast. 
Advantage has been taken of the natural terraces, to shape the ledges into roads leading along the face 
of the mountain, and communicating in some instances by narrow nights of steps cut in the rock. 
These roads, which may be supposed to have been the favorite drives of the citizens of Cyrene, are 
very plainly indented with the marks of chariot wheels, deep furrowing the smooth, stony surface. 
The rock, in most instances rising perpendicularly from these galleries, has heen excavated into-in- 
numerable tombs, generally adorned with architectural facades. The outer sides of the roads, where 
they descended from one range to another, were ornamented with sarcophagi and monumental tombs; 
and the whole sloping space between the galleries was filled up with similar structures. These, as 
well as the excavated tombs, exhibit very superior taste and execution. In two instances, a simple 
sarcophagus of white marble, ornamented with flowers and figures in relief of exquisite workmanship, 
was found in a large excavation. In several of the excavated tombs were discovered remains of pain- 
tings, representing historical, allegorical, and pastoral subjects, executed in the manner of those of 
Herculaneum and Pompeii.' (Cf. P. I. § 226.)— In the region of Cyrenaica are several caverns containing 
stalactites, presenting of course various fantastic shapes. It has been supposed that this fact, together 
with the existence of the ruins and excavations in the vicinity of Cyrene, may have given rise to the 
story of the petrified city , of which, under the name of Ras Sem, marvelous accounts have been related 
to travelers in Africa. See Modern Traveler. 

§ 180. Next to Tripolitana was the province of Africa Propria, of 
which the capital was Carthage. This city was founded by a Tyrian colony, 
led by queen Dido, and by its extensive commerce became one of the most 
opulent cities of antiquity. Its citadel was called Byrsa, because it was said, 
that Dido, on coming here, purchased as much ground as she could encompass 
with a Byrsa (hide), and then having cut the hide into strips, took in the space 
originally covered by the city. — The other remarkable lowns in this district were 
Tunes, or Tuneta, Tunis, where Regulus was defeated and taken prisoner; 
Clupea, near Promontorium Mercurii, Cape Bona ; Adrumetum ; Thapsus, 
where Caesar defeated Scipio and Juba; and Utica, where Cato the younger 
slew himself; near Utica was the river Bagradas, where Regulus slew an enor- 
mous serpent, that had destroyed many of his soldiers. 

§ 181. No.MiDU was at one time divided into the kingdom of the Massyli, 
ruled by Massinissa, and that of the Massassyli, under the government of Sy- 
phax; but after the third Punic war, they were united into one kingdom un- 
der Massinissa ; the capital was Certa ; the principal towns on the sea-coast 
were Tabraca, remarkable for its groves; Hippo Regius, near the small 
river Rubricatus, the episcopal seat of Saint Augustine; and Rusicade ; in 
the interior were Vaga. Sicca, and Z;ma, where Hannibal was defeated by 
Scipio; on the confines of the desert were Thala and Capsa. 



AFRICA. MAURITANIA. ATLANTIS. G25 

^fJ 8 , 2 ' Macrita ™a was separated from Numidia by the river Ampsagas lis 

s?s and Ti^T ST^ f Whence , th ,f eastern P«™ called C^arien- 
"l™ T ^? s > *fc"f*«, from which the western received the name Tin- 
gitana. This country extended from the river Ampsa^as seDarahno- ,r 
from Numidia, to some distance on the Atlantic coaft P The R om an S a ?rer 
^tTr qU ? St ° f theS f res:ions ' P lanted in them numerous coloniesTnd con 
structed fortresses and roads, of which some traces yet rem n Tie mo 

coa S t fe 0m A a t? n S ? t,lem ^ WaS that Called Explorad a^uriulo^i 
nn* Ah- , AtlanU< \ T L he waters w est of this territory were named Ocea 

?Uanfa on Z S 'i r nh ^l^" ° f m ? ntains ca "ed Atlas/which bounded Mau- 
nnrfhl -5 S °, Ut - h ' and terminat ed at two different points on the coast the 

aI,1 83 "t AU the remain j n S countries of the land may be included und P r 
Thl rlZ Em °V°n WhlCh " is im P° ssi We to assign an/ definite boundaries 

whhin ^ ^Th?^ Ga f ramameS ' 1 and J 0t u her tribes are represented as dwell n- 
within it. TheNigntBB were placed about the river Niger. The Great rfc 
sert was called Deserta, Libya Interiors On the coast ™l*t J*h- , 

Ins^BFortonaUB, called also C**^fh^?nnX^5& W «lolS 
suppose, found upon them, and thence their modern name Canartc's C 

presented as larger than Asia and Africa, and as verv fertile anrl 111 / V 
Some have considered the whole a mere fable %the^ Lve onject^red S ' 
he Canaries Madeira Isles and Azores once formed parts of a vast ?i 

The lat'er opinion is maintained in an Essay entitled as follows; An Attemvt to shn„, t„„ t a 
w«, «tw ±,n iana. MDCCLXXIII.-Some have imagined that this island was sitinreri in .ho 

G Z%Z: eswns; ***■ Lettres sur 1,AUanUfIe de platon < &c paris ™' « ££££ 



Geography 

79 



INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 



Preliminary Remarks. 

§ 184. Chronology treats of the computation of lime and of the dates of 
events. It is comparatively a modern science. Among the ancients there 
was scarcely any systematic attention to the subject. Yet it is a highly im- 
portant science. Accurate chronology is essential to all reasoning from his- 
torical facts ; the mutual dependence and relations of events cannot be traced 
without it ; with the greatest propriety it has been called one of the eyes 
of history, while geography with equal propriety has been said to be the other. 
Chronology is also an important aid to the memory, if properly considered, in 
studying history and biography. 

In treating this subject, although our design requires a special reference to 
Classical Chronology, yet from the nature of the subject we must introduce 
some things, which belong rather to the science in general. 

Chronology maybe considered as consisting of two parts; the first, measur- 
ing time and adjusting its various divisions ; the second, fixing the dates of 
historical events and arranging them in order. 



J. — Of measuring time and adjusting its divisions. 

§ 185. The most obvious measures and divisions of time are those suggested 
to all men by the revolutions of the heavenly bodies. These are three, days, 
months, and years ; the day from the revolution of the earth on her axis or 
the apparent revolution of the sun around her ; the month from the periodical 
changes in the moon ; the year from the annujj motion of earth in her orbit round 
the sun. — These three divisions are not commensurate, and this has caused the chief 
embarrassment in the science of Chronology ; it has, in point of fact, been dif- 
ficult so to adjust them with each other in a system of measuring time as to 
have the computed time and the actual time perfectly in agreement or coin- 
cidence. 

§ 186. The day- was undoubtedly the earliest division, and originally was 
distinguished, it is likely, from the night, extending from sunrise to sunset 
only. It was afterwards considered as including also the night or time between 
sunset and sunrise. But the beginning of the day has been reckoned differently 
by different nations, for civil purposes; at sunrise, by the Babylonians, Persians, 
Syrians, and inhabitants of India ; at sunset, by the Jews, Athenians, ancient 
Gauls, and Chinese ; at midnight, by the Egyptians, Romans, and moderns gene- 
rally.— Astronomers in their calculations consider the day as beginning at noon, 
after the manner of the Arabians according to Priestley. 

There have also been various modes of subdividing the day. ' The divi- 
sion of time into hours is very ancient: as is shown by Kircher (GEdip. iEgypt. 
t. ii. part 2.). The most ancient hour is that of the twelfth part of a day. 
Herodotus observes that the Greeks learnt from the Egyptians [Babylonians, 
1. ii. c. 109], among other things, the method of dividing the day into twelve 
parts ; and the astronomers of Cathaya still retain this method. The division 
of the day into twenty four hours was not known to the Romans before the 
Punic war.' ( Tegg.) 

§ 187. The Greeks, in the time of Homer, seem not to have used the divi- 
sion into hours; his poems present us with the more obvious parts of the day, 
morning (>]«?), noon (fiioov l^iag), and evening (diO.tj). But before the time of 
Herodotus, they were accustomed to the division of the day, and of the night 



DIVISIONS OF TIME. THE DAY AND MONTH. 627 

also probably, into 12 parts. They were acquainted also with the division of 
the day and night into 4 parts each, according to the Jewish and Roman 
custom. 

The Romans subdivided the day and the night each into 4 parts, which were 
called vigils (vigilia.) or watches. They also considered the day and the night 
as each divided into 12 hours; three hours of course were included in a vigil. 
The day vigils were designated simply by the numerals prima, secunda, ter- 
tia, quarta ; but as the second vigil commenced -with the third hour, the third 
vigil with the sixth hour, and the fourth with the ninth hour, the terms prima, ter- 
tia, sezta, and nona, are also used to signify the four vigils of the day. The night 
vigils were designated by the names vesper a, media nox, gallicinium, conticinium. 

It is sometimes stated that the first vigil and first hour of the day commenced at what we call 6 o'clock 
A. M. ; the third vigil, vigilia tertia, and sixth hour, hora sexta, at 12 o'clock, noon ; the corresponding 
vigils and hours of night, at what we call 6 o'clock P. M., and 12 o'clock, midnight : this statement may 
be sufficiently accurate in general; but it must be remembered, that the Roman hours and watches 
were of unequal length ; the first hour of the day began with sunrise, and the twelfth ended at sunset, 
and the first hour of the night began at sunset and the twelfth ended at sunrise. Of course the hours 
of the. day in summer were longer than those of the night, and in the winter they were shorter. 
(Cf. P. IV. § 228.) 

§ 188. Different devices have been employed for marking and making 
known these parts of the day. The sun-dial was used by the Babylonians and 
Jews ; and by the latter watchmen were maintained to announce the time. — 
The Greeks borrowed the sun-dial from the Babylonians, and called it the 
Heliotrope, i,).iotqo7zi.ov, or Gnomon, yvwitwv; but the latter term properly de- 
signates the needle or index, which cast the shadow on the dial. — The Ro- 
mans, besides the dial, employed also the Clepsydra already described, P. IV. 
§ 228. 

Several specimens of the ancient sun-dial are still preserved ; one is said to be ' still remaining near- 
ly in its original situation, on the rock of the Acropolis at Athens. Upon each side of the octagonal 
building, commonly called the tower of the winds, was also placed a vertical sun-dial ; the gnomon or 
index projecting from the side, while the lines indicating the hour were cut upon the wall. The lines 
of the dial upon the wall are distinctly extant at the present day ; and although the gnomons have dis- 
appeared, the places where they were inserted are still visible.' Besides stationary dials, the ancients 
had portable ones of metal, which were termed phorematica, (Cf. Stuart's Diet, of Architect, vol. ii.)— 
An instrument called a water-clock was in considerable use in some parts of Europe a few centuries 
ago. Striking clocks are said to have been invented by the Arabians about A. D. 800. Watches were 
first made in Germany A. D. 1477.— See Berthoud, Histoire de la Mesure du Temps par les Horloges. 
Paris 1802. 2 vols. 4. 

§ 189. The month. This division, without much doubt, had its origin in 
the various phases or changes in the moon. It included the time of the moon's 
revolution round the earth, or between two new moons or two successive con- 
junctions of the sun and moon. The mean period is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 
minutes ; it was considered to be 29 1-2 days ; and the ancients commonly 
reckoned the month as consisting alternately of 29 and 30 days. 

The Greeks thus reckoned their months, and termed those, which had 30 
days, nXi'Qtig, full, and dsxatp&irol ending on the 10th day; those of 29 days 
they termed r.oiloi, hollow or deficient, and hvayd-ivoi ending on the 9th day. 
Twelve lunations thus computed formed the year; but it fell short of the true 
solar year by about 11 days and a quarter, making in 4 years about 45 days. 
To reconcile this' and bring the computation by months and years to coincide 
more exactly, another month was intercalated every two years; and in the 
first two years a month of 22 days ; and in the next two, a month of 23 days ; 
thus after a period of 4 years the lunar and solar years would begin together; 
this was called the r^TQasr^lg. But the effect of this system was to change 
the place of the months relatively to the seasons ; and another system was 
adopted. This was based on the supposition, that the solar year was 365 days 
and a quarter, while the lunar was 354^ which would in a period of 8 years 
give a difference of 90 days ; the adjustment was effected by intercalating, 
in the course of the period, three months of 30 days each ; this period was 
called dxTaeTijQlg. Its invention was attributed to Cleostratus of Tenedos; it 
was universally adopted, and was followed in civil matters, even after the 
more perfect cycle of Meton was known ; one reason may have been the re- 
ciprocal adaptation between the Octaeteiis and the Olympiad ; the former in- 
cluding exactly two of the lattt?r. 



628 



CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 



§ 190. ' The following are the names of the Grecian months, together with 
those of the corresponding Julian months, as near as they can be given. In 
this list Scaliger's account has been followed, which, upon the whole, we be- 
lieve the most correct. As the first month of the Athenian year comprised 
but a few days of the latter part of our June,- and the greater part of July, 
the latter month will be given as the corresponding one. — 1. ' Exarofifiaiwv, 
July ; so called from the great number of hecatombs, which were usually sacri- 
ficed in this month.— 2. MtTayttrvuLv, August; so called from the sacrifices 
which were then offered to Apollo MeiayEimog, because on this month the in- 
habitants of Melite left their island, and removed to Attica. — 3. Bo^Sqo^iwv, Sep- 
tember; which was so called from the festival termed Soij^o^ia. — 4. Ilva- 
rexpicov, October; so called, because in this month, after the fruits of the year 
were gathered, feasts were served up, the chief of which consisted in boiled 
pulse [eaten in memory of the food of Theseus on the last day of his voy- 
age from Crete]. — 5. MatfiaxTtiQuov, November, so called from Jupiter Mai- 
fiaxttjs, the boisterous ; because in this month the weather was very tempestuous. 
— 6. noatidsuv, December ; in which month sacrifices were offered to IloaaSwv, 
Neptune, as if it were called Neptune's month. — 7. rafirjXtdjv, January ; which 
was sacred to Juno ratup.tog, the goddess of marriage. — 8. 'Av&eoriunmv, Feb- 
ruary ; which took its name from the festival of the same name. — 9. 'EXatpTipo- 
Ztoiv, March ; so called from the festival ' EAa<ptipiXia, which was sacred to Dia- 
na, 'EXatpti(j6los, the huntress, because this was the month for hunting stags. — 
10. Movw/itov, April ; in which sacrifices were offered to Diana Movw/la, 
from the harbor of this name, in which she had a temple. — 11. BagytjXiwv, May ; 

in which month sacrifices were offered for the ripening of the earth's fruits. 

SziyljocpoQiiov, June ; so called from a festival of the same name celebrated in 
this month, in honor of Minerva. 

Every month was divided into rgia Se/ijinqa, three decades of days. The first 
of which was called /(»;toe "ixQ^ouivov or laraficvov, the decade of the beginning ; 
the second fnp'og fuaovvrog, the decade of the middle ; and the third utjvbg ip&lvov- 
rog, or navousvov, the decade of the end. The first day of the first decade was 
called vfofajvla, because it happened on the new moon ; the second, devriqa lara- 
fiivov, and so on to Ssxurt} larauhov, the tenth day of the month. The first day of 
the second decade, or the eleventh day was called nqarr) psoovvrog, the first of the 
middle, or rcQtoTi] inl Sixa, the first after ten; the second dcvreoa iceoovvrog, and so 
on to the twentieth day (ilxag), or the last day of the second decade. The first 
day of the third decade was called nqairrj In' sixuSi, or nqairrj (p&ivovrog, and so 
on. The last day of the month was denominated by Solon levy xal via, the old 
and, new, as one part of the day belonged to the old, and the other to the new 
moon. But after the time of Demetrius Poliorcetes, the last day of the month 
• received from him the name of JriftrjTQiug.' ( Cleaveland.) 

§ 191. The Romans are said to have had under Romulus but 10 months; but 
Numa introduced the division into 12, according to that of the Greeks. But as 
this formed only a lunar year, a little more than 11 days short of the solar year, 
an extraordinary month (mensis intercalaris, called also Macedonius) was to be 
inserted every other year. The intercalating this and the whole care of dividing 
the year was entrusted to the Pontifices (P. IV. § 228), and they managed, by in- 
serting more or fewer days, to make the current year longer or shorter as they 
for any reason might choose ; and this finally caused the months to be transposed 
from their stated seasons, so that the winter months were carried back into au- 
tumn, and the autumnal into summer (Cie. Leg. ii. 12). Julius Caesar put an 
end to this disorder, by abolishing the intercalation of months, and adopting a 

system which will be explained in speaking of the year. The names of the 

Roman months were Martins, March, from Mars, the supposed father of Romu- 
lus, in whose arrangement of the year this month was the first; Aprilis, derived 
by some from the verb aperio, the month in which trees and flowers open their 
buds; Mains, May, from Maia, mother of Mercury; Junius, June, from Juno; 
Quintilis, the fifth month, afterwards named Julius, July, from Julius Cae- 
sar; Sextilis, sixth, afterwards Augustus, August, from Augustus Ca?sar; Septem- 
ber, seventh month; October, eighth; November, ninth; December, tenth ; Janua- 
rius, January, from Janus ; Februarius, February, so called from the purifications 
Februa performed in this month (P. IV. § 230), being the last, of the year. 

The Romans divided the month into three parts by the points termed Kalenda, 
or Calendce, Nonce, and Idus. The Calends were always the 1st of the month; 
the Nones were the 5th, and the Ides the 13th of each month excepting March, 



DIVISION OF TIME. THE YEAR. 629 

May, July and October; in which four, the Nones fell on the 7th, and the Ides 
on the 15th da}'. In marking the days of the month, the Romans counted back- 
wards from these three fixed points, including always the day from which the 
reckoning began ; e.g. the last or 31st day of December was called the second 
from the Calends of January, pridie [ante] KaUndas Januarii; the last day but 
one or 30th of December was called the third from or before the Calends of Jan- 
uary, tertio [die ante] Kal. Jan. ; and so on back to the 13th day, which was 
called Idus ; the 12th was pridie Idus. and so on back to the 5th, which was the 
Nona ; the 4th, by this plan of reckoning, would be of coursepridie Nonas. 

The ancient Greeks and Romans had no division properly answering to our weeks ; although the 
former had their decade of days (§ 190) ; and the latter their nundirue, or market days occuring every 
ninth day (P. IV. § 229). But the Egyptians and oriental nations had a week of seven days. This 
division (hebdomades) was introduced among the Romans, it is said, not far from the beginning of the 
3d century after Christ. The days were named after the planets or pagan gods ; D i e s Solia, Sun- 
day; Lunce,, Monday; Mortis, Tuesday ; Mtrcurii, Wednesday; Jovis, Thursday ; Veneris, Friday ; 
Saturnii, Saturday. It is worthy of notice that our names for the days had a similar origin ; as is 
seen by observing their Saxon derivation; Sunnadceg, Sun's day; Monandceg, Moon's day; Tues- 
daeg day of Tuisco (i. e. Mars) ; Wodensdag, day of Wcdinor Odin & northern deity ; Torsdag, day 
of Thor, a deity answering to Jupiter; Frigdceg, day of Frigga, the Venus of the north; Saterdosg, 
day of Saeter or Seater (i. e. Saturn, cf.P. III. § 16). 

§ 192. The year. This division was probably not formed until some conside- 
rable advances had been made in astronomical science ; and it was long after its 
first adoption, before it attained to any thing like an accurate form. The most 
ancient year, of which we know, was that consisting of 12 months supposed to 
contain 30 days each, thus amounting to 360 days. It has been conjectured, that 
this gave rise to the division of the ecliptic into 360 equal parts or degrees, which 
is still preserved. But it was soon found that this fell shprt of the actual year, 
or the time of a revolution of the earth ; and an addition of 5 days was made, so 
that the year consisted of 365 days ; this is ascribed to the Thebans. The Gre- 
cian year, however, as established by Solon and continued to the time of Meton 
and even after, consisted of 365 days and a quarter; the manner, in which the 
Greeks made their computation by the lunar months agree with the solar year, 
has already been explained. 

The Roman year seems to have consisted of 365 days until the time of Julius 
Caesar. The method employed by the Romans of previous ages to adjust their 
computation by lunar months to the solar year has also been mentioned, and like- 
wise the confusion, which resulted from it. This, Caesar attempted to remedy. 
He instituted a year of 365 days 6 hours. To remove the error of 80 days, 
which computed time had gained of actual time, he ordered one year of 445 
days (365 plus 80), which was called the Year of confusion. And to secure a pro- 
per allowance for the 6 hours which had been disregarded, but which would 
amount in 4 years to a day, he directed that one additional day should be inter- 
calated in the reckoning on every 4th year; thus each 4th year would have 366 
days, the others 365. This is called the Julian year. In the Roman calender 
the intercalated day was placed after the 6th (sextus) of the Calends of March, 
and therefore called bissexlus ; hence the phrase bissextile year still in use. 

But in this plan there was still an error. The day was intercalated too soon, i. e. before a whole 
day had been gained ; because computed time, instead of gaining 6 hours a year, gained only 5 hours 
48 m. 57 sec. and in 4 years would gain only 23ft. Mm. Msec. ; so the intercalated day was inserted 
am. I2sec. too soon ; of course computed time by this plan lost 44m. 12sec. every four years or Urn. 3 
sec. every year. In 131 years this makes a loss in computed time, of one day ; i. e. computed time 
would be one day behind actual time. In A. D. 1582 this loss had amounted to 10 days, and Pope 
Gregory 13th attempted to remedy the evil by a new expedient. This was to drop the intercalary day 
or the bissextile, every 100th year excepting each 400th year. By the Julian year computed time loses 
\\m.3iec. a year, which makes about 19 hours in 100 years ; dropping the intercalary day on the 100th 
year makes up this loss of 19 hours, and gives also a gain of about 5 hours ; dropping it on the next 
100th year gives another gain of 5 hours to computed time ; so of the third 100th ; in this way computed 
time gains of actual time, in 300 years, 15 hours ; if on the next 100th year, i. e. the 4th, the intercalary 
day be inserted, computed time loses for that century 19 hours ; but to meet this loss, it had in the three 
preceding centuries gained 5 hours in each and in all 15 hours, so that the loss is only [19-15] 4 hours 
at the end of 400 years. By this method the difference between computed and actual time cannot 
amount to a day in 2500 years. In this system, called the Gregorian Calender, the years 1600,2000, 
2400, are intercalary; and the years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100,2200, 2300 &c. not.— The Gregorian year was 
immediately adopted in Spain, Portugal, and Italy ; and during the same year in France ; in Catholic 



630 



CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 



German}' In 1583 ; in Protestant Germany and Denmark in 1700 ; in Sweden 1753. In England it was 
adopted in 1752, by act of Parliament directing the 3d of Sept. to be styled the uth, as computed time had 
lost u days. This was called the change from Old to New Style. In 1832, Russia was said to be 
the only country, where the Julian year or Old Style was still used. 

Different nations have begun the year at different seasons or months. The Romans at onetime con- 
sidered it as beginning in March, but afterwards in January. The Greeks placed its commencement in 
Hecatombffion, at the summer solstice. The Christian clergy used to begin it at the 25th of March. The 
same was practiced in England and in the American colonies until A . D. 1752, on the change from Old to 
New Style, when the first of January was adopted. 

§ 193. In adjusting the different methods of computing time, or the division 
of time into days months and years, great advantage is derived from the inven- 
tion of cycles. These are periods of time so denominated from the Greek xvx- 
>-og, a circle, because in their compass a certain revolution is completed. Under 
the term cycle we may properly include the Grecian Olympiad, a period of 4 
years, the Octaeteris, or period of 8 years, and the Roman Lustrum, a period of 
five years; the period of 400 years, comprehended in the system of Gregory al- 
ready explained, may justly be termed the cycle of Gregory. — Besides these, it 
seems important to mention the Lunar Cycle, the Solar Cycle, the Cycle of Indic- 
tion, and the Julian Period. 

§ 194. The Lunar Cycle is a period of 19 years. Its object is to accommo- 
date the computation of time by the moon to the computation by the sun, or ad- 
just the solar and lunar years. The nearest division of the year by months is into 
twelve ; but twelve lunations (which make the lunar year) fall short of the sclar 
year by about 11 days. Of course every change in the moon in any year will ocr 
cur eleven days earlier than it did on the preceding year; e. g. if in September of 
the present year full moon occurs on the 16th, the corresponding full moon of the 
next year will occur on the 5th of September. Hence every year the various 
changes in the moon fall back as calculated by the days of the year. At the ex- 
piration of 19 years they occur again nearly at the same time. 

This Cycle was invented by Meton, an Athenian astronomer, who flourished 
about B. C. 430. Many attempts had been before made to adjust the solar and 
lunar years (§ 189), and this improvement was at the time received with univer- 
sal approbation ; but not being perfectly accurate, it was afterwards corrected by 
Eudoxus, and subsequently by Calippus. The Cycle of Meton was employed 
by the Greeks to settle the time of their Festivals; and the use of it was discon- 
tinued, when these festivals ceased to be celebrated. ' The Council of Nice, 
however, wishing to establish some method for adjusting the new and full moons 
to the course of the sun, with the view of determining the time of Easter, adopt- 
ed it as the best adapted for the purpose; andfromits great utility, they caused 
the numbers of it to be written on the calender in golden letters, which has ob- 
tained for it the name of Golden Number.' The name of Golden Number is 
still applied to the current year of the Lunar Cycle, and is always given in the 
Almanacs. 

§ 195. The Solar Cycle is a period of 28 years. Its use is to adjust the days 
of the week to the days of the month and the year. As the year consists of 52 
weeks and one day, it is plain that it must begin and end on the same day. Let 
the seven letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, represent the seven days of the week, A 
being always applied to the first day of the year. Let January begin with Mon- 
day. Of course A will stand for Monday, and Sunday coming on the 7th day 
will be represented by G, the 7th letter. The year will end with Monday, as it 
began with it ; and A, the next year, will stand for Tuesday, and Sunday will be 
on the 6th day of the year, and be represented by F. Thus the year will com- 
mence one day later every common year, and Sunday will be represented succes- 
sively by the letters taken in their retrograde order G, F, E, &c. and if 52 weeks 
and one day were the exact year or there were no leap year, the year would, after 
seven years, again begin on Monday the same day with the first year supposed. 
But the leap year, consisting of 52 weeks and two days, interrupts the regular suc- 
cession every fourth year, and the return to the same day of the week is not ef- 
fected until 4 times seven, i. e. 28 years. — This Cycle is employed particularly to 
furnish a rule for finding Sunday, or to ascertain the Dominical Letter. Chro- 
nologers employ the first seven letters of the alphabet to designate the seven days 
of the week ; and the Dominical Letter for any year is the letter, which represents 
Sunday forthat year. Tables are given for the purpose of finding it in chrono- 
logical and astronomical books. 



CYCLES. MEANS OF ASCERTAINING DATES. 631 

§ 19G. The Cycle of Indiction is a period of 15 years. The origin and pri- 
mary use of this has been a subject of various conjectures and discussions. It 
seems to have been established by Constantiue the Great, in the 4th century, as a 
period at the end of whicha certain tribute should be paid by the different prov- 
inces of the Empire. Public acts of the Emperors were afterwards dated by 
the years of this cycle. 

The cycle, which has been perhaps most celebrated, is that which is termed the 
Julian Period, and was invented by Joseph Scaliger. Its object was to furnish a 
common language for chronologers, by forming a series of years, some term of 
which should be fixed, and to which the various modes of reckoning years 
might be easily applied. To accomplish this, he combined the three cycles of 
the moon, sun, and indiction, multiplying 19, 28 and 15 into one another, which 
produces 7980, after which all the three cycles will return in the same order, every 
year taking again the same number of each cycle as before. Taking the several 
cycles as settled in the Latin church, and tracing them back, he found that 
the year when they would begin together was the year 710 before the creation as 
now dated, and that the first year of the Christian Era as now computed was 4714 
of the Julian Period. This invention would be of great importance if we had 
no acknowledged epoch, or fixed year, from which to compute; but since we have 
such an epoch, it seems to be unnecessary. Its use is almost entirely superseded 
by the general adoption of the Christian era as a fixed standard. 



II. — Of fixing the dates of historical events and arranging them 

in order. 

§ 197. To arrange events methodically in the order of their occurrence, and 
assign the proper dates, is the second part of Chronology. In the consideration of 
this part we shall notice the following topics ; (A) The methods employed to as- 
certain the dates of events, or the time when they occurred; (2?) The epochs 
and eras which have been employed or are still in use : ( C) The systems of ar- 
rangement, and chronological tables and charts; (D) The actual dates of the 
most prominent events in classical Chronology. 

§ 198. (A) Methods employed to ascertain the dates of events. — Here we observe , 
that the principal helps or sources are four. First, we will notice that furnished 
by observations on generations of men or successions of Kings. — The average 
length of a king's reign, or of a generation of men, maybe estimated by compar- 
ing a sufficient number of facts. When this average is taken, and we are told 
by a writer how many generations lived, or how many kings reigned, between 
two events, we can at once find the time between them ; and if the date of either 
event is known, the date of the other will follow. This is the only chronology of 
the earliest writers, and is used in the Bible. The Egyptians, Greeks and Ro- 
mans used it. Generally they reckoned a generation and a reign as of the same 
length; three of them equal to 100 years, — Sir Isaac Newton employed this 
means of ascertaining dates, and maintained that the average for reigns of kings 
is only 20 years, and for generations, 29 or 30 years, if reckoned by eldest sons, 
and 33 if reckoned by others. On these principles he attempted to rectify an- 
cient chronology, giving to many events a date more recent than other authors. 

It may be desirable to give a further explanation of this method, by two illustrations, (a) The date 
of the Return of the Heraclida? to Peloponnesus is disputed : but the date of the Battle of Thermopylae 
is settled, B. C. 480. Now between these two events there reigned at Sparta a succession of 17 kings ; 
17 multiplied by 20 gives 340 years between the events, making the return of Heraclida? B. C. (480 plus 
340); 20; a date 280 years later than as given by other chronologers.— (b) The date of the Argonautic 
Expedition is disputed ; but the beginning of the Peloponnesian War settled, B. C. 431 . Now it is found, 
that Hippocrates, living at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, was descended the 18th from JEs- 
culapius by father's side, and 19th from Hercules by mother's side, and that .ffisculapius and Hercules 
were both Argonauts ; i. e. there were 17 generations in one line, and 18 in another, between the two 
events. Taking the medium 17 1-2 and multiplying by 29 gives 507 ; making the date of the Argonautic 
Expedition, B. C. [431 plus 5071 938 ; 326 years later than by other chronologers. 

There are two grand objections to this method of ascertaining dates. First, the inaccuracy and un- 
certainty of the average; it cannot be satisfactorily determined. Secondly, the fact that ancient wri- 
ters, in naming a succession of kings, or giving a genealogy, often omit several of the series. This is 



632 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

done in Matthew, Ch, i. for the sake of reducing the number of generations between the great epochs 
mentioned in the 17th verse, to exactly 14. 

§ 199. A second help is found in celestial appearances and changes. This 
method is in general more safe and certain, as it depends on strict astronomical 
principles perfectly settled. The appearances employed are eclipses and the 
precession of equinoxes. 

(a) Eclipses. The ancients were very superstitious as to eclipses. Many are 
recorded, and mentioned as happening at the same time with important events 
in history, and described so that they may be recognized by the astronomer, who 
can calculate with perfect accuracy the time of every eclipse that has happened. 
We will give an illustration. Thucydides in relating the attempt of the Athe- 
nians on the Syracusans, says, thatNicias, finding the Syracusans reinforced and 
himself in danger, determined to sail out of the harbor of Syracuse ; but when 
every thing was ready for sailing, the moon was eclipsed, for it was then full 
moon ; by this appearance the Athenian soldiers were filled with alarm, and be- 
sought JNicias not to proceed; and in consequence they almost to a man perished. 
This event is generally supposed to have been about the year B. C. 413. — Now it 
is found by calculation, that the moon was full at Syracuse the 27th day of Aug. 
B. C. 413, and that there must have been a total eclipse there, visible from begin- 
ning to end, and likely to produce the effect on the soldiers, which Thucydides 
mentions. 

(b) Precession of the equinoxes. The equinoxes, being the points where the 
equator crosses the ecliptic, are not precisely the same from year to year ; but 
they move backward (i. e. to the west) 50 seconds every year, or 1 degree in 72 
years. If, then, the place of the equinox in the ecliptic at the time of any event 
is stated, we may determine the date of the event, by noticing how far the equi- 
nox has now receded from the place it then held, and allowing 72 years for a de- 
gree. The only objection to this method is the difficulty of deciding what point 
the equinoxes actually did occupy at the time of particular events in ancient 
history. 

Sir I. Newton applied this principle also to settle the time of the Argonautic Expedition.— A sphere, 
representing the heavens with the constellations, is said by ancient writers to have been formed for the 
Argonauts, by Chiron ; on this sphere, His also said, the equinox wasp aced in the middle point of the 
sign Aries. In the year 1689, the equinox had gone back from that point 36 degrees 44 minutes; this, 
allowing 72 years for a degree, gives a period of 2645 years between the year 1689 and the Expedition ; 
making it B. C. 955 ; nearly the same as by the calculation from generations by the same author. 

If It be stated how a star rises or sets in relation to the sun, the place of the equinox may be found, 
and dates ascertained in the way justmentioned— Sir Isaac Newton and others have employed this to 
ascertain the time when Hesiod lived. In a passage in the Works and Days |1. 564], Hesiod says that 
Areturus rose at sunset, 60 day s after the sun entered the winter solstice, a point so degrees distant 
from the equinox.— But the place of equinox cannot be settled with certainty in this way ; because it 
cannot be certainly known whether the ancient writer means his own time and residence or not, 
whether he means true or apparent rising, or even what constellation or star he means exactly. Cf- 
Costard, in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. xlviii. p, 2. 

§ 200. A third help in the fixing of dates is found in the coins, medals, monu- 
ments and inscriptions, which are preserved for the benefit of succeeding ages. 
These often throw great light upon historical events and afford important aid in 
ascertaining the time of their occurrence. Interesting facts are sometimes first 
made known, and the period when they took place is often indicated, by the face 
of a medal, or the representations on a public monument. — Inscriptions are of 
still greater service. As one of the most valuable of these we must mention the 
chronicle of Paros, which fixes the date of the chief events in Grecian history 
from Cecrops down to the time of Alexander (see P. I. § 91. 4). 

§ 201. The fourth source is furnished by the testimony of historians, who state 
the distance between events, or between events and an epoch. The early histo- 
rians paid very little attention to the subject oi chronology ; it was not until a 
comparatively late period, that they began to think of dates and distances of 
time. The principal fragments of the earlier writers, Eratosthenes, Apollodorus 
and Thrasyllus, are still to be found in the Chronicon of Eusebius, and the Stro- 
mata of Clemens Alexandrinus. The writings of the Byzantine Chroniclers are 
also of service ; particularly the chronological work {'Exi-oyrj XQovoyoaqiias) of 
Syncellus. It is chiefly from this and the above mentioned work of Eusebius, that 
the details of the commonly received Chronology have been gathered. (Cf. P. II. 
$} 236, 239, 288 ; and below, § 205.) 



EPOCHS. SYSTEMS OF ARRANGEMENT. 633 

§ 202. (B) Epochs and Eras employed in Chronology. — It is essential to cor- 
rect and exact chronology, that there should be some fixed epoch, to which all 
events may be referred and be measured by their distance from it. But it is 
of comparatively little consequence what the epoch is, provided it is fixed and 
acknowledged, as it is perfectly easy to compute in a retrograde manner the 
time before it, as well as in a direct manner the time after it. An epoch is dis- 
tinguished from an era. Epoch is the point of time, which is taken as a start- 
ing place from which to reckon, and taken usually because signalized by some 
important event. Era is the space of time, that follows the epoch, the series of 
years computed from it. — The two terms may be interchanged as nearly synony- 
mous, because every era has its epoch and every epoch its era. 

§ 203. The following are the most important eras, which are noticed in chro- 
nology.— (a) Era of Olympiads. The Greeks for a long lime had no fixed epoch : 
but afterwards reckoned by Olympiads, periods of 4years. Theybegan776B.C. — 
(b)Era of Rome. The Romans often reckoned by lustrums, often by theyearof the 
consul, or the emperor. The building of the city was their grand epoch. This 
was 152B. C. (It is placed by some 753, or 754).— (c) Era of Nabonasso.r (or Belesis). 
Used by some historians ; the commencement of Nabonassar's reign at Babylon, 
747 B. C. — (d) Era of Seleucidcz. From the reign of Seleucus in Syria. The 
Jews chiefly used this; it was312B.C. — (e) Era of Diocletian. This was founded 
on the persecution of Christians in the reign of Diocletian. It was used by Chris- 
tians until the Christian era was adopted. It began 284 A. D. — (/) The Chris- 
tian era. It begins with what we write 1 A. D. This era is founded on the 
birth of Christ, but chronologers are not agreed as to the year of his birth ; some 
placing it seven years before the received epoch, others four years. This, how- 
ever, is of no consequence as respects the utility of the era in chronology, be- 
cause all, who adopt the Christian Era, agree to call the same year by the same 
numerical date; all meaning (e. g.) identically the same year by A. D. 1836. 
This era began to be used about A. D. 360, according to some writers ; but 
others state that it was invented by Dionysius, a monk, A. D. 527. (Cf. Priest- 
ley's Lect. on Hist, xiv.) — (g) The Mahometan Era or Hegira ; founded on the 
flight of Mahomet from Mecca, to Medina, A. D. 622.— (h) The Persian Era, or 
Era of Yezdejerd ; founded on the feign of a Persian king, named Yezderjed, 
. A. D. 632. 

§ 204. (C) Systems of Arrangement and Chronological Tables. — There is a great 
discrepancy between the various systems of chronology, which have been ad- 
vocated in different nations and at different times. Among the oriental nations 
there was a strong desire for the honor of the earliest antiquity, and hence each 
carried back its chronological dates into the regions of mere fable or absolute 
falsehood, and the Egyptians, Babylonians, Hindoos and Chinese, present a list 
of events happening hundreds or thousands of years before the creation. Such 
systems need not be particularly noticed here. (Cf. P. I. § 21.) 

§ 205. There are two systems, one derived from the Hebrew Scriptures and 
the other from the Septuagint Version, which are highly deserving of the stu- 
dent's attention. They differ from each other considerably ; that drawn from 
the Septuagint assigns to many events a date much more ancient than that which 
follows the Hebrew ; e. g. the former places the Flood some hundred years fur- 
ther from the Christian era, and the Creation at least 600 years further from the 
Flood, than the latter. There has been much discussion among the learned, res- 
pecting the respective claims of these two systems. We only remark here, that 
the Hebrew chronology is generally adopted. 

The system of Sir Isaac Neieton has already been mentioned, and some of the 
methods employed by him for fixing dates. This system assigns many impor- 
tant events, particularly of Grecian history, to periods considerably later than 
other systems. His chronology was at first received with some favor, but is not 
usually regarded, although Mitford adopts it. (Hist. Greece, ch. iii. Append. — 
Cf. Shuckford's Prof, and Sac. Hist. Conn. B. vi. Pref.) 

The system of archbishop Usher is the basis of the principal systems for chro- 
nological tables and charts, which are commonly used. The system of Usher is 
in general accordance with the evidence drawn from the Hebrew Bible, the 
Arundelian Marbles, and the Chronicon of Eusebius. 

We have already given the titles of some of the most Important helps on the subject of Chronology, 

80 



633 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

Cf. P. II. § 1. 7 (c). § 296. 5 (&).— For others, we refer to Homes Introd. to Crit. Study of Holy Script, 
vol. ii. p. 730.— A labored defence of the Septuagint Chronology is made by Rev. J. J. Jackson, in his 
Chronological Antiquities. 

§ 206. Tables and charts are among the greatest facilities in the study of his- 
tory and chronology. They bring before the eye, at a glance, what can be presen- 
ted but gradually and slowly by description ; the locality of events and dates on 
the paper also helps to fix them more firmly in the memory. Every student 
ought to avail himself of the aid of a historical and chronological chart, either 
by purchase, or (which is better) by actually forming one himself. 

A great variety of plans for charts have been adopted, possessing greater or 
less degrees of excellence or utility. — (a) One of the most simple and obvious 
plans is to form two perpendicular columns ; one for events of every kind ran- 
ged, promiscuously in order of occurrence, the other for their corresponding dates. 
Sometimes a third column is added to this plan, for Biography, — (b) Another 
plan, of similar nature, but improved, is to form several perpendicular columns, 
one for dates, and each of the others for a class of events; e. g. sovereigns in one, 
remarkable events in another, battles in another, &c. Such is the plan of Wor- 
cester's Charts. — Both the plans mentioned may be marked for centuries by hori- 
zontal lines. — (c) A third plan is the contrivance of a sort of tree, whose branches 
represent nations ; and events are ranged in them according to their dates, the 
earliest at the bottom. Such is the plan of Eddy's Chronology delineated. Con- 
quests by a nation may, in devices of this kind, be exhibited by one branch re- 
ceiving others into itself, and the origin of new states by branches shooting out 
from others. — A fourth plan is marked by the peculiarity of being divided into 
periods, limited on each side by prominent events. Such is Goodrich's Chart. 

§ 207. But it is worthy of remark, that in all these plans there are two grand 
faults ; 1. equal length of time is not represented by equal spaces on the chart ; 
2. duration is represented by perpendicular lines, while the horizontal line is al- 
together the most natural and most satisfactory representation. — (e) A fifth plan 
adopts these two important improvements, with the division into periods, and 
the several columns for different classes of events, allowing, where the scale is 
large enough, each event to be located in its exact place in the line of time. 
The chief objection to this method is the difficulty of using a scale sufficiently 
large to include all the important events of some periods without increasing too 
much the size of the chart and rendering it inconvenient for portable use. — 
(/) A sixth plan unites geography with the history and chronology. This 
method is exhibited in Priestley's ' Specimen of a New Chart of History' given in 
his Lectures on History. 

§ 208. (D) Actual Dates of the most prominent events. Nothing occasions 
more perplexity and discouragement to the student in classical history than the 
difficulty of remembering actual dates. Many have found this so great as to 
give over in despair. But, as has been repeatedly remarked, accurate chronology 
is essential to the utility, and it is no less so to the pleasure, of reading history. 
And the difficulty complained of is by no means insuperable. 

Various expedients to aid the memory have been invented (§ 210); but on the 
whole, the writer knows of none better than to take a glance over the whole 
field of past time, select a few grand events which stand out as landmarks, asso- 
ciate these events with their dates, and commit them to memory with perfect ex- 
actness, making them as familiar as the letters of the alphabet. Any person of 
the most common capacity can do this ; and the student, who wishes to lay any 
foundation at all for historical knowledge must do at least as much as this. This 
being done, he will find it comparatively easy to locate the various events, which 
he may read about or learn from time to time, in their proper place between 
these grand events whose dates are thus fixed in the memory. 

§ 209. With these views the following outline, in which it seemed desirable 
to include modern chronology, is offered to the student, to be perfectly committed 
to memory. The learner is advised to draw it off on a roll of paper prepared 
for the purpose ; using a horizontal line to represent the flowing or progress of 
time. Let this line be divided into equal spaces, each representing an equal 
length of time ; let the dates of the events be distinctly written exactly at the 
points in the line, where they belong according to this equal division ; and let 
the events also be written directly above or under the dates. 



ACTUAL DATES. AN OUTLINE. ARTIFICIAL MEMORY. 634 

Brief Outline. Chronology is Ancient or Modern. Ancient includes the 
whole time before Christ, comprehending 4004 years ; Modern includes the whole 
time since Christ. 

I. Ancient Chronology is divided into two portions by the Flood; Ante- 
diluvian ages, the portion before the flood, and Postdiluvian ages, the portion 
after the flood. — The Antediluvian ages may be considered as containing only 
one period ; the Postdiluvian ages as containing eight periods. 

The grand events and periods are the following. — Of the Antediluvian ages, 
the one period is from Creation B.C. 4004 to D e 1 u g e B. C. 2348.— Of 
the Postdiluvian ages, the 1st period, from Deluge B. C. 2348 to Calling of 
Abraham B.C. 1921: 2d period, from Calling of Abraham to Escape of 
Israelites B.C. 1492 ; 3d period, from Escape of Israelites to Building 
of Temple B. C. 1004 ; 4th period, from Building of Temple to Pounding 
of Rome B. C. 752 ; 5th period, from Founding of Rome to Battle of Ma- 
ra t h o n B. C. 490 ; Gth period, from Battle of Marathon to Reign of Alex- 
ander B. C. 336; 1th period, from Reign of Alexander to Capture of 
Carthage B.C. 146; 8th period, to Coming of Christ A. D. 1. 

II. Modern Chronology is divided into three distinct portions by the Fall 
of Rome and the Fall of Constantinople ; Early Ages, the portion before the Fall 
of Rome; Middle Ages, the portion between the Fall of Rome and the Fall of 
Constantinople ; Recent Ages, the portion since the Fall of Constantinople. — The 
early ages may be considered as containing two periods ; the middle ages, five 
periods ; and the recent ages, five periods. 

The grand events and periods are the following. Of the early ages, the 1st 
period is from the Coming of Christ A. D. 1, to the Reign of Con- 
stantineA.D. 306 ; 2d period from Reign of Constantine to F a 1 1 of R o m e 
A. D. 476. — Of the middle ages, the 1st period is from Fall of Rome to Flight 
of Mahomet A. D. 622 ; 2d period, from Flight of Mahomet to Crowning 
of Charlemagne A. D. 800; 3d period, from Crowning of Charlemagne to 
Landing of William, A. D. 1066 ; 4th period, from Landing of William 
to Overthrow of Saracens A. D. 1258; 5th period, from Overthrow of 
Saracens to Fall of Constantinople A. D. 1453. — Of the Recent ages, 
the 1st period is from Fall of Constantinople to Abdication of Charles 
F if th A. D. 1556 ; 2d period, from Abdication of Charles Fifth to Restora- 
tion of Charles Second A. D. 1660 ; 3d period, from Restoration of 
Charles Second to Independence of United States A. D. 1776; 4th period, 
from Independence of United States to Downfall of Bonaparte A. D. 
1815; bth period, from Downfall of Bonaparte to the Present Time. 

§ 210. But it is perhaps due to the scholar to mention here some of the ex- 
pedients, above alluded to (§ 208), which have been devised to assist in the re- 
collection of dates. We will briefly notice three different systems. 

1. The first is that of Dr. Grey, whose Memoria Technica has generally met with the most favor- 
able reception. ' As this method ' says Priestley, ' is so easily learned and may be of such use in re- 
collecting dates, I think all persons of a liberal education inexcusable, who will not take the small 
degree of pains that is necessary to make themselves masters of it.' The expedient is to substitute 
letters for figures, and form of these letters a syllable or word, and associate it with the name of the 
person, the date of whose birth, reign, death or the like you wish to remember, or with a prominent 
term or word connected with an event to be remembered. The following is Dr. Grey's substitution 
alphabet, in which each of the ten numerical characters has its consonant and its vowel or diphthong ; 
I, a b; 2,e d; 3, t i; i,fo; 5, 1 u; 6, s au; 7, p oi; 8, k ei; 9, n ou; o, z y. To remember the date of 
the founding of Rome by this system, substitute for 752 such letters as will, according to the above 
alphabet, represent 752, e. g. p u d, and join the syllable thus formed to the word Rome or a part of the 
word, thus Rom-pwd. The very oddness and uncouthness of this combination will sometimes impress 
it on the memory. To remember the date of the deluge 2348, we may form the word Del-etok ; of the 
battle of Marathon 490, Maxa.th-ony, or Mara-/o«z. Where a series of dates of successive events are to 
be fixed in memory, this system recommends the uniting of the barbarous words thus formed in Hexa- 
meter verses; which, however, the student must understand, are to be committed to memory; these 
are called memorial lines.- See Dr. R. Grey's Memoria Technica, or Method of artificial Memory. 
(With Lowe's Mnemonics.) Lond. 1612. 8. Cf, Lond, Quart. Rev. ix, 125. 

2. The second method is a system of topical memory, including also the substitution of letters for 
figures. The principle of the topical method is to conceive a certain number of places in a room, or in 
some limited space marked by sensible objects ; and conceive these places as arranged in a certain 
fixed order; and then whatever successive events or objects one wishes to remember, throw in imagiu- 



636 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

ation some picture of ox concerning them, in their proper order, into these conceived places. Such is 
the principle of F e i n a i g 1 e' s Art oj 'Memory. By this a four-sided room is divided into fifty ideal 
squares; those, who wish a more capacious memory may take also a second story having 50 squares 
more, numbered up to a hundred ; and one may go on so ascending through as many stories as he 
Chooses. Nine squares are to be placed on the floor of the room, and nine on each of the four walls, 
thus making forty-five; the oihexfive on the ceiling above : the squares on the floor number from 1 to 
9 ; the square numbered 10 is put on the ceiling over the wall supposed to be on your left hand, and the 
next nine squares from 11 to 19 are on the left hand wall under it ; the square 20 is on the ceiling over 
the wall opposite in front of you, and the next nine from 21 to 29 on that wall under it ; the square 30, 
and the next nine from 31 to 39 are put in like manner on the right hand ; and the square 40, and the 
next nine from 41 to 49 behind you ; the remaining square 50 is placed in the centre of the ceiling. In 
each of these squares a picture of some visible object is located ; e. g. in 1, a pump; in 2, a swan; in 3, 
a man using a spade. This scheme of squares, numbers, and pictures is first to he committed to 
memory. Then if one would remember by aid of the system the date e. g. of the kings of England, he 
would create in his mind a picture in connection with each one of them, throw these pictures In 
imagination into the squares in the exact order of the regal succession, and associate the pictures per- 
taining to the king with the fixed picture, in the square to which he falls ; in forming the new picture 
two things are important ; it should be so conceived as to have some casual or slight association sug- 
gesting the name of the king, and also suggesting at the same time a word or phrase, which is devised 
by the person along with the ideal picture, and which expresses the date according to an alphabet of 
letters substituted for figures. E. g. to remember the date of Henry 7th : it is said the ideal picture of 
7 hens is a good one for the purpose ; the square to which he is assigned is 29 ; the picture ideally fixed 
in this square (in the engraved illustration of the system) is a woman spinn ng on a small loheel ; 
these two pictures then are to be somehow bound together, and it may be thus, the woman spinning 
sees 7 hens; the next thing is to foxraa.word or phrase indicative of the date, and by the alphabet 
adopted in this system ' The oafc raiZ' is such a phrase; the remaining step in this process of 
storage in the memory is to bind the phrase to the pictures, which may be done by imagining that the 
womOM spinning s e e s 7 hens on The oak rail.— The following is the substitution alphabet ; l,b c; 
2, df; 3, gh; 4,j/cz; 5, 1; 6,mn; 7,yq;S,rs; 9, t v ; 0, w X : and 100 St; 1,000, Th; 100,000, Y.— 
See The New Art of Memory, founded on the principles of Feinaigle, illustrated by engravings. 
Lond. 1813. 8. 2d ed. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev.as above cited. It is worthy of remark here, that the an- 
cients, particularly the Roman orators, made use of a system of topical memory, auintilian gives an 
account of a system, in which the various parts of a spacious mansion are employed somewhat as the 
several squares in the method of Feinaigle. The things to be remembered were connected by associa- 
tion with certain types, and these being arranged in order were assigned to the different parts of the 
house : ' they assign ' says he, ' the first idea they wish to remember to the portico, the second to the 
hall ; then they go round the inner courts ; nor do they only commit these associations to the bed- 
rooms and antirooms, but even to the furniture. 'When they wish to recollect these associations they 
recur mentally to those places in order from the beginning, and regain every sensible type, which they 
had entrusted to each particular spot, and this type at once suggests the idea connected with it.' 

3, The third system is the Efficacious Method of Mr. Hallworth. In this plan a substitution of let- 
ters for figures is employed. Its peculiarity consists in this, that instead of forming mere barbarous 
and unmeaning words, like that of Grey, or words artificially associated with some image pr picture, 
•like that of Feinaigle, a significant sentence is formed, which states the event to be remembered and 
concludes with a word or phrase, that expresses something characteristic of the event, and at the 
same time, when interpreted according to the substitution alphabet, denotes the date. The alphabet of 
Hallworth is the following ; 1, be; 2,df; 3,g,h,gh; t,kl; 5,mn; e,pr; 7,ssh; S,t,ch; s,vwj, 
used as consonants ; 0, th ph xoh, and also qxyz. In forming words the vowels are used, just as may 
be convenient, without having any significancy ; the consonants alone being considered in expressing 
adate; thus church [ch r ch] signifies 863 ; troop [trp], 866. To recollect by this method the date 
e. g. of the Flood, the following sentence is formed; The deluge comes and men die guilty; the 
phrase die guilty expresses the date, as the consonants dglt represent 2348.— For greater convenience 
and scope in forming the characteristic phrases, the plan admits articles, prepositions, and conjunc- 
tions to be used, like the vowels, without significancy ; e.g. Abelfell a sacrifice to Cain's hate and 
sin ; h t s n, 3875.— Mr. Hallworth has taught his system by lectures in different parts of the country, 
and has published several little books, in which its principles are explained and applied.— See T. Hall- 
worth's Efficacious Method of acquiring, retaining, and communicating Historical and Chronological 
Knowledge. N. Y. lan.—Hallworth's method applied to General Ancient History — Also to Sacred 
History &c— History of the United States. 

§ 211. Our design in this introduction will be completed by a glance at the 
Chronology of the principal states of- ancient times. — We mention first those 
whose capitals were in Asia. The principal Asiatic states or kingdoms 
were eight. 

I. The Assyrian. This is considered as having commenced with the 
building of Babylon by Nimrod, B. C. "2217. The 1st period of its history may 
be that from Nimrod to Ninias, B. C. 1045. 



EIGHT PRINCIPAL STATES OF ASIA. 637 

In this period reigned the celebrated queen Semiramis, mother of Ninias. Under her the empire 
gained its greatest extent; reaching on the east to the sources of the Oxus and the Indus, including 
Persia, Media and Bactriana : comprising on the west Ethiopia, Egypt, Syria and Atia' Minor to the 
Mediterranean ; and limited on the north only by mount Caucasus, and on the south by the deserts of 
Arabia, Generally, however, the Assyrian empire included only the three countries in the valley of 
the Euphrates and Tigris, viz. Mesopotamia, Assyria and Babylonia. 

The 2d period may be that from Ninias to Sardanapalus, who died B. C. 747. 

This long period, of about 1200years, is involved in great obscurity. During it, 33 kings are said to 
have reigned.— On the death of Sardanapalus, three kingdoms were formed out of the empire ; the As- 
syrian, with Nineveh as its capital ; the Babylonian, with Babylon for its capital ; and the Median, 
having Ecbatana for its capital. It may be proper, however, to consider the Assyrian monarchy, as 
still continuing ; and 

The 3d period may be that from Sardanapalus to Esarhaddon, B. C. 681. 

During this period of 66 years i kings reigned in Nineveh, of whom Esarhaddon was the last; and 
10 kings reigned at Babylon. During this time the Assyrian history was intimately connected with 
that of the Israelites. In the year B. C. 681, Esarhaddon united together two of the three kingdoms, viz. 
the Assyrian and Babylonian. 

The 4th and last period extends from Esarhaddon to Cyrus the Great. B.C. 
536. 

At this time the united kingdom was subjected to Persia. —At the same time, also, Cyrus united to 
Persia the kingdom of Media, which had continued its separate existence from the death of Sardana- 
palus. 

II. The Jewish. The history of this nation begins with Abraham, B.C. 
1921. It may be divided into eight periods. The 1st period extends from Abra- 
ham to the enlanee into Canaan under Joshua B. C. 1451. 
During this period they remained a nomadic nation. 

The 2d period includes the time from Joshua to the death of Samuel, B.C. 1060. 
During this time the nation was under the government of the judges and priests. Samuel was the 
last of the judges. Saul, the first king, was anointed as such some time before Samuel's death. 

The 3d period is from Samuel to the separation of the nation into the two 
kingdoms of Judah and Israel, by the Revolt under Jeroboam, B. C. 975. 

This was the most flourishing period of the Jewish monarchy, marked by the reigns of David and 
Solomon, and by the building of the Temple at Jerusalem, the capital.— Respecting these reigns, see 
Christ, Spectator, iv. 131. v. 528. 

The 4th period may include the history from the Revolt until the Restoration 
from the Babylonian Captivity, B. C. 536. 

The two kingdoms continued separate until their destruction by the Babylonians. The ten tribes of 
Israel, whose capital was Samaria, were carried into captivity by Salmanazar, B. C. 721 ; the two tribes 
of Judah, by Nebuchadnezzar, B. C. 606. During this time 19 kings reigned over Judah at Jerusalem'. 
The seventy years of the captivity are dated from the conquest of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar. 

The 5th period reaches from the Restoration by Cyrus to the Submission of the 
Jews to Alexander, B. C.332. 

During this period the Jews had continued in a state of at least partial dependence on the throne of 
Persia. 

The 6th period is from Alexander to the Re-establishment of an independent 
monarchy under the Maccabees, B. C. 168. 

After the death of Alexander and the division of his empire, made B. C. 301, the Jews were claimed 
by Syria and by Egypt, and exposed to the invasion or oppression of both. The persecution of Antio- 
chus Epiphanes provoked the general revolt, which led to the re-establishment of independence. 

The 7th period is from the Maccabees until the time of the Roman interference 
under Pompey, B. C. 63. 

During this period the monarchy was maintained, but with many unhappy dissensions. 

The 8th and last period is from the first conquests of Pompey to the final De- 
struction of Jerusalemby Titus, A. D.70. 

III. The T r oj a n. Its origin is involved in darkness and fables, but is 
placed as early at least as B. C. 1400. Of its chronology we can only say, that 
,the state was destroyed by the Greeks in the reign of Priam, about B. C. 1184. 

The history of Troy consists of traditions preserved by the poets. Cf. P. III. § 132. 



638 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

IV. TheLydian. This commenced about B. C. 1400. Three dynasties 
of kings are said to have reigned, yet little is known of the history until the 
reign of Crcbsus ; and under him the kingdom was destroyed by Cyrus, B. C. 536. 

The capital was Sardis. The kingdom was in the time of Croesus very rich and powerful ; its fato 
was decided by the battle of Thynibra. 

V. The Phoenician. This was in existence in the time of David, under a 
king named Abikal, B. C. 1050. The state continued until the capture of Tyre 
by Alexander, B. C. 332. 

Phoenicia seems not to have formed properly one state, but to have contained several cities with 
petty kings or princes, of which Tyre stood at the head. 

VI. The Persian. Its history is obscure and its power insignificant until 
the time of Cvrus the elder, B. C. 536. We may include the whole history 
after this date in two periods. — The first period extends from Cyrus to Xerxes, 
who invaded Greece, and was defeated in the famous battle of Salamis, B.C. 480. 

In this period, under Darius Hystaspes, the father of Xerxes, the Persian empire attained its greatest 
extent : reaching to the Indus on the east, to the Jaxartes and Mt. Caucasus on the north, and including 
Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt and Libya. The capitals were Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana, and Persepolis 
(cf. § 153, 154, 170), the royal court being held sometimes at one, and sometimes another, of these places. 

The 2d period extends from Xerxes to the overthrow of the Persian empire by 
Alexander in the reign of Darius Codomannus, B. C. 331. 

About the middle of this period occurred the expedition of the younger Cyrus, described in the 
Anabasisof Xenophon; Cyrus fell in the battle of Cunaxa, B. C. 401.— Alexander completed the subju- 
gation of Persia by the victory at Arbela, B. C. 331. 

VII. The Syrian; or the Kingdom of the Seleucida. This was one of the 
four monarchies formed out of the empire of Alexander. It was commenced 
after the battle of Jpsus, by Seleucus Nicator, B. C. 301. We may include its 
history in two periods. The 1st period is from Seleucus Nicator to the time of 
the collision with the Romans in the reign of Antiochus the Great, B. C. 190. 

The capital of this kingdom was Antioch. The territory under its sway included the northern part 
of Syria: all Asia Minor, except Bithy nia : Armenia, Media, Parthia, Bactriana, India, Persia, and the 
valley of the Euphrates.— Antiochus was brought into a war with the Romans especially by protecting 
Hannibal. His defeat, in the battle of Magnesia, B. C. 190, deprived him of partof his territories, and 
greatly weakened the kingdom. 

The 2d period extends from Antiochus the Great to the complete conquest of 
Syria by the Romans under Pompey, in the reign of Antiochus Asiaticus, 
B. C. 69. 

In the first part of this period occurred the revolt of the Jews under the Maccabees, B. C. 168 j in 
consequence of the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes.— The throne of this kingdom, on its over- 
throw by the Romans, had been held by 23 successive kings, most of them lawful heirs of the house of 
the Seleucidae. 

VIII. The Parthian; or the kingdom of the Arsacidm. The Parthians, 
occupying the country on the south-east corner of the Caspian, were subject to 
Persia when conquered by Alexander. On the division of his empire, they fell 
to the share of Seleucus Nicator. But under the 3d king of Syria they revolted 
and established an independent kingdom, under Arsaces, B. C.256. 

The Parthians were constantly at war with the Syrians, and afterwards with the Romans; but 
could not be conquered. They obtained dominion from Armenia to the Indian ocean, and from Syria 
to the river Indus : including Bactriana, Persia, the countries in the valley of the Euphrates and Ar- 
menia. Their capital was Hecatompylos. 

The Parthian kingdom continued until the revolt of the Persians, who de- 
throned the Arsacidse, and established the kingdom of modern Persia, A. D. 223. 

§ 212. We will notice next the states, whose capitals were in Africa. Of 
these we have but two of importance. 

I. The Egyptian. The first king named in the Egyptian dynasty is Me- 
nes, generally supposed to be the same as Mizraim son of Ham and grandson of 
Noah ; he settled in Egypt, about B.C. 2200. With this date the real chronology 
of Egypt commences. 

A most absurd and ridiculous antiquity was assigned to this kingdom by two Egyptian works now 
lost : one was the Old Chronicle, cited by Syncellus ; the other the work of Manetho, cited by Eusebius 
(cf. P. II. § 23«]. 



TWO PRINCIPAL STATES OF AFRICA. 639 

The 1st period in the Egyptian history may be that extending from Menes to 
the Escape of the Israelites, B. C. 1492. 

Of this period profane history gives us no connected or satisfactory account. Most, that can be re- 
lied on, is to be drawn from the incidental notices found in the Bible. Some chronologers place the 
celebrated Sesostris at the closte of this period ; some consider him to be the Pharaoh that was drowned 
in the Red Sea. 

The 2d period includes the time from the Exodus to the reign of Psammeticus, 
B. C. 670, when the history begins to be authentic. 

No connected history has been preserved of this period ; and we are here also much indebted, for 
what we know, to the accounts in the Scriptures.— Twelve different governments under 12 different 
chiefs are said to have been united under Psammeticus. 

The 3d period extends from the time of Psammeticus to the conquest of Egypt 
by the Persian king Cambyses, son and successor of Cyrus, B. C. 525. 

The Egyptian history now becomes more luminous. Herodotus is the principal authority. The art of 
writing and the use of the papyrus as a material was now common. 

The 4th period includes the portion of time from Cambyses to the conquest of 
Egypt by Alexander, B. C. 332. 

After the time of Cambyses Egypt had been made a Persian satrapy, and, with the exception of a few 
instances of revolt, in one of which the- throne was partially re-established, had continued subject to 
Persia until it now changed masters. 

The 5th period is from Alexander to the subjection of the country to the Ro- 
mans, resulting from the victory of Augustus in the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. 

Alexander appointed Ptolemy, oae of his generals, governor of Egypt ; and Ptolemy, after the death of 
Alexander, became king of the country B. C. 323, and commenced the dynasty of the Ptolemies, who 
retained the throne until Cleopatra, associating her fortunes with Antony, lost it by the success of her 
lover's rival.— Thebes and Memphis had been the capitals in the previous periods. In this, Alexan- 
dria, founded by Alexander, was made the seat of the new court.— Egypt remained a part of the Ro- 
man empire, until it was wrested away by the Saracens A. D. 640. 

II. The Carthaginian. The chronology of Carthage may be naturally 
divided into three periods. The 1st period is from its Foundation by Dido, B. C. 
880, to the beginning of the wars with Syracuse in the time of the Syracusan king 
Gelon, B. C. 480. 

In this period the following points are worthy of notice ; [a] the origin of the city Carthage ; by a 
Tyrian colony under Dido, in whose story much fable is mingled ; [b] the pursuits of the people ; com- 
mercial, like those of the Phoenicians ; they had intercourse by sea with Britain and Guinea, by cara- 
vans with the interior of Africa, and through Egypt with the eastern world : [c] their conquests; their 
commercial pursuits led them to seek possession of the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean, and 
they gained Sardinia, Corsica, the Baleares, also the Canary Isles and Madeira in the Atlantic, and many 
places in Spain and on the northern coast of Africa ; the chief conquests were effected by Mago, and 
his sons and grandsons ; [d] the form of government ; it was a republic, but of a strongly aristocra- 
tic character ; the executive consisting of two chief magistrates called Suffetes, and the legislative con- 
sisting of a Senate of select grandees, and an Assembly of the people ; as at Rome, there was a contin- 
ued strife between a popular and an aristocratic party ; [e] the revenue ; its sources were l. tributes 
from subject cities and states or tribes ; 2. customs paid on goods at Carthage and all the ports : 3. pro- 
ceeds of the mines in Spain. 

The 2d period extends from the beginning of the wars with Gelon of Syracuse 
to the beginning of the contests with Rome, in the First Punic War, B. C[ 264. 

The principal thing, which marks the history of this period, is the long continued struggle to obtain 
complete possession of Sicily. The Carthaginians and Syracusans were involved in almost constant 
wars- 

The 3d period is from the first war with the Romans to the final Destruction of 
Carthage, B. C. 146. 

The contests between Rome and Carthage grew out of mutual ambition, Sicily, which both desired 
to own, furnished the occasion.— There were three wars called Punic; each disastrous to Carthage. 
The first lasted 23 years. The second was marked by the bold invasion and splendid victories of Han- 
nibal ; ended by the battle of Zama, B. C 202. The third lasted 4 years, and terminated in the entire 
destruction of the state andcity. Carthage had existed above 700 years. 

§213. The ancient states, which were seated in Europe, remain to be men- 
tioned. Without naming singly the various minor states, our object in this 
sketch will be accomplished by a glance at the Chronology of Greece and Rome. 



640 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

I. Of Greece. The whole extent of time to be considered is 1500 or 1600* 
years from the first permanent settlements in Greece to her final reduction to 
a Roman province. This whole space may be very conveniently and happily 
presented by a division into six successive periods, each limited by distinguished 
events, and characterised by prominent circumstances. 

1. The 1st period comprehends the whole history from the Dawn of civiliza- 
tion to the Trojan "War, 1184 B. C. and from its peculiar characteristic may be 
denominated fabulous. 

Much which is related in the accounts of this period must be rejected as idle 
fiction ; yet a few important events may be selected and authenticated. — Civili- 
zation had its first impulse in the arrival of colonists from Egypt and Phoenicia, 
who laid the foundations of some of the principal cities, as Argos and Sicyon, 
about 1800 years B. C. Little advancement was made, however, until, after the 
lapse of more than two centuries, other colonies were planted, at Athens by Ce- 
crops and at Thebes by Cadmus, about the time of Moses. (P. I. § 34). Be- 
tween this time and the Trojan war considerable progress must have been 
made in cultivation. 

We find some of the peculiar institutions of the Greeks originating in this 
period ; particularly the oracles at Delphi and Dodona, the mysteries at Eleu- 
sis, and the four sacred games, the court of Areopagus at Athens, and the 
celebrated Amphictyonic Council. — The arts and sciences likewise received 
considerable attention. Letters had been introduced by Cadmus. Astronomy 
was sufficiently studied to enable Chiron to furnish the Argonauts with an 
artificial sphere exhibiting the constellations. The accounts of the siege of 
Thebes and that of Troy show that progress had been made in the various 
arts pertaining to war. — But the whole history of the period exhibits that sin- 
gular mixture of barbarism with cultivation, of savage customs with chival- 
rous adventures, which marks what is called an heroic age. 

2. The 2d period includes a much shorter space of time, extending from 
the Trojan war to the time when the regal form of government was abol- 
ished, about 1050 B. C. From the most important and characteristic circum- 
stances it may be called the period of colonization. 

The first governments of Greece were small monarchies, and they continued 
such without encountering peculiar difficulties until after the Trojan war. 
Soon after this we find the country involved in fatal civil wars, in which the 
people, under a number of petty chieftains hostile to each other, suffered ex- 
tremely from calamity and oppression. These evils seem to have led to the- 
change in the form of government, and the substitution of the popular instead 
of the regal system. — The same evils also probably contributed to the spirit 
of emigration, which so strikingly marks the period. The emigrants who sought 
foreign settlements are distinguished as of three separate classes. The earliest 
were the iEolians, who removed from the Peloponnesus to the north-western 
shores of Asia Minor and founded several cities, of which Smyrna was the 
principal. The second were the lonians, who went from Attica (originally 
called Ionia), and planted themselves in Asia Minor, south of the JEolians, 
where Ephesus was one of their chief cities. The third were the Dorians, 
who migrated to Italy and Sicily, and founded numerous flourishing settle- 
ments. Syracuse in Sicily became the most important. — In the period of colo- 
nization we notice the origin of the four principal dialects in the Greek lang- 
uage. (Cf. P. II. § 4.) 

3. The 3d period comprehends the space (of five hundred and fifty years) 
from the abolition of Monarchy to the Beginning of the Persian "War, about 
500 B. C. 

In this period two of the Grecian states are chiefly conspicuous, Athens and 
Sparta, and from the special attention of these states to provide themselves with 
a suitable political constitution and civil code, this portion of the history maybe 
designated as the period of laios. 



STATES OF EUROPE. GREECE. 641 

Spurta found in Lycurgus her lawgiver. His institutions gave a permanent 
cast to her character, and were not abolished until the last, ages of Greece. — 
Many years later Athens received her constitution from the hands of Solon, who 
executed the task unsuccessfully attempted by Draco. (Cf. P. II. § 167. P. IV. 
§ 8, 9.) — The other principal incidents in the history of this period are the re- 
peated wars of Sparta with her neighbors the Aiessenians, and the usurpation 
of Pisistratus and the fate of his sons at Athens. — In the war Sparta at last was 
completely triumphant, but suffered much' from the devoted skill and patriot- 
ism of Aristomenes the Messenian general. It was in this struggle that the 
Spartans were so much indebted to the lame poet of Athens, Tyrtaeus. (Cf. 
P. II. §53.) 

In the very time of Solon, Pisistratus contrived to obtain at Athens a sort of 
regal authority, which he transmitted to his two sons. The father used his 
power to promote the glory and welfare of the state. Of'the sons, one was assas- 
sinated at a public festival, and the other being subsequently expelled fled to 
Asia, and sought revenge by instigating the Persians to invade his country. 

4. The 4th period extends from the beginning to the Close of the Persian Wah, 
460 B. C. a space of almost 50 years. To this age the Greeks ever after looked back 
with pride, and from its history orators of every nation have drawn their favorite 
examples of valor and patriotism. The Persian invasion called forth the high- 
est energies of the people and gave an astonishing impulse to Grecian mind. It 
may properly be called the period of military glory. 

The design of subjugating Greece originated in the ambition of Darius the 
Persian king, the second in succession from Cyrus the Great. He found a pre- 
text and occasion for the attempt in a revolt of his Greek subjects in Asia Minor, 
in which Sardis the capital of Lydia was pillaged and burnt. The war was 
carried on by three successive kings, Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes, but on 
neither of them did it confer any glory ; while the battles of Marathon, Thermo- 
pyte, Salamis, Mycale, and Platssa secured immortal honor to the Greeks. — A 
succession of splendid names adorns the history of Athens during this period. 
Miltiades, Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon, and Pericles acted distinguished 
parts in the brilliant scene. Sparta also justly gloried in the self-sacrifice of 
Leonidas and his three hundred brave companions. — The period of the Persian 
war was the age of the highest elevation of the national character of the Greeks. 
Before it, there existed little union comparatively between the different states, 
and it was not till Athens had alone and successfully resisted the strength of 
Persia at the battle of Marathon, that other states were aroused to effort against 
the common enemy. In the confederation which followed, Sparta was the nomi- 
nal head, but the talents, which actually controlled the public affairs, were found 
in the statesmen of Athens. To Athens therefore the supremacy was neces- 
sarily transferred and before the close of the war she stood, as it were, the mis- 
tress of Greece. 

5. The 5th period includes the portion from the close of the Persian war to 
the Supremacy of Philip, B. C. 337. At the beginning of this period the general 
affairs of Greece were in a highly prosperous condition, and Athens was un- 
rivaled in wealth and magnificence under the influence of Pericles. But a spirit of 
luxurious refinement soon took the place of the disinterested patriotism of the 
preceeding age, and the manners of all classes became signally marked 
by corruption and licentiousness. This may be designated as the period of 
luxury. 

The history of the period presents several subjects of prominent interest. — One 
ofthese is the protracted war between Athens and Sparta termed the Pelopon- 
nesian. Pericles was still in power when it commenced, but he soon fell, a vic- 
tim to the terrible plague which desolated Athens. The unprincipled Cleon, 
and the rash Alcibiades successively gained the predominant influence. The 
war was continued with slight intermissions and various success for nearly thirty 
years, and was ended by the battle of iEgos Potamos B. C. 405, in which Lysan- 
der the Spartan king and general gained a final victory over the Athenians. By 
81 



642 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

this event Athens lost her supremacy in Greece and was deprived even of her 
own liberties. Her walls were thrown down, and a government of thirty tyrants 
imposed upon her citizens. To this, however, the Athenians submitted but a 
few years. In 401 B. C. the Thirty were expelled. 

The same year was remarkable for two other events. The first was the ac- 
cusation of Socrates, one of the greatest and the best men of which paganism 
can boast. The trial for some reason was delayed several years, but the re- 
sult was utterly disgraceful to the city and to all concerned. The other mem- 
orable event was the expedition of Cyrus the younger, the satrap of Lydia, 
against his brother the king of Persia. Ten thousand Greeks accompanied 
him in this enterprise. The march from Sardis to the Euphrates, the fatal 
battle of Cunax'a, and the labors and clangers of the 10,000 in returning to 
their homes, are recorded by Xenophon with beautiful simplicity. — The assis- 
tance, which the Greeks gave in this revolt of Cyrus, involved them in another 
war with Persia. Sparta had, by the result of the Peloponnesian war, gained 
the supremacy in Greece, and the other states, especially Athens, Thebes, Ar- 
gos and Corinth, refused to aid her in the struggle which followed. They 
even united in a league against her, and Athens furnished the commander, to 
whom the Persians were indebted for the almost entire destruction of the Spar- 
tan fleet. This war was terminated by a treaty, B. C. 387, which weakened 
and humbled Sparta, and was alike dishonorable to all the Greeks. 

The two states which had for ages been pre-eminent in Greece, Athens and 
Sparta, were now both depressed, and opportunity was afforded for a third, to 
seek the ascendancy. This for a short time was secured to Thebes, chiefly by 
the talents of two distinguished citizens, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. But a 
war with Sparta shortly consummated her glory, and exhausted her strength; 
she gained a brilliant victory in the final battle of Mantinea, 363 B. C. but 
was in the same instant ruined by the death of her general Epaminondas. — 
The successive downfall of three principal states, Athens, Sparta, and The- 
bes, and the jealousies and dissensions connected therewith, reduced Greece to 
a miserable condition. The general corruption and licentiousness, already men- 
tioned, increased the degradation. In these circumstances the ambitious Philip, 
king of Macedon, eagerly seized a favorable moment for entering the Grecian 
territories. At Athens the single voice of Demosthenes was lifted to warn the 
Greeks of his ultimate intentions, and to rouse them to united resistance. A 
feeble alliance with Thebes was effected, but in vain. The battle of Chaero- 
nea, B. C. 337, made Philip the master of Greece. 

6. The 6th period extends from the supremacy af Philip, gained by the bat- 
tle of Chaeronea, to the Capture of Corinth, 146 B. C. By the disastrous de- 
feat at Chasronea the genuine fire of the Grecian spirit was extinguished, and 
the subsequent history exhibits little else than the steps by which the country 
was reduced to a dependent province. We may therefore denominate this the 
period of decline and fall. 

Alexander, who succeeded his father Philip as king of Macedon and auto- 
crator of Greece, cast a sort of glory on the first years of this period by his 
•extensive conquests. Those, who love to trace the course of conquerors, will 
follow with interest his march from the Hellespont to the Granicus, to Issus, 
to Tyre, to the Nile, to the desert of Lybia, to the Euphrates, and the Indus; 
but every reader will regret his follies at Persepolis and be disgusted by his 
beastly life and death at Babylon. — For twenty years after Alexander's death 
the vast empire he had formed was agitated by the quarrels among his ge- 
nerals. By the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia B. C. 301, these contests were ter- 
minated, and the empire was then divided into four kingdoms, one comprising 
Macedonia and Greece ; a second Thrace and Bithynia ; a third Egypt, Lybia, 
Arabia, Palestine and Ccelesyria; and a fourth called the kingdom of Syria, 
including all the rest of Asia even to the Indus. 

To the first of these the Grecian states belonged. Patriotic individuals sought 
to arouse their countrymen to cast off the Macedonian yoke ; but jealousy 
between the states and the universal corruption of morals rendered their ex- 
ertions fruitless. All that is really honorable and memorable in the proper 
affairs of the Greeks in this period is found in the history of the Achaean 
league. — The Achaean league was originally a confederacy between 12 small 



STATES OF EUROPE. GREECE. ROME. 643 

cities of Achaia, established very early, when the Grecian states first assumed 
the popular instead of the regal form. It took scarcely any part in the per- 
petual conflicts between the other republics, and was neutral even in the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. 

The Macedonian kings had dissolved it, but it was revived about 280 B. C. 
Subsequently it was enlarged, and Corinth became the head and capital. Un- 
der the presidency of Philopoemen, B. C. 200 to 180, it rose so high in power 
and reputation, that its alliance was sought by some of the governments of 
Asia. Had the other states at this time risen above the foul and mean spirit 
of envy, the independence of Greece might probably have been restored. But 
unhappily the Romans were requested by one of the states to aid them against 
the Macedonians. The Romans gladly embraced the opportunity, and shortly 
a Roman general led as a captive to grace his triumph the last king of Ma- 
cedon, 167 B. C. 

Nothing but the Achaean league now preserved southern Greece from falling 
an instant prey to Roman ambition. The remaining vigor of the confederacy 
averted this destiny for twenty years; then it came, under the pretext of just 
punishment for insult upon Roman ambassadors. The legions of Rome poured 
upon Achaia, Corinth was taken, and with all its wealth and splendor com- 
mitted to the flames and consumed to ashes. This completed the subjugation 
of the country, which became of course a province of Rome. 

§ 215. II. Rome. The history of Rome extends through a space of more 
than 1200 years ; which may be divided, like the Grecian history, into six periods. 

1. The 1st period includes the time from the Building of the City, B. C. 752, 
to the Expulsion of Tarquin, B. C.509. It may be called the Period of the 
Kings, or of Regal Poioer. 

The Roman historians have left a particular account of this period, beginning 
with the very founders of the city, Romulus and Remus, whose descent is traced 
from iEneas the hero of Virgil. But many have doubted whether this portion 
of the Roman history is entitled to much credit, and some have even contended 
that it is altogether fabulous. (P. I. § 109.) — Seven kings are said to have reigned 
(P. IV. § 123). One of the most important events of this period was a change 
in the constitution effected by the sixth king, Servius Tullius, introducing the 
Comitia Centuriata. He divided the citizens into classes, and subdivided the 
classes into centuries, making a much larger number of centuries in the richer 
classes than in thepoorer. (P. IV. § 252.) — The reign of the secondking,. Numa, 
is remembered, on account of his influence on the affairs of religion : as he in- 
stituted many of the religious ceremonies, and several classes of priests. — Dur- 
ing the period of the kings, 244 years, the Roman territory was of very limited 
extent, and the people were often involved in war with the. several states in their 
immediate vicinity. Tarquin the Proud, the last king, was engaged in the 
siege of an enemy's city only sixteen miles from Rome, when his son committed 
the outrage, which led to the banishment of the family and the overthrow of the 
regal government. 

2. The 2d period extends from the expulsion of the Kings to the time when 
the Plebeians were admitted to the Offices of state, about 300 B. C. At thebegin- 
ning of this period the government was a thorough aristocracy, but at the close 
of it had become a full democracy. It included over 200 years, and may be de- 
signated as the period of the Plebeian and Patrician contests, or of Party strife. 

Two consuls, chosed annually, first took the place of the king, and exercised 
almost precisely the same power. All offices of state were forbidden to the Ple- 
beians or common people, and filled exclusively by Patricians or descendants 
from the Senators or Patres. — The first step in the undermining of the aristoc- 
racy was the Valerian Law, which allowed a citizen condemned to a disgraceful 
punishment to appeal from the magistrate to the people. Under the protection 
of this law, the people, discontented with their poverty and hardships, ere long re- 
fused to enrol their names in the levies, which the wars with neighboring states 
demanded. This difficulty led the Patricians to invent a new office, that of Dic- 
tator (P. IV, § 248). — But the dissatisfaction of the Plebeians was not to be thus 
removed. They united with the army and withdrew to Mt. Sacer, B. C. 493. 



644 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

Reconciliation was effected by creating the office* of Tribunes, who were to be 
chosen annually, from the Plebeians, and to possess the power of a negative upon 
the decrees of the consuls and even the Senate. (P. IV, § 245.)— This arrange- 
ment only led to new dissensions, the Tribunes generally making it their object 
to oppose the consuls and the Senate, and the Plebeian interest gradually en- 
croaching upon the Patrician.— In a few years another fundamental change was 
effected. The important business of state had, from the time of king Servius 
Tullius, been transacted at the Camilla Centurlala, or assemblies voting by cen- 
turies. It was now, B. C. 471, decided that such business might be transacted in 
the Comitia Tributa , or assemblies voting by Tribes, in which the Plebeians 
held the control. ' 

The next office created at Rome seems to have originated in the jealousy be- 
tween the two parties, the Patricians opposing, and the Plebeians favoring it. 
This was the Decern virate, B. C. 451, which superceded both consuls and tribunes, 
but continued only three years, and then the two other offices were restored. — In 
a few years the people made another advance, the Senate conceding that six mil- 
itary tribunes, three Patrician and three Plebeian, might be substituted instead of 
the two consuls.— Another office was created during this period, the censorship, 
two Censors being appointed to take the census of the people every five years, and 
to watch over the public morals. But this office does not appear to have origi- 
nated in party animosity; nor had it any influence in healiDg the dissensions be- 
tween the higher and lower orders (cf. P. IV. §247,259). 

One grand object with the Plebeians yet remained unaccomplished. They 
were not eligible to the more important offices of the state, and to remove this 
disability they now bent all their energies. The struggle continued for many 
years, and occasioned much unhappy disturbance, but terminated in their com- 
plete success; as they gained admission to the consulship, the censorship, and 
finally to the priesthood, and thus obtained a virtual equality with the Patri- 
cians, about B. C. 300. 

During this period, so harassed by internal contests, Rome was engaged in 
frequent wars. Three of them are most noticeable. The first was with the 
Etrurians, under king Porsena, shortly after the expulsion of Tarquin, 'a war 
fertile in exploits of romantic heroism.' — The second was with the city Veii, a 
proud rival of Rome. It was at last taken by Camillus B. C. 390, after a siege of 
ten years.-— The last was with the Gauls, who invaded Italy under Brennus, and 
are said to have taken Rome and burned it to the ground, B. C. 385. Camillus, who 
had been forced by the clamors of the populace to go into retirement, unexpect- 
edly returned, and put to speedy flight the barbarian conquerors. 

3. The 3d period in the Roman history extends from the final triumph, of the 
Plebeians to the Capture of Carthage, B. C. 146. 

Rome had hitherto been distracted with intestine feuds and dissensions, and 
had extended her dominion over but a small extent of territory. The admission 
of Plebeians to all the high offices of trust and distinction promoted the consoli- 
dation and strength of the republic, and the career of conquest was soon com- 
menced. This may be remembered as the period of the Punic Wars, or of For- 
eign Conquests. 

The first important conquest was that of the southern part of Italy, which re- 
sulted from the war with the Samnites. Southern Italy was settled by Grecian 
colonies, and contained at this time several cities flourishing, wealthy, and re- 
fined by letters and the arts. On their invitation, Pyrrhus the king of Epirus 
passed over from Greece with a large army and a train of elephants to aid them 
against the Romans, and was for a time successful, but finally, being totally de- 
feated at the battle of Beneventum B. C. 274, fled precipitately to his own do- 
minions. The allied states and cities immediately submitted to Rome, who thus 
became mistress of Italy. 

She now began to look abroad for acquisitions, and the island Sicily became 
an object of desire. The pursuit of this object brought Rome into contact with 
Carthage, which was now flourishing and powerful. The Carthaginians had set- 
tlements in Sicily, and desired as well as the Romans the dominion of the whole 
island. Hence sprang the 1st of the 3 Punic wars. Sicily was chiefly settled 
bv Greek colonies. These colonies preferred independence, but, situated between 
Rome on one side and Carthage on the other, were in no condition to resist both, 



STATES OF EUROPE. ROME. 645 

and had only the alternative of joining one against the other. They chose the 
side of the Romans in the first Punic War, which began B. C. 264, and was 
ended B.C. 241, by a treaty exceedingly humiliating to Carthage. Sicily was 
made a Roman province, yet Syracuse, the principal city, was allowed to retain 
an independent government.— The tragic story of Regulus belongs to the first 
Punic War. 

After a peace of twenty-three years, the second Punic War began in the sie°-e 
of Saguntum in Spain, by Hannibal, B. C. 218. Having taken this city Han- 
nibal crossed the Pyrenees and the Alps, and marched down upon Italy with a 
victorious army. The Romans were defeated in three engagements before the 
memorable battle of Cannee, in which they were completely conquered and 
40,000 of their troops left dead on the field. But after the battle of Cannarthe 
Carthaginians, gained no advantages. . A king of Macedon came to their aid in 
vain.— Scipio, a Roman general, having conquered Spain, passed over to Africa 
and carried the war to the very walls of Carthage. Hannibal was recalled from 
Italy to detend the city, but was utterly defeated by Scipio in the battle of Zama 
is. C. 202, by which the 2d Punic war ended even more disastrously than the first' 
In this war, Syracuse in Sicily took part with the Carthaginians and was on 
that account besieged by the Romans. It was ably defended by the scientific ge- 
nius of Archimedes, but at length taken by Marcellus, and made a part of The 
province of Sicily, B. C. 212. . e 

The result of the 2d Punic war may be considered as the occasion which car- 
ried the Roman arms into Asia. Hannibal, after the battle of Zama fled to the 
protection of Antiochus, king of Syria. This led to a war, which compelled the 
king to cede to the Romans nearly the whole of Asia Minor, B. C 190— The 
interference of the king of Macedon, in the 2d Punic War, also furnished the 
ground for awar with him, which was the first step towards the conquest of 
Greece. A few years after, the Romans on the pretence of aiding the jEtolians 
subjected Macedonia, B. C. 167. The Achaean league preserved the southern 
portions of the country a Utile longer ; but in twenty years these likewise fell 
under the dominion of Rome by the capture of Corinth, B. C. 146. 

Carthage fell the same year with Corinth. The Romans had waged a third 
Punic war, when the Carthaginians were greatly weakened by an unfortunate 
struggle with the Numidians. The third Punic war continued but three years 
and terminated in the entire destruction of Carthage, under circumstances of 
aggravated cruelty and faithlessness on the part of the Romans. 

4. The 4th period extends from the Capture of Carthage anal Corinth, to the 
establishment of the Imperial Government by the battle of Actium B. C. 31 
During the whole time the Roman history is a continued tale of domestic distur- 
bances. This may justly, therefore, be termed the period of the Civil Wars. 

The very commencement of the period is marked by the disturbances which 
grew out of the attempts of the two Gracchi. They successively endeavored to 
check the growing corruption of the Senate, and to relieve the circumstances of 
the people, but both fell victims to their own zeal and the hatred of their ene 
mies, Tiberius 133, and Caius 121 B. C. Some have ascribed their efforts to ar- 
dent patriotism ; others to mere ambition. (Cf. Niebuh-'s Rome, cited P I § 109 ) 
Not long after the fall of Gracchus arose the Social War, by which the states of 
Italy demanded and obtained of Rome the rights of citizenship, B. C. 90 —Scarce 
ly was this ended, when the Romans began again to imbrue their hands in each 
other s blood in the fierce war of Sylla and Marius, rival leaders in the republic 
lwo horrible massacres signalized this contention. Sylla finally triumphed' 
and was made perpetual dictator, yet resigned his power at the end of four years' 
B G. 78. I he death of Sylla is soon followed by the famous conspiracy of Cat- 
aline, detected and subdued by the vigilance of Cicero, B. C. 62 

Still Rome was distracted by parties, headed by ambitious men —The first tri 
umvirate, a temporary coalition between Pompey, Crassus and Ca?sar repressed 
the flames of discord for a few years. Pompey had already added Syria to the 
Roman possessions ; Cassar soon added Gaul. Crassus lost his life in an attemnr 
to conquer Parthia, B. C. 53. The death of Crassus broke the bond ThTch 
held Cassar and Pompey together, and thev hastened to determine in the field <>r 
battle, who should be master of Rome. The contest was decided in the plains 
of Pharsalus in Thessaly, by the entire defeat of Pompey, B. C 48 Pomnev 
fled- to Egypt, but was beheaded the instant he landed on the shore' For live 



646 v CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 

years Caesar held the supreme power at Rome, but was assassinated in the 
Senate, by a company of conspirators headed by Brutus and Cassius, B. C. 43. 

A second triumvirate was now formed on the pretext of avenging this mur- 
der, between Antony, Lepidus, and Octavius, each aspiring to the power of 
Cresar. A horrid proscription sealed in blood this compact. A war with the 
party of the conspirators necessarily followed, and the battle of Philippi, B. C. 
42, put an end to the hopes of Brutus and Cassius, at the head of this party. 
Octavius, who was the nephew of Cassar, easily effected the removal of one 
member of the Triumvirate, Lepidus, a man of feeble talents and insignifi- 
cant character. His other colleague, Antony, infatuated by love for Cleopatra 
the queen of Egypt, soon furnished a pretext for open hostility, and the fate of 
battle again decided who should be the master of Rome. The armament of 
Antony and Cleopatra was wholly defeated by Octavius, at Actium, B. C. 31. 
This battle subjected Egypt to Rome, and Rome, with all her possessions, to 
the power of Octavius, by whom the Imperial government was finally estab- 
lished. 

The Roman history, from the fall of Carthage to the battle of Actium, pre- 
sents but. a melancholy picture, a blood-stained record of sedition, conspiracy, 
and civil war. 

5. We may include in a 5th period the lime from the establishment of the 
Imperial Government to the reign of Constantine, A. D. 306. As Christianity 
was introduced into the world in this period, and was opposed until the end of it 
by the Roman government, we may designate it as the period of the Pagan 
Emperors. 

The reign of Augustus, the name taken by the 1st Emperor Octavius, has be- 
come proverbial for an age flourishing in peace, literature and the arts. It is 
distinguished, also, for the birth of our Savior, as the next reign, that of Tibe- 
rius, is, for his crucifixion and death. — The four reigns succeeding, viz. of Tibe- 
rius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero, are chiefly memorable for the tyranny of the 
emperors, and the profligacy of their families and favorites. 

On the death of Nero, A. D. 69, follows a year of dissension and bloodshed in 
which Galba, Otho, and Vitellius successively gained the Empire and lost their 
lives. — The Flavian family, Vespasian and his two sons, Titus and Domitian, 
next in order receive the supreme power. Titus is celebrated as the final 
conqueror of the Jews, whose obstinacy provoked him to rase their city to the 
ground, an event exactly fulfilling the predictions of Christ. His reign is mem- 
orable for the eruption of Vesuvius, which buried the cities Herculaneum and 
Pompeii in ruins. Domitian, the last Emperor of the family, provokes his own 
assassination, A. D. 96. 

Passing the reigns of the feeble Nerva, the martial Trajan, and the peaceful 
Adrian, we arrive at a brilliant age in the imperial history, the age of the Anto- 
nines, extending from A. D. 138 to 180, a space of about forty years. Their 
reigns appear in the midst of the general sterility and desolation of the imperial 
history like the verdant oasis in the desert. Literature and the arts of peace re- 
vived under their benign influence. 

After the death of Marcus, A. D. 180, there follows a whole century of disor- 
der, profligacy, conspiracy and assassination. The army assumes the absolute 
disposal of the imperial crown, which is even sold at public auction to the high- 
est bidder. Within the last fifty years of the time, nearly fifty emperors are suc- 
cessively proclaimed, and deposed or murdered. — In the year 284, Diocletian 
commenced his reign, and attempted a new system of administration. The em- 
pire was divided into four departments or provinces, and three princes were as- 
sociated with him, in the government. This system only laid the foundation for 
rivalship and contention in a new form, and in a few years Maxentius and Con- 
stantine, sons of two of the princes, associated with Diocletian, appealed to the 
sword to decide upon their respective claims to the imperial purple. The for- 
mer fell in the battle, and Constantine secured the throne. 

This period is memorable in the history of Christianity. Under the Pagan 
Emperors, those who embraced the gospel were constantly exposed to persecu- 
tion and suffering. Ten special persecutions are recorded and described, the 
Jirst under Nero A. D. 64, and the last under Diocletian, commencing A. D. 303, 
and continuing ten years, unto A. D. 313. But, notwithstanding these repeated 
efforts to hinder the progress of the gospel, it was spread during this period 
throughout the whole Roman Emph'e. 



STATES OF EUROPE. ROME. 647 

6. The 6th period includes the remainder of the Roman history, extending 
from the reign of Constantine to the Fall of Rome, when captured by the Heruli, 
A. D. 476. The reign of Constantine the Great imparts splendor to the com- 
mencement of this period. He embraced the Christian faith himself, and patron- 
ised it in the empire, as did also most of his successors ; on which account this 
may be called the period of the Christian Emperors. 

One of the most important events of his reign, and one which had a great in- 
fluence on the subsequent affairs of Rome, was the removal of the Government 
to a new seat. He selected Byzantium for his capital, and thither removed with 
his court, giving it the name of Constantinople, which it still bears. He left his 
empire to five princes, three sons and two nephews ; the youngest son, Constan- 
tius, soon grasps the whole, A. D. 360. By the death of Constantius his cousin 
Julian received the purple, which he was already on his march from Gaul to 
seize by force. The reign of Julian, styled the Apostate, is memorable for his 
artful and persevering attempts to destroy the Christian religion, and his unsuc- 
cessful efforts to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, with the express purpose of 
casting discredit on the predictions of the Bible. 

From the death of Julian, A. D. 363, to the reign of Theodosius the Great, 
A. D. 379, the history presents little that is important to be noticed, except the 
jealousies between the eastern and western portions of the Empire, which grew 
out of the removal of the court to Constantinople. Theodosius was the last 
Emperor who ruled over both. In 395 he died, leaving to his sons Arcadius 
and Honorius separately the east and the west.— From this time the Eastern 
portion remained distinct, and its history no longer belongs to that of Rome. 

The Western portion languishes under ten successive Emperors, who are 
scarcely able to defend themselves against the repeated attacks of barbarian 
invaders. At length, under Augustulus, the 11th from Theodosius, Rome is 
taken by Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, and the history of ancient Rome is 
terminated, A. D. 476. 

The whole of the period from Constantine to Augustulus is marked by the 
continued inroads of barbarous hordes from the north and the east. But the 
greatest annoyance was suffered in the latter part of the time, from three tribes, 
under three celebrated leaders; the Goths, under Alaric, the Vandals, under 
Genseric, and the Huns, under Attila; the two former of which actually car- 
ried their victorious arms to Rome itself (A. D. 410 and 455), and laid prostrate 
at their feet the haughty mistress of the world ; and the latter was persuaded 
to turn back his forces (A. D. 453) only by ignoble concessions and immense 
gifts. ■ 

We have in another place named some of the principal helps in the study of the Grecian and Roman 
Chronology and History ; see P. II. § 7. 7 (c), (d), and §296,5 (/) .—For Grecian history, an excellent el- 
ementary work is the following; Pinnock's improved editii n of Dr. Goldsmith's History of 
Greece, abridged &c. Philadelphia, 1836. 12.— For the principal ancient states, the following isa valuable 
text-book, for deeper research ; History of the States of Antiquity, from the German of A. H. L. Hee- 
re n, (by G. Bancroft.) Northampton, 1828. 8.— Rollin's Ancient History is well known.— We may also 
name, as valuable, Russell's Ancient Europe ; Millot's Elements of History ; Alex. Fras. Tytler's 
Universal History ; Bi gland's Letters on the study and use of History may be read with advan- 
tage; alsoPriestley 's Lectures on History. 



INDEX OF GREEK Wukus. 



A. 
Afcoigag, 121. 
'Ayd^uara, 99, 397, 

480. 
'Ayviapoi, 398. 
'Ayogcxi, 435, 605. 
'AyQiwvia, 423. 
'Ayxefiaxoi, 409. 
'Aycbv smxacpidg, 430. 
'■/iydiJ'Ee fiovotxoi, 41. 

*£§<h, 428. 
'Ayajvodutai, 41. 
'Aytovod-erou, 41, 431. 
'Add/tag, US. 
'AdafidvTivog, 288. 
"^<%, 344, 479. 
"Advrov, 415. 
'Adavia, 424. 
'Ad-rjvu, 347, 602. 
'A&hjTul, 431. 
"AixXov, 451. 
"^toiloc;, 358, 361. 
'^^eroi, 437. 

'Al(TV{lvfJTUt>, 41. 

'Amjxixd, 417- 
'Aixia, 444. 
'Ai%fidkoDTog, 414,461. 
'Aixftr), 407. 
'Axivaxijg, 456. 
'Axovxiov, 407. 
'Axovxioig, 428. 
'AxgofioXiaxal, 455. 
'AxQO&lvitt, 400, 461. 
'AxQOfAcpdXia, 36. 
'AxQovta, 463, 465. 
'^«^07ro^tg, 602. 
'^f»xT], 601. 
'AlsinnJQiop^ 138,471. 
'AXe!-7]TiiQia, 406. 
'-^e^Kpa^jUttfcO!, 168. 
'AXrj-drjg iaioqia, 228. 
"^V«, 427. 
"^J,? ©etoff, 469. 
'AXTTJgeg, 427. 



'AlvTttQxrjg, 429. 
'Altia, 356. 
'A/uu'Qoveg, 378. 
'Ajze&vaxog, 1 18. 
^fiifnov fiaaiXswgfiO. 
'A/nnvg, 470. 
'A(*q>iyvrjEig, 352. 
'AficpoQevg, 475. 
'AvdyXvcpa, 96, 101. 
'Avaypwcriai, 43. 
'Ava&r[fxttTtt, 400. 
' Avdxsiov, 604. 
'AvazXivondXr], 428. 
FANAKTEI, 53. 
'AvdgaTiodoxdnijXoi, 

436. 
'AvSgdnoSov, 414. 
'AvdQsia, 452. 
'Avdyokrufjia, 445. 
'Av&eoirJQia, 423. 
'Av&sarTiQiwv, 628. 
'Ap»q«S, 119. 
AvrsQcog, 118, 351. 
'Avxiyqacpetg, 440. 
"Avtqoc, 415. 
"A$oveg, 35. 
".^ottfo*, 30, 162. 
'^iraj'w^);, 445. 
'Artaxovgiix, 423, 
'4rats, 369. 
'Anodexxai, 439. 
'AnodvTijgiOP, 471. 
'^47ro'5'e'ir«t,.449. 
'AtioxXtjxoi, 454. 
'AnoxQvcpa, 282. 
, v47i6Aoj'o?, 168. 
'Ano/nv^/iovEvfiara, 

236. 
'^Troo^/ra, 45. 
'^Tidrpo^ot, 384. 
'AnocpfJTtxt,, 419. 
'AgyEiyovrtig, 354. 
' 'AqSdviov, 479. 
'AQEtonaytioii, 442. 



'Agsionayog, 442, 
'•^?, 349. 
, Aqiaxov, 466. 
' AqfidiEia, 164. 
"Agfta, 427. 
'AQfioavvoc, 450. 
" Aqnayeg, 464. 
"Agnviai, 374. 
'AqTEficg, 346, 360. 
"Aqxuvoi, 454. 
'AgxayeTat, 449. 
Aqx^Qwuvvt], 416. 
'AaxlTjniaduv &c. 

276. 
'^o-Tiis, 406, 456. 
'AcrxgaXiaxog, 36. 
'^re'Aeta, 436, 447. 
'Ax&lSeg, 263. 
'Ati/iia, 445,452, 466. 
'^wli/, 472. 
'^4uW?, 476. 
' AvxoxdfidaXoi, 177. 
'AvxofioXoi., 462. 
'AvTOx&ovsg, 23. 
"Aepsatg, 427. 
'AqjQodicria, 423 
'AcpQoScji], 349. 
'Axdrr/g, 118. 

Bdxxog, 354. 
JBo^Js, 427. 

Ba7lTHTT7JQI,OV J 471. 

Bdyadgov, 446. 
Baaavlxov Xi&ov, 623-^ 
Bdaavog, 436. 
Baadslg, 402. 
BaaiXevg. 468. 
Baaxavia, 422. 
BaTTJe, 427. 
Bau, 32, 474. 
Be pilot, 417. 
Beidiaioi, 450. 
BeisXoneg, 452- 
Be'iijf, 407. 



INDEX Of GREEK WOHDS. 



549 



BeXoftayjeia, 422. 
Brj/ia, 605. 
BrlQvUog, 118. 
BipUov, 168, 277. 
BifiXionrjyoi, 76. 
BJ^Xog, 35, 277. 
Bot]8qo[jiu)v, 628. 
Bo&qog, 400, 
Boiordqxai, 453. 
-BoXis, 463. 
B6ft(Jog, 422. 
B6(tPvS, 565. 
Bovat, 449. 
-BouAefoj', 442. 
2?ouA£t>rtxd>, 138. 
JSou^evzat, 434. 
SovAsuuj^ta, 605. 
•BovXr], 433 > 44i. 
Bovoiqocprjddv, 33, 53, 

54. 
Bqafieiov, 427. 
Bqavqw'vicc, 423. 
Bqoxog, 446, 451. 
Bwjuoi, 399, 415. 
Bwfidg jwv Swdexctj 

333. 

r. 

ralamoanovda, 398. 
JTctftrjlia, 164. 
rafirjliaf, 628. 
ra>os, 467, 468. 
raOTftopavTEia, 422. 
.Te^daxToa, 448. 
TEQOvcria, 450, 453. 
rdqqov, 456, 460. 
.Tewj'^aqDtxoc, 252. 
reu/MOQoi, 453. 
reamovtxd , 278. 
J"f 5 TrejtoSos, 168. 
rt/ws, 370. 
riyyqa, 477. 
i^AauxwTrt?, 348. 
.TAvqeefoj', 36. 
FAvgjTj, 96. 
rAwaaat, 222. 
JTVwvH as avid v, 420. 
rv&fictt, 168. 
rv6fi(ot>, 627. 
.Topj'dj'ss, 377. 
jTo^o'vio*', 371. 
.Tpa»xo», 389. 



rqdfijxaTa (I'oivweia, 

31, 32, 54. 
rqafijxaTEvg, 438, 440, 

454. 
rga/ufiarixoi, 44, 222. 
rga/jfiaiiixi^g, 44. 
rqacpeiov, 36. 
rqccqnj, 445. 
rqutpntrj, 127. 
rvliov, 407. 
rvfifdaia, 39. 
rvpvaoiriqtov, 138. 
rvfivaaxr^g, 431. 
rvfivuoiaqxia, 439. 
rvfivixol dvwveg, 4*1. 
rwctixeiov, 413. 
rwuixtov, 413, 472." 

J. 
Jcafj.ov6}.rjmo^ 421. 
Jairqog, 468. 
*4axTvXioyXvq>ia } 117. 
JaxTvlio-d-qxat,, 124. 
JdxivXog, 475. 
Java xrj, 479. 
^aq>vtj(p6qia, 423. 
Jaq>vi]q>oqixd, 164. 
JeiXij, 626. 
JeiXivdv, 466. 
detnvoooytOTal) 43. 
j4exctdov%oi } 434. 
4sxdg } 451. 
^fexauftdg, 445. 
Jexuq>d-i,voi, 627. 
JeXtoi, 37. 
4eXq>lv % 464. 
^Enaza, 468. 
^so/nog, 446. 
4E%iifiEqa, 628. 
^rjAta, 423. 
Jrj/iocqxoi, 438. 
Jjjfiiirtjq, 356, 357. 
^Tj[n\iqi.«, 423. 
JtjfjLiQTiqttxa, 439. 
Jr,fjtiovqyol, 454. 
4r}(toi, 174, 433. 
Jrjuoaioi, 438. 
^w, 357. 
didyXvcpct, 96. 
JuxyqacpEtg, 439. 
Jiddrjfia, 402. 
I ^ta%oyttaTcc, 138. 

82 



4lUlTl/T.dt } 445. 

JtdXe&g, 214. 
diapcujTiyQMJig, 46. 
Jiai'0[iui, 440. 
^iuoxsvaOir t g, 173, 183. 
JiMuxeiv dqdfici, 42. 
4iduoxuXiai, 42. 
Jt&vqup^og, 164,374. 
JiinoXsia, 423. 
Jixai, 436, 445. 
Jixuvixot, X6y<u, 210. 
//aatrrai, 444. 
Jixccarrjqiov, 444. 
^'x>/, S63. 
Jixqoxa, 407. 
Jifidxai; 456. 
Jio@oXia } 440. 
Jiovvaia, 42, 424. 
Jiovvcrog, 354. 
Jionsrrj, 415. 
Jtdq&oJVEig, 222. 
Jioaxovqtu, 384. 
Jioaxovqoi, 38. 
JlnTEqog, 137. 
Jinivxa, 37. 
JinvXov, 602. 
4laxog, 428. 
Jiqj&Equi, 35. 
Jiqpqog, 406, 410. 
Jiwxwv, 444- 
Jiwfiooioc, 443, 444. 
^/d^oe, 427. 
A6va%, 36. 
doqcnoqoqoi, 455. 
jdoqnog, 466. 
46qv, 406. 
4oqvdXu)TOt, 461. 
JovXsia, 446. 
JovXoi, 414, 436. 
JovqoSoxrj, 407. » 
Jqdfia, 171, 
4q«xw, 442, 473. 
/fqsnavov, 464. 
Jqopog, 427. 
dtodexu &Eoi, 333. 
dwdwvaiov %aXxziov, 

419. 
J(3qa, 400. 

'E'yxovaTdv, 36. 
'Ifyxw/natmxot, 210. 



650 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



'Eyxw/uov, 164. 
'EyxwQim, 07. 
'Edioha, 138. 
'Eidv'Miop, 167. 
'£»xots 628. 
'Eixovixd, 99. 
'Edanivtj, 467. 

'Eilei&via, 346. 

'Eilijfiaxa, 36. 
"Edwxeg, 449. 
"Et-gBvsg, 449- 

'EiQEaiwvai, 164. 

'Eiqivtj, 363. 

' Eiauyyeliu, 445. 

'EtoqioQal, 438. 

'Exaxo/zfiuitov, 628. 

'Ex(xi6{i@T], 399. 

'Exaxofifioia, 423. 

'.Extfiiffta, 363. 

''Exxlriaiai, 441, 450. 

' ExxXrjcriaaxixr^ iaxo- 
glct, 287. 

'Eftxojuidrj, 479. 

'Exloyeig, 439. 

'ZJxoraTixoi., 421. 

"Exzvna, 101. 

'Exyogd, 479. 

, Elat,od-B(jt,ov J 1,^8. 

'Elcuoanovda, 398. 

'Elaq>7]{lolt,dv, 628. 

'Eleyeia, 166. 

"Eleyog, 166. 

'Elsnolig, 460. 

'Elevaivia, 424. 

'Elixsg, 470. 

'Ellavodixai, 429, 
431. 

"Elv/iog, 476. 

'Epjldg, 432. 

"Efifiolov, 457. 

'Efzfieleia, 172. 

'EfineiQia, 277. 

'E/insXcogoi, 450. 

, Efinvev<irci, 476. 

'Evdyia/xaxa, 400. 

"Evaqa, 461. 

"EvdeiZtg, 445. 

"Evdexu, 438, 444. 

7 Evd-ovataaial, 421. 

' Evvct<pd-t,vol, 627. 

'EvvednvXov, 602. 



'.EW, 349, 367. 
"E^edQui, 138. 
' ESrtuoiuI, 437 
'E^riyt\aig^ 222. 
' E$r]yriTtxi\, 44. 
'Enuivdg, 164. 
'EneMrodiov, 171. 
'£7»|9d#0(n, 459, 463. 
' Eniftdxut,, 464. 
'Eniyovoi, 385. 
'£ , 7i/j'^o( i « j uaT«,52,109 
'Eniyguqieig, 439. 
'EnideiZeigj 41. 
' Enid-ahifiia, 164. 
'ETud-aldfiiov, 478. 
' Enivixiov, 164. 
'EmoQxicc, 418. 
'Eniggij/ua, 175. 
'Eni(TT][i<x } 32. 
'EnKJxdxrjg, 441. 
'Emaxolncl egwxixoci } 

228. 
'Enioxolevg, 465. 
'JBtto?, 166. 
' Enovqdvioi, 333. 
'Enxct oocp&v av/nno- 

aiov, 43. 
'EncofieXia, 444. ■ 
'ETTiivv/uoi, 447. 
' Encaxidsg, 464. 
"Egavog, 411,467. 
'Egaxa, 372. 
'Egydxig, 348. 
'Egexai, 464. 
'Egexgia, 605. 
"Eqsx&siov, 603. 
' Eguvvveg, 374. 
'EgMTxixrj, 45. 
'EQ/iad-i\vi], 100. 
"Egfjaia, 423. 
'Egfiaiog Xi&og, 100. 
'Egfirjg, 352. 
* Eg cog, 351. 
'EqitiTixd [teh], 169. 
' Eoneqiufia, 466. 
' Eaxiuoig, 439. 
'EaxidxwQ, 468. 
' EaxttxoxoXXov, 36. 
'Exaigtu, 479. 
'EiSQOiovfisva, 168. 
'Exsgofidaxalot,, 436 



|i<?, 287. 
"JS'utfuj'o^ 437. 
'Evxxixd, 164. 
' Evfievideg, 374. 
'Evvo/jia, 363, • 

'EvxsQntj, 372. 
'jEi^ui, 898. 
'Ecpeoia, 423. 
'EcpFcriaxd, 229- 
'Ecpercu, 443. 
'Ecprjfieiov, 138. 
'Eq>Ti@ixdv, 138. 
'Ecpijfioi, 449. 
'Ecprjyrjcng, 445. 
'Ecpij^egig, 264. 
"Ecpoqot, 450. 

Z. 

Zevyixai, 433. 
Zeus, 339, 340, 344. 
Zi^ua, 445, 452. 
Zr)xi\[iaxa, 222. 
Zwyd, 463. 
Zuj'Trea, 464. 
Zuyd?, 457. 
Zwy^aqptxi), 127- 
Zm/Jog fieXug, 451. 
Zci^. 406, 469. 
Zt>)axf\qBg, 463. 
ZaSffT^o*-, 470. 

77. 

'Hdovixol, 236. 
"H&pog, 54. 
'HXaxdxrj, 463. 
'HXiaia, 443. 
'Hhaaxal, 437, 443. 
"HXiog, 359 
'HXioxgoniov, 627. 
'ft/uag, 626. 
'H/iegoc, 360. 
'H/jegctg dgnayr/, 360. 
'H/xegodgo'/^oi, 462. 
'Hvioxog, 406- 
'Hnuxooxonict, 422. 
"77 ? a, 340. 
'Hgala, 341, 423. 
' HcpaiaxBia, 423. 
"Hqicuaxog, 351. 
'H X Bta, 432. 
'77ws, 360, 626. 



• INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



651 



0. 

©uldfiog, 478. 
Qodeia, 372. 
GaUoi, 398. 
Gdvuxog, 376. 
Gugytjhwp, 628. 
&6UTQ0P, 138. 
©fioei OEfivui, 443. 
Qejuehog, 463. 
0e> ? , 363. 
©eoi dt {ueydXoi, 333. 
Geo/tavreiu, 421. 
QevficxpoQia, 356, 423. 
Geafioqpogog, 357. 
©£w ?t xa\ 432, 440. 
Gswgol, 418. 
Gijgiaxd, 168. 
©ijrec, 414. 
©pijVuj*' i'^ag%oi, 480. 
0(«)'x6?, 480. 
Qgovog, 42, 410. 
evfieXi), 172. 
Gufiiafia, 417. 
©vped?, 456 
Gvoiai, Qvog, 399. 
Gdtui, 416. 
Gmgdxiov, 463, 
©copal, 407,456,450. 

I. 
'Idle/lot, 480. 
"lap foe, 164. 
" limine, 119. 
c Ieod, 415. 
'Iegeiov, 417. 
c /epei5?, 162. 
'/egdflfcvAot, 417. 
e legopavjeia, 422. 
' legotpdviai^ 416. 
"Ixqia, 463. 
'Ikua/udg, 417. 
'D.uoiixd, 414. 
"Jilj?, 458. 
c i>cL~, 428. 
c Ifidnov, 469. 
'iou'Aot, 164. 
'ImruygsTai, 450. 
'iTTTrdQ/qg, 455. 
' Innugxia, 458. 
'Ia-aeiq, 406, 433,445. 
' Inniag fteiQuiy, 98. 
r InndS go/to;, 609. 



''InnoToSoiat 455. 
T /9*S, 361. 
'IuoftexgrjTu, 99. 
'io-Tdff, 463. 
'IraAdj, 69. 
' Iaiia, 463. 

' rwfidx%oi, 164. 

"Iiuvsg, 25. 

Kudfieiott,, 32. 
KdSot,, 441. 
Ka&agf/ol, 398. 
Katadocg, 451. 
KaXd&iov, 425. 
Kdlafxog, 36. 
.K'aAAij'pa'qDot, 37. 
Kallionrj, 372. 
Xalot, 463. 
Kdlvmga, 470, 4Z7. 
JiCuicocW, 428, 
Kanvofxavreiu, 422. 
Kdgaftog, 121. 
Kocgveia, 423. 
Karafia&fidg, 621. 
Kazu^Xrjiixr^, 427. 
■Kuraj'paqDTJ, 455. 
KuTcmelTai,, 460. 
KaranovTi,(j[idg, 446. 
KctTaqpgdy/iittTa, 464. 
KaTdcpguxTOL, 455. 
KaTijyogiui,, 445. 
KctVTrjgia, 130. 
Kslrjieg, 407. 
Kevr^gMx, 480. 
KevoTdyiu, 452, 480. 
KevTrjdtg, 452. 
Keqdfiiov, 475. 
Kegura, 36. 
Kegdziov, 474. 
Ksgy.iSeg, 138. 
Keg/ia, 473. 
Kecrrgcoaig, Keargof, 

130. 
Kijnot 'sfdcbvidog, 424. 
K-fjgeg, 377. 
KrjgofiavTEiat, 422. 
KHPONOS, 34. 
KygvS, Krjgvxeg, 400, 

403, 416,458,468. 
Kiyxlideg, 444. 
Ki&dqa, 476. 



Ktfiwviov tei%og 602. 
Kvvrjdov, 33. 
Kipvga, 476. 
KiOTo<p6goi) 425. 
jOa'cJot ixTTJgiot, 398. 
iiCAetco, 372. 
Kleif/vdga, 444 
KltigofxuvTtia, 
KXrjgoorol, 437. 
Klijrug, 444. 
iO.ifiaxsg, 138, ijj. 
JtttVa*. 467. 
KUofidg, 410. 
Jttoidf, 446, 452. 
Kv-qpldeg, 406. 
Kvioot], 400. 
KoSogvog, 432. 
Kollov, 138. 
Kontiv, 471. 
.Koioffffoi, 99. 
Konlg, 456. 
Xo'jnra, 32, 74, 474. 
Xd ? <5a|, 172. 
KogwvlofictTa, 164. 
Kogvg, 406. 
Kogvcpaiog, 172. 
Koofioi, 452. 
fdrtvos, 429. 
Koirafiog, 469. 
Koivli], 475. 
ICoiTpcH, 468. 
Ifd^ot, 459. 
Kox^idgiov, 475. 
Kgdvog, 406. 
Kgcnfjgeg, 467. 
XpaT^, 53. 
Kgridefivov, 470... 
Kgi][tv6g, 446, 
-K^udc, 460, 
Kgoxonsnlog, 360. 
iiT^OTO?, 42. 
Kgvmela, 449. 
Kgvxnallog, 119. 
Kri(TTTjg, 57. 
Kva/tpt, 437, 441. 
Xuavd?, 118. 
Kvpeia, 467. 
Kv@egvrJTi]g, 465. 
.Kiixlo?, 163, 170. 
KvUonodrjg, 352. 
Kvp(ia),a, 477. 



652 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



Kvviij, 406. 
Kvgfieig, 35. 
Kvq>uv 1 446. 
Kadwv, 477. 
K6ftj], 174. 
K&nai, 463. 
/ww^txfio", 133. 

t. 
'•yog, 400, 

480. 

56. 
JiayvQu, 461. 
AemovavTttt, 466. 
AscTOvgylai, 438. 
Aextqov, 401. 
Mteig, 222. 
Asutdv, 473. 
Aecrxr], 449. 
^iavxa^fjg, 336. 
Asvxcofia, 438. 
Arj^iaqx 01 , 438. 
Atjt(o, 361. 
-<4/)'ii£toj', 1 19. 
Ai&o@olict, 446. 
Ai&oylvcpia, 117. 
^Ww.98, 117. 
Ai&og nquT-qq, 436. 
Jioj'a'Je?, 452. 
^oyefov, 432, 507. 
Aoyiu, 418. 
Aoyiaral, 437. 
AoyivxTlg, 465. 
Aoyoyqacpiui, 262. 
Aoyot Oi-vjunmol, 41.- 
elwrs^ntoi, serous 
gwol, 441. 
Aoi@al, 398. 
Ao$lag, 421. 
Aovxiog rj " Ovog, 228, 
^four^oy, 471. 
Aocpog, 466. 
yfo^og, 457, 458. 
./fuxata, 361, 423. 
^uaet ? , 222. 
AT. 
Mayddig, 476. 
Mdyava, 460. 
Ma£at, 451. 
Ma-d-ri/iaia, 251- 
Maiftaxzt]gi(of, 628. 
Marrein, 418. 



Muvrev/.tara, 418. 
JWcorixi}, 421. 
JWa'irtf, 162. 
Ma^iu'ge?, 444. 
"'facrrtj'cufftg, 452. 
Mdxctiqa, 456. 
Me8i[xvog, 475. 
il/ed-otftxij, 44. 
B'Islav yqacpixov, 36. 
MsUtti, 214. 
itfeiUi?, 406. 
Mslianovda, 398. 
jl/eAtzToiTror, 479. 
Melog iiifiarriQiov, 

184. 
Melnoftevq, 372. 
Meo6d/.ir], 463. 
Meaoxoqog, 172- 
JVf&Taj'etrj'tuv, 628. 
Msrefxif/v'xMcng, 235. 
Meroixoi, 435, 439. 
MstoIxiov, 436. 
Mr\x avo -' l i 460. 
Mr/pog icnafisyov 6sc. 

628. 
7-/'?ooi, 400. 
MIJAI, 53. 
Mtc&dg, fiovlevTixog, 

440. 
M*d, 473. 
Mvrjfieia, 480. 
Mi/oia, 452. 
Motqa, 374. 
3fo^.7T>j, 469. 
JI/oW0<Wat, 407. 
Mbvij^et?, 407. 
MovoyodfifjaTa, 33. 
Movoxqotu, 407. 
Movoieooaqov, 286. 
MofOXQ^uuTtt, 129. - 
Afo^at, 448, 458. 
Movvvxia, 605. 
Movpvx 10 ", 603. 
Movvvxicbv, 628. 
Movvat; 372. 
Movasiov, 101. 604. 
Movcrixrj yihrj, 476. 
ikfoucrixol. a yca^e?, 41. 
3fi>#<H, 327. 
Mv&oloyia, 327. 
Mvarrjnut, 424. 



jV«|9i«, 476. 
JVuo*, 415. 
TVaoqpviaxes, 417. 
jVuiia^oj, 464. 
JVavTai; 464. 
TVauqDiUaxej, 465. 
JV"£»§d5e(7T>'OJ', 401. 
JVexgofiavTsia, 422. 
Neofirjvia, 628. 
NsvQoSera, 476. 
Nbvqov, 407. 
.TVije? ducpi/fgvftvot, 

463. 
Nofiiofia, 473. 
Nofxo&BTtti, 438. 
JVdfjoi, 476. 
JVopog, 447. 
TVo.uoqD'iUaxej, 427 > 

438, 450. 
Nvficpctia, 372. 

AEVltt, 469. 
Seviog, 412. 

AEOTTjg, 475. 

-E*»>off, 407, 446. 
Zv"koxdq%iov, 35. 
Avardqxrjg, 431. 
SWrol, 139, 428. 
.•Tuoroqpd^tH, 455. 

0. 
'Oj?oWff, 473, 474. 
*Oy?oQ, 432. 
'O&ovat,, 463. 
' OixeTai, 436. 
' Oixovfievixol, 223. 
'Ojxou£(h oqostj, 603 
' Oivoxoot, 468. 
' Olvog [ivqqiyiTJjg, 

466. 
'Ottrrd, 407. 

' OxTUET1]Qtg ; 627. 

' Olvfineiov, 604. 
' v O[Ma$, 425. 

' OvElQOXQlTlxd, 278. 

"Oreiqog, 376. 
' OvetQOOxonoii 422. 
'Oi>£, 119. 
' OZvPsletg, 460. 
'OrraUtos, 119. 
' OTiia&oSofiog, 603. 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



653 



' O.rKr&dygayot, 37. 
"OnXa, 463. 
'OnXirai, 406, 455. 
"Ogyta, 424. 
'Ogy via, 475. 
' OgsixaXxog, 99. 
"Og&tog, 476. 
'Og&ondXj], 428. 
"O^xog fiovXeuzixog, 

442. 
"Opxoj fiiyocg, 418. 
"Ogfiot,, 606. 
' Oqvi&o[idvTeig, 422. 
" Ogvypa, 446. 
'0 ? ^ar ? a, 138, 172. 
' Ogxi oivg, 469. 
"Ocrm, 479. 
' OcrtwT?J£, 421. 
' OaroXoyiov, 480. 
'OaTQaxia/aog, 446. 
' Ocr/ocpoQia, 423. 
' Ooxocpogixd, 164. 
'Oyiai;OuAd/uT0f,399. 
" Ovniyyoi, 164. 
'Ou^aj'oi, 539. 
'Ougavict, 372. 
'Ou^ft^s, 359. 
'Ov'^tog, 55. 
' Ocpd-aXfiovg avyxXei- 

eiv, 401. 
'0*£i)?, 406. 
77. 
TTayxgdriov, 428. 
JJaidv, 164. 
IJaiyvia, 164. 
Iluidixd, 164. 
naidixrj Movou, 170. 
JTcudovopoi, 444, 450. 
TIuXaiOTga^ 139. 
77aib), 427. 
IJaXXaxidsg, 479. 
£IaXXdg, 347. 
ITafifiaaiXsia, 449. 
Ud/^fiSTgof, 170. 
77a y, 361. 
JTavaS-ijvaia, 426. 
JlavSuiaiai, 467. 
IJdvdgoaog, 603. 
Ildvd-sop, 604. 
JlavriyvQis, 429. 
Tlavixov 5eitta : 361- 



navTodamj ivrogia, 

264. 
Tlagafidoig, 175. 
Huguygacp-^, 444. 
IIvtgfxifidTqg, 406. 
Uagdvv/xcpog, 478. 
naQaarmov, 462. 
Uagwanoi, 416. 
ndgeSgoi, 437. 
naq-d-evia, 164, 169. 
nag&svwv, 434,477. 
ndqoxog, 478. 
Heiguiev'g, 606. 
nsiaiava'xTiog, 604. 
Heia/iciTa, 463. 
XTeXaitti, 414. 
IleXsiai, 419. 
HeXxacnai, 455. 
tts.lx)?, 456. 
HeXagia, 337, 423. 
nevitiSiot, 37. 
Ilevia&Xov, 427. 
HsvTaxoaio/nedcia'oi, 

433. 
IZenXov, 411. 
JlenXov d'Stot, 426. 
neQocxEcpaXala, 406. 
negyafiqvrj, 35. 
iTe^i dgxav, 287. 
negifioXog, 137. 
Ilsgidsinvov, 401. 
TZe^J e^amxioj' nad-i]- 

ftdrmv, 229. 
negtriyijaig, 168, 252. 
Hsginuxog, 45. 
neQinerdofiaTa, 400. 
neginoXoi, 459. 
Hegiggavrrfgiov, 415, 

417. 
jisoireixia^dg, 460. 
IXEQitpoivfj, 96. 

HEQOVr^flUTtt^ 400. 

XlegGEcpovrj, 343. 
HBTttliafidg, 446. 
Jlitgai [laxgal &C. 

604. 
HetteIcc, 467. 
nijddliov, 463. 
nf t xvg, 475. 
ITivaxe.g, 130. 
JlivdxiU) 437. 



IllvttXl njVXTQ, 38. 

I7iva!; dyvqxixog, 422. 
IJiarig Attixt[, 418. 
Jlnrdxiov, 36. 
TlXayiuvXor, 476. 
niaiatov, 458. 
TlXuxlg, 4^6. 
IJXaarixT] ! 96. 
nXaxdviaia, 450 
I7laTEiao[/dg, 1 
nli&qov, 475. " 
niif&iov, 458. 
IllovTog, 175, 364- 
niovtaiv, 344. 
77^1,441,605. 
Iloiijtrjg, 162. 
noixilrj, 45, 604. 
Ilolsfxagxog, 450, 453, 

456. 
IJohdg, 603. 
nolticu, 435. 
nolvfivia, 372. 
nofinal, 440. 
Ilofmsiov, 603. 
Ilonava, 399, 417. 

Jloostdav, 372, 628. 
77ou-?, 475. 

ITgdxTogsg, 439, 444. 
ngEofisig, 438, 458. 
IJgoavXiov, 472. 
IIqo@Xr[/Li(XTCc } 406. 
IlgofiovXev/ia, 446, 
ngoTVTtct) 97. 
IJgo'dixoi; 450. 
ngosagia, 447, 452, 

462. 
JJgosdgoi, 441. 
J7 ? oi£, 478. 
IJgovaog, 137. 
Ilgol-£i>oi, 450.' 
IlgooLfiMx, 163. 
IJgonXdafiaTa, 97. 
tlgonoXoi S'soji', 417. 
ITgonofia, 468. 
IlgonvXaict, 434, 602. 
ITgorrodia, 164. 
ngoaidirjg, 436. 
IJgoaxvXog, 137. 
IJgoowTteiov, 432. 
ngoTid-ea&ai, 479- 



654 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



JTgoTOfial, 100. 
I/guTaveiu, 357, 439, 

444. 
IlQvraveia, 441. 
llgviavBiov, 442, 606. 
IlQUTdvBig, 441, 447. 
ITqaiQa, 463. 
IlgwxoxoXXov^ 36. 
IIittQfiol, 422. 
IIuuveif)i(av, 628. 
Uv&ixog vofiog, 430. 
nvd-iog, 345, 420, 450. 
/7i/0« 401. 
Ilvgyog, 458, 460. 
HuQOfictVTsia, 422. 
IIvQwndg, 118. 
/7wA^r«t, 439. 

P. 
' Pa(i8o[iavxei«, 422. 
'Pafidovxoi, 429.' 
'Paywdoi., 30, 162. 
'PrjTOQeg, 438. 
'Piji^at, 452. 
'P^OTdfiog, 278.- 
'Piipaanidegj 462. 
'Ptyig, 428. 
'PododdxxvXog, 360. 
'Po'Jo*-, 468. 

Sdyfia, 456. 
^aljwyyec, 459, 477. 
Sa^xixrj, 476. 
.Ta^Tr*, 32, 474. 
ZdvdaXa, 470. 
J'aj'ig, 446. 
2dncpeigog, 1 18. 
.5'a'£<?K>s,.2'a'§5n'0£,l 19 
2dq8opv^, 119, 
Sswix&wv, 343. 
SbX^vtj, 346, 360. 
J-eUoi, 419. 
Stjxdg, 415. • 
Srjfiela, 33, 459. 
Srjfieioygdcpo^ 37. 
Sibylla, 162. 
•27yXat, 33. 
2idevvai, 449. 
SUmv^ 172, 176. 
.sailirw, 177. 
Stxdgiov, 4.74. 



SixtjCng sv ngviavsia, 

447. 
:?«€&, 357. 
2xdfi/ia, 427. 
SxiXtj /lagxd, 603. 
rxwrj?, 480. 
2hi?H» 137, 432. 
.S'x/j'Trr^OJ', 402. 
SxiUa, 417. 
gXigQOXpOQHilV, 628. 

.SxoiUoi', 165, 469. 
J-xtUa, 461. 
SxvzdXrj, 462. 
JTxuTa'Ata, 456. 
JTxiirog, 35. 
Sftdgaydog, 118. 
^(Uocr, 428. 
^o^or., 480. 
^dg, 369. 
Socpiaraij 37. 
Snid-afiTl, 475. 
S7tlay%t'oaxonia ] 417. 
2n6diog, 415. 
^jro* tfai, 398. 
-Sjioi-Jt}, 417, 458. 
SnvgiSov, 33. 
Srddtoy, 139,427. 
JFTomJe, 61,473. 
^raw^dff, 446. 
2td(pavoi, 447, 452. 
Sxiyavog, 170,400. 
2ziq>og, 400. 
^tij'V*, 139. 
^nj'l 7 ,401, 446, 480. 
^xt^a, 436, 446. 
2Tiyfirj, 35. 
ZrixrjQwg, 35. 
^rotti, 138, 139, 604. 
.S'roo! juaxgd } 606. 
-5T<U?;,470. 
^"rdioe, 463. 
■^r^ar^d?, 454, 456. 
^TQocpioy, 470. 

SxQWflttXtt, 467. 

.2Wo?, 36. 
2vxoq>dvxcu, 444. 
AUii^s, 36. 
Svufiolu, 458, 459. 
Svjjifiovleviixoi, 210. 
Svpfuxxci, 222. 
SvfC/iogieit, 439. 



ZvftnteyftccTa, 100. 
ZufindcriU) 43. 
SvfinoolctQxog, 468. 
2'ijj'fftxo*, 438. 
^'irj'ijj'o^ot, 438, 444. 
-^V/l, 476. 
J'uarafft?, 214. 
Stfuyelov, 400. 
2<payig, 400. 
^'(jDttt^iar^io*', 138. 
ScpBvS6vr h 407. 
SxeSiaa/ia, 214. 
J5>';Ua, 222. 
2xoivo^dxat,, 464. 

Tcuvia, 470. 
7 , a'2.aj'TO»', 473. 
Tafiicct, T(bv iSQtov, 440. 
Ta/uiag nQoa68ov,439. 
Td^g, 457. 
Td tfjrep QovXtjv, 228. 
rdcpo?, 480. 
Taxvyqd(poi, 37. 
TBixog, votiov, 603. 
Telsaaiyafiog, 350. 
Te'A?, 438. 
Telwrat,, 439. 
Te/iBvog, 415. 

TBQlfJlXOQt], 372. 

TsQfta, 427. 
TsooaQdxovTu, 444. 
Tbtqw(361ov fiiog, 455. 
Tsxxiysg, 470. 
TBzgdyuvog, 100. 
TBTgddia, 37. 
TsTQaSTTjglg, 627. 
TBTQciloyicc, 42, 426. 
TifirjjuccTci, 438, 445. 
rdloy, 407. 
Toldrat, 438. 
Tonat,tov, 119. 
ro^surtx?;, 96. 
TgdnB^a devr«£a,468. 
TgdyTjZ, 463. 
TgrjfiaTa^ 463. 
TgutxddBg, 433. 
TgiTjgavlqg, 465. 
TQifiovtov, 470. 
Tgiyoivov, 476. 
Tgiijgagxia, 439. 
Tyi-t-oBig, 407, 462. 



INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



65£ 



Tqtx\ivi,ov,\&7, 471. 
Tydoyia, 42. 
Tglnodeg, 400. 
TQinoSr/cpoQixd, 164- 
Tqinovg xgycnrigiog, 

420. 
TgiToysvetu, 347. 
TgiwdiTig, 346. 
Tgonetiov, 400, 461. 
TpoTits, 463. 
Tgo/og, 446. 
J'pimuJ'a, 460. 
Tvfifiog, 480. 
Tvfinavoc, 446. 
Tvfinavov, 477. 
TV*?, 364. 
F. 

Fctxty^o?, 119. 

FJpauiLs, 477. 

FJ ? 6a7ro»'Ja, 398. 

Yfievaioi, 164, 478- 

371*05, 162, 163. 

Frcros, 376. 

Ynoyaia, 480. 

YnoSrifiaxa^ 470. 

Ynoxavaiov, 471. 

YrtOXQCCTTJQlOVj 54. 

YnoxqiTtti, 432. 
YnofieLoveg, 448. 
Ynofioaia, 444. 
YnogxTifict) 164. 
YTCoariyfirj) 35. 
Yndnittj 428. 

•Prflayl, 457. 
<Z>ctA.aoa, 456. 
1>dXrjQ6v, 606. 
1'dlxig, 463. 
*«nw« l , 174. 
tfaAos, 406. 
&dQ[ictxov } 446. 



#aoos, 411, 469. 
ftdaig, 445. 
<I>axv(h[iata, 140. 
fI'Eyyizr)g y 556. 
fl'eiSiriu, 451. 
fl>egeTQOf, 401, 479. 
*6§>'7j, 478. 
'/'siiyan', 444. 
tftfofs, 425. 
fbilrjliddoti, 164. 
'1'ikiiia, 451. 
<X>ilo/nei8rjg, 350. 

>Pl,i.Oo6q)6)V OVfJ,7IO<JlOV 

43. 
tf>Aot<!s, 35. 
(Ijo@ijtw§, 377. 
<I>oi@og, 344. 
tfroivwTJia, 54. 
tyovix&P, inl rwv, 443. 
iJoQuiyS, 476. 
tpogoi, 438. 
fpqarqiai,, 433. 
'PqeixTrot, eV, 443. 
1>uyr[, 446- 
<2>uAai, 433, 434. 
(pulaxal, 459. 
#iU«0/o*, 438. 

A. 
AoJaefa, 352. 
AuAxj7#(BJ', 119. 
Xalxioixog, 609. 
Aaixovs, 473. 
_X«0*ffTJJ0/a, 417. 
Xdqireg } 373. 
XdqTijg, 35. 
Xdquov flo/jfiuxiag, 

35. 
Xsiqotov7]toI, 437. 
Aeio aidijqd, 464. 
XeXidovia, 164. 
Aeicoi'J/, 460. 



Xeqviyj, 399. 
XiliotQxia, 457. 
JCracov, 411, 469. 
A'tTUj'r/, 346. 
AAafra, 411, 470. 
low, 398, 400. 
Xo«W|, 446, 475. 
XoqevTctt,, 172. 
Xoqrjyia, 439.' 
Aoo^oi, 172, 439. 
AootJc, 432. 
AoiJs, 475. 
Xqfj/ua, 473. 
Xqjj/iaTia/uog, 422. 
Xgija/iol, 418. 
Xqrjanjqict, 418. 
Xqifiaru, 471. 
Xqovixd, 168. 
A ? oVos, 335, 336. 
Xqvaoyqdqtoi, 37. 
AovodAttfos, 1 19. 
Xgvodnqacrog, 118. 
Xqvoog F.TtiaijUog, 61. 
XcolittfiGog, 177. 
Ati^a, 401, 460. 

VeUiov, 470. 
Wricpurpa, 441, 447. 
V f fj<pot, 441. 
Vidvqa, 476. 
tf'iAot, 406, 455. 
Wv^o/iai'Teia, 422. 

J2. 
'J2/?«i, 448. 
'SlSeiov, 138, 604. 
'J2<Ws, 166. 
"J2ta, 472. 
'Slfiodereiv, 400. 
' Jloaxonivt, 422. 
F J2oat, 363. 
'Slqaia, 424. 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



A. 
Ablecti, 540, 542 
Abraxas, 121 
Accensi, 514, 538 
Accipe libens, 498 
Accusator, 522 
Acerra, 490 
Acetabulum, 530 
Acies, 537, 541, 546 
Aclides, 544 
Actiones in personam, 

in rem, 522, 523 
Actor, 522 
Actuarii, 514 
Actus quadratus, 530 
Adamas, 118 
Ad bestias &c. 524 
Adjudicatio, 530 
Adonia, 350 
Adoptio, 553 
Adoratio 49G 
Adrastia, 363 
Adscriptitii, 333, 538 
Adversaria, 75 
Advocatus, 522 
Adytum, 489 
>Ecastor, 384 
^Edepol, 384 
^Sdes sacrse, 488 
jEdiles, 506, 511 
^Editui, 109, 496 
J&geon, 370 
JEgis, 348 
Aello, 375 
iEneatores, 535 
-ffiolus, 361 
jErarium,;517 
Agaso, 540 j 
Agelae, 449 
Agger, 542, 544 
Agmen quadratum, pila- 

tum &c. 541 
Agmine uno continente, 

538 
Agnomen, 551 
Agonal ia,' 502 
Alae, 539, 540 
Alba Longa, 481 
Alecto, 374- 
Alites, 49 [ 
Allaria, 489 
Alveus, 546, 562 
Amanuensis, 76 
Ambarvalia, 356, 502 
Ambitus crimen, 523 
Ambrosia, 355 
Amiculum, 564 



Amor, 351 
Amphitrite, 371 
Amphora, 530, 562 
Amtruare, 494 
Anchora, 546 
Ancile, 494 
Ancilia, 349 
Anclabris, 489 
Ancute, 367 
Ancyranum Monumen- 

tum,86 
Andabatse, 505 
Angusticlavia, 564 
Anima mundi, 362 
Annales, 491 
Annuli,566 
Antennas, 546 
Antesignani, 538 
Antestatio, 522 
Antistites, 496 
Anubis,369 
Apaturia, 355 
Apes, 528 
Apex, 59, 491, 494 
Apis, 369 
Aplustria, 546 
Apparitores. 514 
Arae, 489 
Aratrum, 527 
Arbitri causarum, 523 
Arbori suspendere, 524 
Area, 568 

Archigallus, 338, 495 
Archimagiri, 561 
Archimimus, 567 
Arcula, 76 
Arcula thuraria, 490 
Area, 527 
Arena, 507 
Areopagus, 442 
Argentarii, 527 
Aries, 544 
Armamenta, 546 
Armamentum Chirurgi- 

cum, 560 
Armaria, 81, 557 
Armiger, 555 
Armillse, 536, 566 
Armilustrium, 503 
Artes liberates, 78 
Arundo, 75 
Arx. 491 
As, 528, 529 
Ascolia, 355 
Aspergillum, 490 
Asseres falcati, 544 
Astraea, 363 



Astrologi, 500 
Astronomicon, 301, 316 
Atellanae, 508 
Atlantes, 140 
Atramentum, 129 
Atrium, 519, 557 
Atropos, 374 
Atticum, 129 
Auctio, 530 
Augurale, 542 
Augures, 490, 491 
Augurium, 491, 500 
Augustales, 496 
Augusta) ia, 503 
Aula, 557 
Aulas um, 507 
Aureus, 529 
Aurora, 360 
Auspices, 491 
Autographus, 75 
Avena, 527 
Avigerium, 491 

B. 
Bacchus, 354 
Bacilli, 75 
Balista, 544 
Balistarii, 538 
Balneatores, 555 
Barritus, 535 
Basilica;, 523 
Batiolae, 563 
Bellaria, 561 
Bellona, 349, 367 
Beryllus, 118 
Bes, 528 
Bestiarii, 524 
Bibendi arbiter, 561 
Bibliopola, 75 
Bibliotheca, 75 
Biblus 75 
Bidens, 527 
Bigs, 528 
Bimater, 355 
Bipennis, 490 
Bisellius, 519 
Bis millies, 529. 
Bombycina, 565 
Bombyx, 565 
Bona Dea, 338 
Boreas, 361 
Brachia, 546 
Brontes, 351 
Bubo, 491 
Bubona, 367 
Buceinas, 535 
Bulla, 566 
Buris, 527 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



657 



C. 

Caballi, 528 

Cabiri, 384 

Caduceus, 59, 353 

Cadus, 562 

Calamus, 75 

Calcar, 528 

Calcei nigri coloris, 517 

Calculi, 562 

Calices, 563 

Caligae, 565 

Calliope, 373 

Calories, 540 

Calumnia, 522 

Camaras, 547 

Camilli & Camiilae, 496 

Campidoctores, 543 

Campus Martius, 349,499, 

520, 523, 568, 587 
Campus sceleratus, 496 
Candelabra, 490 
Candidati, 509 
Canistra, 490 
Cantherus, 369 
Canus, 336 
Capedo, 490. 
Capeduncula, 490 
Capillitia vota, 498 
Capita jugata, adversa & 

aversa, 120 
Capite censi, 532 
Capitium, 565 
Capsa, 75, 81 
Capsum, 528 
Caput coenas, 561 
Carbunculus, 118 
Careeres, 504 
Cardines, 557 
Carenum, 562 
Carmen seculare, 505 
Carmentalia, 502 
Carmine certo evocare, 

499 
Carnifex, 514 
Carpentum, 528 
Caryatides, 140 
Cassis, 535 
Castalia, 373 
Castra stativa, hiberna, 

&e. 541 
Catastse, 555 
Catalecta Virgilii, 299. 
Catapulta, 544 
Catellse, 536 
Catomidiare, 495 
Causa, 522 

Causae fidei bonae, 523 
Cauteria, 130 
Cavea, 138, 507 
Celaeno, 375 
Celeres, 532, 538 
Cellarii, 558 
Cella sanctior, 489 
Cella vinaria &c. 557 



Cenotaphia, 569 
Censores, 512 
Census equester, 518 
Centauri, 378 
Centimani, 358 
Centumvirale judicium, 

523 
Centuriae, 534 
Centuriata Comitia, 520, 

522 
Centurio, 534 
Cera, 75 
Cerberus, 379 
Cereales, 511 
Cerealia, 356, 502, 506 
Ceres, 355 
Ceriti, 500 
Cerussa, creta, 566 
Cessio in jure, 530 
Cestus, 351 
Charta, 76 

Charta bombycina, 35 
Charybdis, 379 
Chimaera, 378 
Chirographum, 76 
Cbirurgi, 540 
Chlamydatae, 99 
Chlamys, 365 
Chloris, 366 
Cibum, 560 
Cinerarium, 568. 
Cingulum laneum, 552 
Cippi, 569 

Circuitio vigilum, 543 
Circulus auri, 566 
Circus Maxinius, 503 
Cista, 520 
Clarigatio, 493 
Classiarii, 545, 546 
Classici, 516 
Classicum, 535, 546 
Clavus, 546, 564 
Clavus figendus, 503 
Clepsydra, 501 
Clima, 530 
Clio, 373 
Clitellarii, 528 
Clotho, 374 
Coccus, 76 

Codex Jnstinianus; 525 
Codices, 75 
Codicilli, 76 
Coelus, 358 
Coemptio, 552 
Coenacula, 560 
Ccena nuptialis, 552 
Coenationes, 560. 
Coeus, 370 
Cognomen, 550 
Cohors, 534 
Coliseum, 506, 507 
Collegia fabrorum &c. 

527 
Collina, 367 

83 



Col urn 562 
Columbaria, 569 
Columna lactaria, 553 
Columnarostrata, 85 
Colus, 552 

Comes dioeceseos, 549 
Comites, 549 
Comitia, 519 
Commentarii, 76 
Compitalia, 502, 503 
Concilia, 519 
Condones, 519 
Conclamatio, 567 
Concordia, 368 
Condere lustrum, 499 
Conditorium, 568 
Confarreatio, 552. 
Congius, 530 
Conjectores, 500 
Connubium, 551 
Conquisitio, 533 
Conquisitores, 515 
Conscriptio, 533 
Consecratio, 499, 569 
Consentes, 332 
Constitutiones, 525 
Constratum navis, 545 
Consualia, 342, 503, 506. 
Consulares, 549 
Consul designatus, 510. 
Consules, 509 
Contubernales, 542 
Contubernium, 542, 551 
Conventio in manum, 

552 
Coqui, 561 
Corbes, 562 

Corneum speculare, 556. 
Cornix, 491 
Cornua, 75, 535, 546 
Cornucopias, 59 
Corona, 543 
Corona castrensis, mura- 

lis, civica &c. 536 
Corona, emptio sub, 530 
Correctores, 549 
Corrigia, 565 
Cortina, 508 
Corvus, 491, 544, 545 
Corybantes, 338 
Cosmi, 452 
Cothurni, 566 
Crates, 543 
Crepidae, 565 
Crepundia, 552 
Creta, 76 
Crimen majestatis &c. 

523 
Crimen peculatus, 515 
Crista, 535 
Crius, 370 
Cruci affigere, 524 
Crystallus, 119 
Cucullus, 565 



658 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



Cudo,535 
Culeus, 524, 530 
Culina, 557 
Cultrarius, 497 
Cultri, 490 
Cumerum, 552 
Cunei, 137, 507 
Cuneus, 537 
Curia?, 515 
Curia Saliorum, 494 
Curiones, 490, 496 
Currus, 528 
Cursus, 504 
Cyanus, 118 
Cyathus, 530 
Cybele, 337 
Cyclas, 564 
Cylindri, 75 
Cyllenius,, 354 
Cymbia, 563 
Cyneget'icon, 301 

D. 
Dactyliotheca?, 123, 124 
Damnum, 523 
Decennalia, 498 
Decemviri, 514 
Decuriae, 534, 539, 554 
Decuriones, 521, 527, 534, 

554 
Dedieatio templi, 498 
Defrutum, 562 
Delectus, 533 
Delubrum, 489 
Denarius, 528 
Dentale, 527 
Dentata charta, 76 
Deportatio, 524 

Designatores, 507 

Detestatio sacrorum, 554 

Devotio, 499 

Devovere, 499 

Dexter, 492 

Diaria, 76 

Dicere diem. 522 

Dictator, 513 

Dies comitiales,520, festi, 
fasti &c. 501 

Diespiter, 340 

Diffarreatio. 552 

Digesta, 525, Culter, 527 

Digitus, 530 

Dii majorum et minorum 
gentium, 332 

Dimensum, 536 

Dionysia, 355 

Dioscuri, 384 

Dioscuria, 384 

Diosemeia, 301 

Diota, 562 

Diphthera, 76 

Diploma, 76 

Diribitores, 520 

Disci jactus, 504 

Divortia, 552 

Divus, 570 



Dolabra, 527 

Dolia, 562 

Dominus, 553 

Dona, 568 

Dona militaria, 536 

Donaria, 489 

Donatio, 530 

Donativa, 536 

Dryades, 372 

Duces, 549 

Duodena scripta, 562 

Duplicarii, 536 

Duumviri, 498, 514, 521, 

522, 545 
Dux, 541 

E. 
Edictum, 511, 517, 525 
Editiones Principes, 322 
Editor, 505 
Egeria, 489 
Elatio, 567 
Eleusinia, 357 
Emporelica charta, 76 
Emptio sub corona, 530 
Enceladus, 370 
Ephemerides, 76 
Ephialtes, 370 
Epibatae, 546 
Epilsenia, 355 

Epistola, 76 

Epitaphium, 569 

Epithalamia, 552 

Epulas, 492 

Epulares, 493 

Epulones, 490, 492 

Epulum Jovis, 503 

Eqnites, 516 

Equo publico merere, 518 

Erato, 373 

Erigone, 363 

Erycina, 350 

Essedarii, 505 

Euripus, 507 

Euryale, 378 

Eurus, 361 

Euterpe, 373 

Evocati, 542 

Excubia?, 542 

Exercitus, 543 

Exilium, 523 

Exodia, 508 

Exostra, 507 

Expediti, 538 

Exponere infantem, 553 

Exsculpta? gemma?, 120 

Exsequiae, 567 

Exta muta, 492 

Extispices, 492 

Extraordinarii, 540 



Fabri, 540 
Fabricae, 543 
Fabrum, 516 
Factiones, 504 



Falarica, 544 

Falces murales, 544 

Falcifer, 336 

Falsi crimen, 523 

Falx, 527 

Fama, 365 

Familia, 550, 554 

Fanatici, 500 

Fanum, 489, 500 

Far, Farina, 527 

Fasces, 509 

Fascia?, 566 

Fasti Capitolini, 86 

Fasti dies, 501 

Fastigium, 558 

Fauna, 377 

Faunalia, 502, 503 

Faunus, 377 

Febris, 367 

Februa, 344 

Februatio, 502 

Feciales, 490, 493 

Femoralia, 566 

Fenestra, 556 

Feralia, 502 

Ferentarii, 538 

Feriae. 501 

Feronia, 366 

Festi dies, 501 

Festum mercatorum, 354 

502 
Fibula?, 536 
Fides, 368 
Fides Grseca, 418 

Fidicines, 496 

Figlina, 96 

Fiscinae, 562 

Flagellis, 523 

Flagellum, 528 

Flaminia?, 496 

Flaminica, 494 

Flamines, 490, 494 

Flaminii, 496 

Flammeum luteum, 552 

Flora, 366 

Floralia, 366, 502, 505 

Focus, 557 

Fcederatae civitates, 521 

Fcenum, 527 

Fontinalia, 503 

Foramina, 546 

Fordicidia, 502 

Forfex, 537 

Fori, 504 

Fortuna, 364 

Fortuna virilis. 502 

Foruli, 81 

Forum, 523, 567, 588 

Forus, 562 

Fossa, 542 

Fraenum, 528 

Fratres Arvales, 496 

Fraus, 368 

Fritillus, 562 

Frontes, 75 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



659 



Frumentarii, 540. 
Fucus, 566 
Fulcra, 560 
Fulguratores, 492 
Fumarium,562 
Funambuli, 505 
Funditores, 538 
Funes, 546 

Funus indicativum, pub- 
licum, 567 
Furiae, 374 
Furinalia, 374, 502 
Fustuarium, 536 

G. 
Galea, 535 
Galericulum, 566 
Galerus, 491, 535 
Galli, 338, 495 
Gallinarii, 555 
Gallinarium, 558 
Gallus, 491 
Gemmae, 117 
Gemmae diaglyphicae,in- 

seulptae, 120 
Gemma Veneris, 118 
Gemoniae, 524 
Genetbliaci, 500 
Gens, 550 
Gens togata, 563 
Gladiatorii, 505 
Gladius, 535 
Cladius et hasta, 511 
Globus, 537 
Glutinatores. 76 
Gradivus Mars, 349 
Graphium, 75 
Gratiae, 373 
Greges, 504 
Grus, 544 

Gubemaculum, 546 
Gubernator, 546 
Gustus, Gustatio, 561 
Guttus, 490 
Gymnasia, 39,45,79 

H. 
Habenae, 528 
Halcyoneus, 370 
Hamadryades, 372 
Harioli, 500 
Harpagones, 545 
Harpoc rates, 369 
Haruspices, 490, 492, 498 
Hasta pura, 536 
Hasta sanguinea, 493 
Hastati, 533.536, 537,542 
Hasta velitaris, 535 
Hasta, venire sub, 530 
Hebe, 341 
Hecate, 346 
Heliotropia, 119 
Helius, 359 
Hermina, 53f) 
Hercules, 381 
Hermae, 365 



Hermanubis, 369 
Hermes, 100 
Hexapla, 286 
Hilaria, 338,495, 502 
Hippona, 367 
Hippocrene, 373 
Histriones, 508, 567 
Holocaustum, 498 
Homeromastix, 222 
Honor, 363 
Honorati, 511 
Horae, 363, 373 
Hora hiberna, brevissi- 

ma, 501 
Hordeum, 527 
Hortator, 546 
Hortus, 558 
Horus, 368, 369 
Hostiae, 497 
Humanitatis studia, 78 
Hydra, 378 
Hyperion, 370 
Hypogaea, 569 
I. 
Tapetus, 370 
Iaspis, 119 
Idalia,350 
Ignigena, 355 
Ignis, 357 

Ignominia, 513, 523 
llithyia, 346 
Imagines, 568 
Imagines clypeatae, 100 
Immolare, 497 
Impedimenta, 540 
Imperator, 517 
Imperium, 547 
Impluvium, 557 

Inanes tumuli, 569 

Inaures, 566 

Indigetes, 332 

Indusium, 564 

Infamia, 523 

Inferiae, 569 

Ingenui,550 

Inscriptio, 52 

Insigne, 546 

Instita, 564 

Institute, 525 

Insulae, 557 

Intercedere, 512 

Intercisi dies, 501 

Intercolumnia, 139 

Interdictus. 523 

Interrex, 514 

Invidia, 368 

Iris, 361 

Irpex, 527 

Isia, 369 

Isis, 368 

Itio in partes, 517 
J. 

Jactus Veneris, 562 

Jaculatores, 538 

Januae, 337, 557 



Janus, 337, 529 
Judices assessores, 522 
Judicia, 522 
Jugarii, 555 
Jugerum, 530 
Jugum, 527, 528 
Juno, 340 
Junonalia, 341 
Jupiter, 339, Terminalis, 

365, Lauaris, 548 
Juramentum, 499 
Jurare conceptis verbis. 

499 
Jura provinciarum, prae- 

fecturarum, 521 
Juris interpretes, 512 
Jus honorarium, 511, 525 
Jus imaginum, 519 
Jusjurandum, 499 
Jus Papirianum, 525 
Juspontificium, 501 
Jus Q.uiritium, 520, 521, 
Latii or Latinitatis,521. 
Civitatis &c, 521 
Juturna, 367 
Juvenales, 506 
K. 
Kalendarium, 501 

L. 
Lacerna, 565 
Lachesis, 374 
Lacunaria, 140 
Lac us, 562 
Laena, 491, 494, 565 
Lancet, 535 
Lances, 490 
Lanista, 505 
Lapis specularis, 556 
Laquearia, 558 
Lararium, 376 
Lares, 375 

Lares Praestites, 502 
Larix, 130 
Larvae, 375 
Laterculus, 541 
Laticlavia, 564 
La ton a, 362 
Latus clavus, 517 
Laudatio, 568 
Lavatio Matris Deum, 

502 
Laverna, 367 
Lectica, 567 
Lectisternia, 492 
Lectus feralis, 567 
Lectus summus, medius, 

imus, 560 
Legati, 541 
Legem accipere, jubere, 

abrogare &c. 524 
Leges agrariae &c. 524 
Legitimus, 554 
Lemures, 375 
Lemuria, 502 



6G0 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



Lex annalis, 509. Atinia, 
Furia, 521. Poppsea, 551 

Liber, 355 

Liberalia, 502 

Liber, Libellus, 76 

Liberti, Libertini, 550 

Libitinarius, 5G7 

Libra, 528, 531 

Libraria, 76 

Librarii, 76, 540 

Liburnicae, 536 

Lictores, 509, 514 

Ligo, 527 

Ligula, 530, 565 

Limbus, 564 

Linguis favete, 497 

Lino obligare, 76 

Linum, 527 

Litare,492 

Literae, 76 

Literae minutae, 75 

Literati & Literatores, 78, 
79 

Litui, 535 

Lituus, 59, 491, 535 

Lixae, 540 

Loculamenta, 81 

Loculus, 76 

Locus consularis, 560 

Lora subjugia, 528 

Lorica, 535 

Lucaria, 502 

Luei, 489 

Lucina, 346, 489 

Lucta, 504 

Luctus publicus, 569 

Ludii, 567 

Ludi, Apolinares, 345, 

502, 506. circenses, 342, 

503. scenici, 71. seeu- 
lares, 345, 346,504. mag- 
ni,503. plebeii, 503. gla- 
diatorii, 505. florales, 

505. megalenses, 506. 
capitolini, 506. votivi, 

506. funebres, 569. 
Ludus, 505 

Ludus Trojae, 504 

Luna, 360 

Lunatici, 500 

Luna patricia, 565 

Lunata acies, 546 

Lunata pellis, 565 

Lupercalia, 362, 495, 502 

Luperci, 490, 495 

Lustrationes, 499 

Lustrum, 499 

Lychnis, 118 

Lymph ati, 500 
M. 

Magister collegii, 491 
,, convivii, 561 
„ equitum, 513 
„ militiae, 549 



Magister officiorum, 512 
„ publicus, 492 

Maimactes, 503 

Majestatis crimen, 515 

Malleoli, 544 

Malleus, 490 

Malus, 546 

Mamurius, 494 

Mancipatio, 530 

Mancipia, 550 

Manes, 375 

Mangones, 555 

Mania, 375 

Manicula,527 

Manipulus, 534 

Mansio, 541 

Mantilia, 650 

Manumissio, 553, 556 

Manus ferreas, 545 

Mappa, 560 

Marculi, 557 

Marra, 527 

Mars, 348 

Martiales, 506 

Mathematici, 500 

Matralia, 502 

Medicamina, 566 

Meditrinalia, 503 

Medusa, 378 

Megaera, 374 

Megalesia, 338, 502, 506 

Melinum, 129 

Mellona, 367 
Mlp omene, 373 

Membrana, 76 

Mensaj, 560 

Mensarii, 527 

Mensa sacra, 489 
Mercatores, 527 
Mereatorum festum, 502 
Mercurius, 352 
Meta;, 504 
Metatores, 540 
Militisejus, 521, 532 
Milliare, 530 
Minerva, 347 
Minimi, 87 
Minium, 76, 566 
Ministri, 496 
Mirmillones, 505 
Miscellanei dei, 333 
Missilia, 87 
Modius, 530, 546 
Mola salsa, 497 
Molybdis, 546 
Moneta, 529 
Monilia, 566 
Monopodium, 560 
Monumenta, 568 
Morpheus, 377 
Mors, 377, 524 
Mulcta. 523 
Mullei,'565 
Munera, 568 



Munia pacis & belli, 

516 
Municipia, 521 
Murex, 564 
Murrha, or Murrhinum, 

119, 563 
Musculi, 543 
Musivum opus, 101 
Mustum, 562 
Mylhi, 327 

N. 
Naenia, 567 
Naiades, 372 
Natalia vota, 498 
Naumachia, 504 
Nautea, 546 
Navarchus, 545 
Naves oneraria?, longae, 

rostrata? &c. 546 
Navis praetoria, 545 
Nefasti, 501 
Negotiatores, 527 
Nemesis, 363 
Neptunalia, 342, 502 
Nereides, 372 
Nidi, 81 

Nobilitas Romana, 519 
Nomen, 550 
Nota censoria, 513 
Notse Tironianee, 75 
Nota interior, 563 
Notarii. 37, 76, 514 
Notus, 361 
Novellae, 525 
Novi homines, 519 
Nox, 360 

Nubentis utensilia, 552 
Numerus, 528 
Numerus legitimus, 517 
Numismata maximi mo- 
duli, 87 
Nummularii,529 
Nundinae, 501 
Nuptialis, 552 
Nymphaeum, 372 

Obolus, 344 
Obsecrationes, 497 
Obsignare, 76 
Occa, 527 
Occator, 367 
Oecatores, 555 
Oceanus, 370 
Ocreae, 517, 535 
Ocypeta, 375 
Odea, 138 
Onager, 544 
Onyx, 119 
Opalia,503 
Opalus, 119 
Opeconsiva, 503 
Opera committere, 79 
Opiliones, 555 
Opisthographus, 76 



■ 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



GGl 



Oppidum, 481 
Optio, 534 
Optiones, 538 
Orbis, 541 
Orchestra, 507 
Ordinibuseompressis, 538 
Ordo equester, 518 
Ordo plebeius, 518 
Oreades, 372 
Osci ludi, 508 
Oscines, 491 
Oscophoria, 355 
Osiris, 368 
Ossilegium, 568 
Ostiarius, 555 
Otus, 370 
Ovatio, 548 
Ovile, 520 



Paedagogi, 554 
Paginae, 75 
Palassius, 118 
Pales, 367 
Palilia, 367, 502 
Palimpsesti, 64 
Palla, 564 
Palladium, 348 
Palliatae, 99, 508 
PaJliati, 563 
Palmus, 530 
Paludamentum, 565 
Paludatae, 99 
Pan, 362 

Panaetolium, 454 
Panathenaea, 348 
Pandectae, 525 
Panes, 377 
Papyri, 67 
Parcae, 374 

Pares, impares, tibiae, 508 
Parma, 535 
Parricidii, 523 
Passus, 530 
Paterae, 105, 490, 566 
Pater fiduciarius, 553 

„ patratus, 493 
Patres minorum gentium, 

516 
Patres conscripti, 517 
Patricii, 516 
Patrinae, 560 
Patronus, 522 
Pavimenta tessalata, 556 
Pax, 368, 502 
Perones, 565 
Pecudes, 528 
Peculatus, 523 
Peculium castrense, 536 
Pecunia, 528 
Pedes, 546 
Pegasus, 379 
Pelops, 381, 385 
Peloria, 337 



Penates, 376 

Perduellionis, 523 

Peregrini dii, 333 

Pergamena, 76 

Periceci, 449 

Perpetua quaastio, 522 

Perseus, 381 

Perticae, 527 

Pes, 531 

Petasus, 353, 5G5 

Petauristae, 505 

Petitio, 522 

Petitor, 522 

Phalarae, 536 

Phialae, 563 

Philyrae, 76 

Phoebe, 346 

Piaculum, 499 

Pierus, 372 

Pietas, 368 

Pila, 535 

Pilentum, 528 

Pileus, 556, 565 

Pilumnus, 367 

Pilus primus, 534 

Pinarii, 495 

Piscina mirabilis, 558 

Plagii, 523 

Plagulae, 76 

Plaustra, 528 

Plebiscita, 512, 520, 525 

Plebs, 518 

Pleiades, 353 

Plutei, 543 

Pluto, 343 

Plutus, 364 

Pocula fagina, vitrea, &c. 

563 
Podium, 507 
Poenula, 565 
Poetria, 317 
Polias Minerva, 348, 603 
Pollicem premebant, ver- 

tebant, 505 
Pollinctores, 567 
Polyhymnia, 373 
Pomona, 366 
Pompa circensis, 504 
Pontes, 520 
Ponticuli, 520 
Pontifex Maximus, 490 
Pontifkes, 490 
Popae, 496 
Popularia, 507 
Populum calare, 493 
Populus, 518 
Porta praetoria, decuma- 

na, &c. 542 
Portenta, 491 
Porticus milliaria, 139 
Portisculus, 546 
Portorium, 526 
Portumnalia, 503 
Portumnus, 371 
84 



Postcenium, 507 

Postridiani, 501 

Potamides, 372 

Praecinctiones, 138, 507 

Praecones, 514 

Praedes, 522 

Praefecti, 540 

Praefecturae, 521 

Praefectus ^Egypti, 549 
„ annonae, 514 

,, morum, 513 

„ classis, 545 

,, praetorii, 548 

Praefectus urbis, 514, 549 

Praeficae, 567 

Praefericula, 490 

Praemia minora, 536 

Praenomen, 550 

Praesides, 549 

Praestigiatores, 505 

Praesul, 494 

Praetextalae, 508 

Praetor, 510, 522, 523 

Praetorium, 542 

Prandium, 5G0 

Prata, 527 

Precationes, 497 

Precum arbitri, 512 

Prelum, 562 

Priapus, 366 

Principes, 533, 537, 542 

Principia, 542 

Proconsul, 514 

Procurator, 505 

Procurator Caesaris, 515 

Prodigta, 491 

Prodigiatores, 492 

Professores, 78 

Projicere in profluentem, 
524 

Propraetor, 515 

Proquaestor, 515 

Prora, 546 

Proreta, 546 

Proscriptio, 530 

Proscenium, 507 

Provincise, 521 

Prytaneum, 442 

Publicani. 526 

Pugilatusj 504 

Pugillares, 76 

Pulli, 492 

Pulpitum, 507 

Pulvinaria, 497, 528 

Punctum omne tulit, 520 

Puppis, 546 

Purpura, 76 

Puticulae, 568 

Pyra, 568 

Pyrakmon, 351 

a. 

dnadrans, 528, 529 
GUtadrantal, 562 



662 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



Quadrigae, 528 
Quadriremes, 546 
Quaesitores, 522 
Quaestores, 512 
Quaestorium, 542 
Quaestor sacri palatii, 

549 
Cluartarius, 530 
Gluaternio, 562 
Quinarius, 528 
Quincunx, 528, 537 
Quindecemviri, 496, 500 
Quingenaria, 534 
Quinquatiia, 348,502 
Quinquennia, 498 
Quinqueviri, 514 
Quintana via, 542 
Quirinalia, 502 
Gluirinus Mars, 349 
Quiritium jus, 520,521 

R. 

Rastrum, 527 
Rectae viae, 537 
Rector, 546 
Recuperatores, 523 
Regia, 491,494 
Regina Sacrorum, 493 
Relegatus, 524 
Religio, 487 
Religione solvere, 499 
Religiosi dies, 501 
Remancipatio, 552 
Remi, Remiges, 546 
Repetundarum crimen, 

515, 523 
Repositoria, 561 
Repotia, 552 
Repudium, 553 

Rescripta, 525 

Res privatae, 530 

Respublica, ne quid de- 
triment capiat, 513, 
518 

Retiarii, 505 

Reus, 522 

Rex sacrorum, 490, 493 
„ sacrificulus, 493 

Rhamnensis, 515 

Rhea, 336 

Rheda, 528 

Rica, Ricinium, 564 

Robigalia, 502 

Rogatio, 522 

Rogus, 5G8 

Rorarii, 538 

Rosa, sub, 408 

Rostra, 546, 508, 588 

Rubacellus, 118 

Rubescens, 103 

Rubrica, 36, 76 
Rudentes, 546 

Runcatores, 555 
Runcina, 367 



S. 
Saburra, 54G 
Sacella,489 
Sacerdotes, 496 
Sacramentum, 532, 533 
Sacri fie ia, 497 
Sagittarii, 538 
Sagum, 565 
Salii, 349, 490, 494 
Saltus, 504 
Sandapila, 507 
Sapa, 562 
Sapphirus, 118 
Sarcinae, 540 
Sarcophagus, 568 
Sarculum, 527 
Sarda, 119 
Satisdare, 522 
Sator, 336 
Saturae, 508 
Saturnalia, 311, 337, 503 
Saturnia, 336 
Saturn us, 335 
Saxo Tarpeio dejicere, 

524 
Scalae, 507, 524, 513 
Scalmus, 546 

Scapus, 76 

Scarabeei, 121 

Scena, 507 

Scenici, 506 

Schedae, 76 

Schola Romana, 79 

Scholae, 549 

Scorpio, 544 

Scribae, 514, 540 ' 

Serinium, 76 

Scriptores historian Au- 
gustae, 321 

Scriptorium, 37 

Sculptura, 96 

Scutum, 535 

Scyphi, 563 

Secespitae, 490 

Sectio, 530 

Securi percutere, 524 

Securis, 490, 509, 527 

Secutores, 505 

Sedilia, 546 

Segetia, Seia, 367 

Selecti, 332 

Sella, 509 

Sella curulis, 494, 511, 
519 

Sembella, 529 

Sementina, 502 

Semis, 529 

Semones, 332 

Senatus auctoritas, 517 
,, consultum, 517, 
525 

Sentina, 546 

Sepia, 76 

Septa. 520 



Serae, 557 

Serapis, 369 

Septemviri, 492 

Septicollis,481,587 

Sepulchrum, 568 

Seres, 565 

Serra, 537 

Servitus, 524 

Servus admissionalis, cu- 

bicularius &c. 555 , 
Sestertius, 528 
Sestertium, 529 
Sextarius, 530 
Sicarios, crimen inter, 

523 
Sign a, 491, 534 
Signiferi, 534 
Sileni, 377 
Simpulum, 490 
Sinister, 492 
Sinopis pontica, 129 
Sirennusae, 371 
Sitella, 520 
Smaragdus, 118 
Smegmata, 566 
Socci, 566 
Socii, 540 
Sodales Titii, 496 
Sodalitates, 495 
Sol, 359 
Solaria, 501 
Solarium, 558 
Solemnia, 498 
Solidus, 529 
Solvere epistolas, 76 
Somnus, 376 
Sortes, 500 
Sortilegi, 500 
Sortitio, 520 
Spathae, 535 
Spectacula, 504 
Specula, 557 
Specularia, 556 
Spes, 368 
Spina circi, 501 
Spinellus, 118 
Spondae, 560 
Sponsalia, 551 
Sponsio, 551 
Stadium, 530 
Stata, 498 
Statio, 542 
Status iconics, 99 
Statuaria, 96 
Statumina, 546 
Stega, 545 
Sterculinus. Stercutius, 

336 
Stbeno, 378 
Stibadium, 560 
Stipendium, 536 
Stipulatio, 551 
Stola, 564 
Stragula, 500 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 



663 



Strategematica, 314 
Strenae, 502 
Strenua, 367 
Stroppi, 546 
Studia humanitatis, 78 
Stylus, 75 
Subcenturio, 534 
Subdivale, 557 
Subitarii, 533 
Subscriptio, 76 
Subsignani, 531 
Subucula, 564 
Succina, 563 
Sudes, 542, 544 
Suile, 558 

Summanus, 375, 502 
Suovetaurilia, 499 
Supplicationes, 497, 547 
Supplicia, 497 
Surculi, 75 
Sylvae, (Silvas,) 303 
Symbola, 542, 566 
Syngrapha, 76 



Tabellae, 520 

,, legitimae, 552 

Tabellarius, 76 

Tabernariae, 508 

Tabula auctionaria, 530 
„ lusoria, 562 

Tabulae, 130 

„ ceratae, 75 
„ votivae, 498 

Tabularium, 517, 588 

Taenia, 546 

Talaria, 353 

Talentum, 529 

Tali, 500, 561 

Talio, 523 

Tantalides, 385 

Tatiensis, 515 

Tecta laqueata, 140 

Tegulae, 558 

Teiorum Dirae, 54 

Temo, 527 

Templa, 488, 491 

Terebra, 544 

Terminalia, 365, 502 

Terminus, 365 

Ternio, 561 

Teruncius, 529 

Tesselatum, 101, 550 

Tessera, 542 

Tesserae, 561 

Tesserarii, 542 

Testa, 562 

Testudo, 460, 541, 543 

Thalia, 373 

Themis, 363 

Thensa, 528 

Theriotrophium, 558 

Theseus, 382, 628 

Thoraces, 100 



Thorax, 535 
Thraces, 505 
Thuribulum, 490 
Thyrsiger, 355 
Thyrsus, 355 
Tibiae, dextrae, sinistra?, 

508 
Tibialia, 566 
Tibicines, 496 
Tintinnabula, 557 
Tisiphone, 374 
Titam, 335 
Titanides, 336, 370 
Titulus, 52, 569 
Toga, 509, 563 

„ praetexta, 491, 493, 

494, 511, 548, 564 
Toga pulla, 563 

„ virilis, 564 
Togatae, 99, 508 
Togati, 563 
Tollere infantem, 553 
Tomentum, 560 
Topiarii, 558 
Torcular, 562 
Toreumata, 563 
Torques aureae, 536, 566 
Trabea, 491, 548 
Trabeatae, 508 
Tragularii, 538 
Traha, 527 
Transtra, 546 
Transvectio, 518 
Triarii, 533, 536, 538, 542 
Tribula, 527 

Tribunal, 510, 520,542,588 
Tribuni militum, 514 

„ plebis, 511 
Tribus, urbanae, rusti- 

cae, 515 
Tributa comitia, 522 
Triclinium, 557, 560 
Tridens, 505 
Trieterica, 355 
Trinundinum,524(cf,501) 
Tripes, 560 
Triplex acies, 541 
Tripodes, 490 
Tripudium, 492 
Triremes, 546 
Triticum, 527 
Tritonia, 347 
Triumphalis lex, 547 
Triumphus, 547, 548 
Triumviri, 514, 529 
Trivia, 346 
Tubae, 535 
Tubilustrium, 502 
Tunica, 564 

„ laticlavia, 517 
„ angusticlavia, 

§18 
Tumultuarii, 533 
Tumulus, 568, 569 



Turricula, 562 
Turris, 541, 544 
Tutela, 546 
Tutelarii, 109 
Tympana, 528 
Typhon, 370 

U. 

Udones, 566 
Ultimum, 518 
Umbilici, 75 
Uncia;, 528 
Unio, 561 
Uragus, 534, 539 
Urania, 373 
Uranus, 359 
Urbs, 481 
Urius Jupiter, 55 
Crna, 530 

„ feralis, 568 
Usucapio, 530, 552 
Usurpatio, 552 
Utensilia, 552 
Utres, 563 
Uxor, 552 



Vacatio honorata, 533 
Vacuna, 367 
Vades, 522 
Valetudinariam, 543 
Vallonia, 367 
Vallum, 542 
Valor, 589 
Vasa sacra, 490 

„ sculpta, 563 
Vatieinatores, 500 
Vehae, 528 
Vejovis, 340 
Vela, 546 
Velatae, 99 
Velites, 533, 538 
Vellum, 76 
Venalitiarii, 555 
Venatio, 504 
Veneficii crimen, 523 
Ventus textilis, 565 
Venus, 349 
Verbera, 523 
Vermiculatum, 101 
Vernae, 550 
Versus Feseennini, 508 
Vertumnus, 366 
Veruculum, 130 
Vespillones. 567 
Vesta, 357, 489 
Vestales, 358, 490, 495 
Vestalia, 502 
Vestes Coae, Sericas, 565 
Vestibulum, 557, 567 
Veto, 512 
Vexillarii, 534 
Vexillationes, 549 
Vexillum, 534, 536 



&9JL9 9& 






SjO 



664 

Vexillum purpureum, 

545 
Viatores, 511 
Vicarii, 549 
Vicennalia, 498 
Victimae, 497 
Victimarii, 496 
Vigiles, 543 
Vigiliae,501,542 
Villa urbana, rustica &c. 

558 
Villicus amphitheatri, 

507 
Vinalia, 502, 503 
Vinaria cella, 563 



INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 

Vincula, 523 

Vindicatio, 523 

Vindicta, 556 

Vineoe, 543 

Vinum Falernum, Caecu- 

bum, &c. 563 
Virgo, 363 

„ maxima, 495 
Virgis, 523 
Viri epulares, 493 
Virtus, 368 
Visceratio, 569 
Vis publicae, 523 
Vitisator, 336 
Vitrea specularia, 557 



Vitrum Obsidianum, 125 
Vitta, 566 
Vivarium, 558 
Volones, 533 
Volumina, 75 
Volusia, 367 
Vomer, 527 
Vota, 498 
Voti, reus, 498 
Votivi ludi, 506 
Vulcanalia, 352, 502, 503 
Vulcanus, 351 



Zephyrus, 361 



A copious ladez of Subjects was prepared, but necessarily excluded. Re- 
ferences in the body of the work require the insertion of the following ; 

Accents, p. 34, 450, 151, 157. 

Homer, 38, 179, 181. 

Numbers, represented by letters, 474, 529. 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: July 2006 

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